Principles of Operation for 40 Common Sensors
Temperature Sensor
Measures temperature by using
materials whose electrical properties (voltage, resistance) change with temperature. Types
include thermocouples (Seebeck effect), RTDs (change in resistance), and semiconductor
diodes (change in voltage).
Pressure Sensor
Converts mechanical pressure into an electrical signal, often by measuring deformation of a
diaphragm or strain gauge, causing a change in resistance or capacitance, or via piezoelectric
effect.
Proximity Sensor
Detects the presence of objects without physical contact using electromagnetic fields (inductive
for metals), changes in capacitance (capacitive for non-metals), or magnetic fields (reed or Hall).
Accelerometer
Converts acceleration forces into an electric signal usually by sensing displacement of a proof
mass using capacitive or piezoelectric effects. Measures both dynamic (vibration) and static
(gravity) acceleration.
Gyroscope
Based on the conservation of angular momentum: resists changes to its axis of rotation,
allowing measurement of orientation or angular rate.
Light Sensor
Uses photoconductivity or the photoelectric effect; resistance or current changes with varying
light intensity (as in photodiodes, phototransistors, or LDRs).
Infrared (IR) Sensor
Emits infrared light and detects its reflection from objects (active) or senses IR radiation from
warm objects (passive) using photo-sensitive elements.
Ultrasonic Sensor
Emits high-frequency sound waves; measures distance by the time taken for waves to bounce
back (time-of-flight principle).
Humidity Sensor
Detects moisture via change in capacitance (capacitive sensor), resistance (resistive sensor), or
thermal conductivity, caused by absorption/desorption of water vapor in a hygroscopic material.
Gas Sensor
Detects gases by measuring changes in conductivity, electrochemical reaction, absorption of IR,
or catalytic combustion depending on the gas type.
Oxygen Sensor
Uses electrochemical or zirconia-based methods in which oxygen concentration alters voltage
or current in a sensing cell.
Smoke Sensor
Usually uses photoelectric (light scattering by smoke particles) or ionization (disruption of ion
current by smoke) methods.
Flame Sensor
Senses flame via UV or IR emissions from fire, by detecting specific wavelengths characteristic
of combustion.
Touch Sensor
Detects contact via change in resistance (resistive touch), capacitance (capacitive touch), or
piezoelectric effect when pressed.
Motion Sensor
Uses IR (PIR sensors), ultrasonic, or microwave Doppler effect to detect movement in an area.
Vibration Sensor
Employs piezoelectric or MEMS elements to convert vibrations or acceleration into electrical
signals.
Sound (Audio) Sensor
Converts sound pressure waves into electrical signals using microphones (dynamic, condenser,
piezoelectric).
Camera (Imaging) Sensor
Utilizes photodiodes/CMOS/CCD chips to convert light photons to electrical signals for imaging.
Magnetic Field Sensor
Detects magnetic fields using Hall effect, magnetoresistance, or fluxgate methods.
Barometric (Atmospheric Pressure) Sensor
Measures atmospheric pressure by detecting deformation of a diaphragm (membrane) and
converting it to an electrical signal (capacitive, piezoresistive).
Water Quality Sensor
Measures parameters (pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, turbidity) using electrochemical,
optical, or ion-selective electrodes.
Air Quality Sensor
Senses concentrations of pollutants via chemical reactions (electrochemical), metal oxide
semiconductors, or optical scattering.
Chemical Sensor
Detects and quantifies specific chemicals based on changes in electrical, optical, or thermal
properties when exposed to target molecules.
Force Sensor
Converts applied force into electrical output usually via change in resistance (force-sensitive
resistors), strain gauge or piezoelectric effect.
Load Cell (Weight Sensor)
Uses strain gauges attached to elastic material; force (weight) causes deformation and changes
in resistance.
pH Sensor
Measures hydrogen ion activity (acidity/alkalinity) using a glass membrane that changes voltage
with pH.
Soil Moisture Sensor
Senses water content by measuring electrical resistance or capacitance between probes in the
soil.
CO₂ Sensor
Detects carbon dioxide concentration using IR absorption (NDIR), or chemical reaction (metal
oxide, solid electrolyte).
Lidar Sensor
Emits laser pulses and measures distance by calculating the time for reflected light to return
(time-of-flight).
Hall Effect Sensor
Generates a voltage when a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to an electric current in a
conductor.
Flow Sensor (Liquid/Gas Flow)
Uses differential pressure, ultrasonic, thermal, or electromagnetic principles to measure the rate
of fluid flow.
Tilt Sensor
Detects orientation/tilt angle using a suspended mass (mechanical), fluid bubble, or MEMS
accelerometers.
Rain Sensor
Detects water via conductivity (change in resistance), optical (light scattering), or capacitive
change on a wet surface.
Radar Sensor
Transmits radio waves and detects reflected signals to determine angle, speed, and distance of
objects (Doppler effect, time-of-flight).
Distance/Rangefinder Sensor
Uses ultrasonic, laser, or IR methods to emit pulses and measure time until reflections return.
RPM (Rotational Speed) Sensor
Optically counts interruptions (slots) or uses magnetic (Hall effect) detection on rotating parts.
Photoelectric Sensor
Employs a light source and detector to sense object presence as interruption of light beam
triggers output.
Capacitive Sensor
Measures changes in capacitance caused by the approach or presence of an object with a
different dielectric constant.
Inductive Sensor
Detects metal objects by generating an electromagnetic field and sensing changes due to eddy
currents in conductors.
Optical (Fiber Optic) Sensor
Senses changes in light transmission through fiber optic cables due to bending, pressure, strain,
or temperature.
