1.
Igneous Rocks:
Formed from the cooling and solidification of molten magma or lava. They are characterized
by a crystalline texture and hardness.
o Examples: Granite (coarse-grained) and Basalt (fine-grained).
2. Sedimentary Rocks:
Formed from the deposition and compression of sediments over time, these rocks often
contain fossils and are layered.
o Examples: Sandstone (from sand particles) and Limestone (from the accumulation of
organic materials).
3. Metamorphic Rocks:
Formed from the alteration of pre-existing rocks due to heat, pressure, and chemical
processes deep within the Earth.
o Examples: Marble (from limestone) and Slate (from shale).
The classification helps engineers determine the suitability of rocks for construction based on their
strength, weather resistance, and other physical properties.
16. Define the following types of soil:
1. Alluvial Soil:
Deposited by rivers and streams, alluvial soil is fertile and ideal for agriculture. It contains a
mix of sand, silt, and clay and is rich in nutrients.
2. Black Cotton Soil:
Also known as Regur soil, this is a clay-rich soil found in semi-arid regions. It is expansive in
nature, swelling when wet and cracking when dry. It's often used for cotton cultivation but
requires special treatment for construction.
3. Loam Soil:
A balanced mixture of sand, silt, and clay. Loam soil is considered ideal for farming as it
retains moisture well, provides good drainage, and is fertile.
4. Lacustrine Soil:
Found in lake beds, this soil is composed of fine-grained sediments like silt and clay. It is rich
in organic content but may have poor drainage, making it suitable for certain crops.
5. Aeolian Soil:
Soil deposited by wind, commonly found in deserts and arid regions. It is often sandy and
prone to erosion but can be fertile if managed properly.
Soil properties influence the design of foundations and the choice of construction materials.
17. Explain the following properties of soil in soil mechanics:
1. Porosity:
The percentage of the soil's volume that is made up of voids (spaces) that can hold air or
water. Higher porosity means more water retention and better aeration, crucial for plant
growth.
2. Degree of Saturation:
The ratio of the volume of water present in the soil’s voids to the total volume of voids. It
indicates how saturated the soil is with water, influencing the soil's compaction and shear
strength.
3. Void Ratio:
The ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids in a soil sample. A higher void ratio
indicates less dense soil, which affects its load-bearing capacity.
4. Water Content:
The ratio of the mass of water in the soil to the mass of dry soil. It helps in determining the
soil’s compaction characteristics and its suitability for construction.
These properties are fundamental in determining the behavior of soil under various load and
environmental conditions, influencing foundation design in civil engineering projects.
18. Draw the neat flowchart of the water treatment process and give short notes on sedimentation
and chlorination.
Water Treatment Process Flowchart:
1. Screening: Removes large particles like debris and leaves.
2. Coagulation and Flocculation: Chemicals are added to bind particles together.
3. Sedimentation: The heavier particles settle at the bottom of tanks.
4. Filtration: Water is passed through layers of sand and gravel to remove remaining particles.
5. Disinfection (Chlorination): Chlorine is added to kill harmful microorganisms.
6. Storage and Distribution: Clean water is stored and distributed to consumers.
Sedimentation:
The process where particles suspended in water settle due to gravity. It helps in removing large
particulate matter before further purification stages.
Chlorination:
The addition of chlorine to water to disinfect it and kill harmful pathogens. Chlorination ensures
water safety and eliminates the risk of waterborne diseases.
19. Define the following drinking water quality parameters with their permissible and acceptable
limits:
1. Fluoride:
o Permissible Limit: 1.5 mg/L.
o Acceptable Limit: 0.5-1.5 mg/L.
High levels can cause fluorosis.
2. Alkalinity:
o Permissible Limit: 200-600 mg/L.
o Acceptable Limit: 200 mg/L.
Excessive alkalinity affects water's taste and can interfere with water treatment.
3. Chloride Content:
o Permissible Limit: 250-1000 mg/L.
o Acceptable Limit: 250 mg/L.
High levels affect taste and may corrode pipes.
4. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS):
o Permissible Limit: 500-2000 mg/L.
o Acceptable Limit: 500 mg/L.
High TDS impacts water taste and quality.
5. Turbidity:
o Permissible Limit: 1 NTU.
o Acceptable Limit: 5 NTU.
High turbidity indicates contamination.
6. pH Limit:
o Permissible Limit: 6.5–8.5.
Water should not be too acidic or alkaline to avoid corrosion and health issues.
Water quality standards are essential for ensuring safe and healthy drinking water.
20. Explain various kinds of water distribution networks in water supply.
1. Dead End System:
In this system, water flows from a single source to consumers. It is simple but can lead to
pressure drops and water quality issues as water may stagnate.
2. Grid System:
A looped system where water flows through multiple pathways. This system ensures more
reliable supply and minimizes the risk of pressure drops and water stagnation.
3. Ring System:
Similar to the grid system, this system is often used for large cities. It provides a continuous
loop, improving reliability and flow consistency.
4. Radial System:
Water is distributed from a central point to various consumers in a radial pattern. This is
typically used for small areas or low-demand systems.
Each type of water distribution system is chosen based on the area’s size, demand, and reliability
requirements. These systems ensure that water is supplied efficiently and consistently.
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Here are the detailed answers for Questions 21 to 35, each within 190-200 words:
21. Explain the BOD and COD of wastewater.
BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand):
BOD is the amount of oxygen required by microorganisms to decompose the organic matter in
wastewater. It is a measure of the organic pollution in water and indicates the degree of
contamination. High BOD means the water has a high concentration of organic materials, requiring
more oxygen for decomposition, which can deplete oxygen levels in water bodies, harming aquatic
life.
COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand):
COD measures the total oxygen required to chemically oxidize both organic and inorganic matter
present in water. Unlike BOD, COD does not depend on microbial activity and is a faster method of
testing. It helps in determining the pollution load in water, including chemicals that may not be
biologically degradable.
Difference Between BOD and COD:
• BOD represents biodegradable organic matter, while COD measures all chemical oxidizable
matter.
• BOD tests take longer (5 days), while COD results are quicker (usually a few hours).
• COD is typically higher than BOD, as it includes both biodegradable and non-biodegradable
pollutants.
Both BOD and COD are critical for assessing wastewater treatment processes and the environmental
impact of discharges into water bodies.
22. Explain the working procedure of a trickling filter.
A Trickling Filter is a biological treatment process used in wastewater treatment. It involves the
passage of wastewater over a bed of porous materials like stones, plastic, or other media that
support microbial growth.
Working Procedure:
1. Preliminary Treatment: Wastewater passes through screens and grit chambers to remove
large debris and solids.
2. Aerobic Treatment: The wastewater is then distributed over the surface of the trickling filter
media. The media is colonized by a layer of microorganisms, including bacteria and protozoa.
3. Biological Degradation: As the wastewater flows over the media, the microorganisms break
down organic pollutants by consuming them as food. Oxygen from the air is absorbed by the
media, supporting aerobic microbial activity.
4. Effluent Collection: After passing over the filter media, the treated water (effluent) is
collected and sent for further treatment or discharged.
Trickling filters are simple, cost-effective, and widely used in municipal and industrial wastewater
treatment systems. The efficiency of the system depends on the quality of the media and the
microorganisms present.
23. Define various kinds of water demand.
Water demand refers to the amount of water required for various purposes in a specific area or
community. It is categorized into several types:
1. Domestic Water Demand:
The water required for household activities such as drinking, cooking, cleaning, bathing, and
flushing. This also includes water used in small-scale institutions like schools and hospitals.
2. Industrial Water Demand:
The water needed for manufacturing, cooling, processing, and other industrial uses. It is
typically higher in areas with large industrial facilities.
3. Agricultural Water Demand:
Water required for irrigation of crops, livestock, and aquaculture. Agriculture consumes the
largest share of water worldwide, especially in arid and semi-arid regions.
4. Public and Fire Fighting Demand:
The amount of water used for public services like parks, street cleaning, and firefighting
purposes. Firefighting demand can vary greatly depending on the fire risk in an area.
5. Losses and Wastage:
This includes water lost due to leakage in the distribution system, evaporation, and
unauthorized usage.
Understanding the types of water demand helps in designing and managing water supply systems
effectively.
24. What are the different types of air pollutants? Explain the following terms:
Types of Air Pollutants:
1. Particulate Matter (PM): Tiny solid particles suspended in the air, including dust, soot, and
liquid droplets. PM2.5 and PM10 are particles with diameters smaller than 2.5 and 10
micrometers, respectively.
2. Carbon Monoxide (CO): A colorless, odorless gas produced by incomplete combustion of
carbon-containing fuels, mainly from vehicles and industrial processes.
3. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Gases formed during combustion processes, particularly in vehicles
and power plants. They contribute to air pollution and acid rain.
4. Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): A toxic gas produced by the burning of fossil fuels, primarily coal and
oil in power plants. It leads to the formation of acid rain.
5. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Organic chemicals that easily evaporate at room
temperature, such as solvents and paints. VOCs contribute to smog formation.
Key Terms:
• Ozone Layer Depletion: The breakdown of the ozone layer by chemicals like CFCs, leading to
increased UV radiation reaching the Earth’s surface.
• Acid Rain: Rainwater with high levels of sulfuric and nitric acids, caused by the emission of
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. It harms ecosystems and buildings.
• Greenhouse Effect: The trapping of heat in the Earth’s atmosphere due to the accumulation
of greenhouse gases like CO2, leading to global warming.
25. What do you understand by AQI? Define its range in each category.
Air Quality Index (AQI) is a numerical scale used to communicate the quality of air and its impact on
human health. It measures pollutants such as PM2.5, PM10, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide,
and carbon monoxide.
AQI Categories and Ranges:
1. 0-50 (Good): Air quality is considered satisfactory, and air pollution poses little or no risk.
2. 51-100 (Moderate): Air quality is acceptable; however, some pollutants may cause minor
health concerns for a small number of people.
3. 101-150 (Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups): People with respiratory or heart conditions may
experience health effects.
4. 151-200 (Unhealthy): Everyone may begin to experience health effects; members of
sensitive groups may experience more serious health impacts.
5. 201-300 (Very Unhealthy): Health alert; everyone may experience more serious health
effects.
6. 301-500 (Hazardous): Health warnings of emergency conditions. The entire population is
likely to be affected.
The AQI provides a clear and easy-to-understand way of assessing air pollution and its health
implications, helping people take preventive measures.
26. Explain various methods involved in the treatment of solid waste management.
Solid Waste Management (SWM) involves the collection, transportation, processing, recycling, or
disposal of solid waste. The following are key methods used:
1. Landfilling:
The most common method, where waste is buried in designated areas. It’s cost-effective but
requires proper lining and monitoring to prevent contamination of groundwater.
2. Incineration:
The process of burning waste at high temperatures to reduce its volume and produce energy.
While it reduces waste, it requires advanced pollution control to minimize harmful
emissions.
3. Composting:
Organic waste is decomposed by microorganisms into nutrient-rich compost, which can be
used in agriculture. It’s an eco-friendly method for managing biodegradable waste.
4. Recycling:
The process of converting waste materials into new products. It reduces the need for raw
materials and conserves energy. Commonly recycled materials include paper, plastic, glass,
and metals.
5. Waste-to-Energy (WTE):
Converts non-recyclable waste into electricity or heat, reducing the volume of waste sent to
landfills and providing a renewable energy source.
These methods ensure effective solid waste management, reduce environmental impact, and
promote sustainability.
27. Draw a neat sketch of highway cross-section and explain various terms involved.
Highway Cross-Section Terms:
1. Carriageway: The portion of the highway used by vehicles. It includes one or more lanes,
depending on the road type (e.g., single-lane, multi-lane).
2. Shoulder: The strip of land beside the carriageway, providing space for parking, emergencies,
and road maintenance.
3. Median: The central division that separates lanes of traffic moving in opposite directions,
often used to enhance safety.
4. Side Slope: The slope of the land on the sides of the road, important for drainage and road
stability.
5. Curb: A raised edge of the road, typically made of concrete, that separates the road from the
sidewalk or shoulder.
The cross-section of a highway is designed for traffic efficiency, safety, and durability, considering
factors like road type, traffic volume, and local conditions.
