Chapter 2

Motion in One Dimension

2.1 The Important Stuff

2.1.1 Displacement
We begin with motion that takes place along a straight line, for example a car speeding
up along a straight road or a rock which is thrown straight up into the air. The concepts
introduced here will be useful when we solve harder problems with motion in two dimensions.
We often talk about the motion of a “particle”. This just means that the object in
question is small in size compared to the distance that it moves for the times of interest, so
that we don’t need to worry about its actual size or orientation.
We map out the possible positions of the particle with a coordinate (system) which
might be labelled x (or y). Changes in position are given by changes in the value of x; we
write a change in x as ∆x.
The change in coordinate ∆x is the displacement that the particle undergoes; it will
occur over some time interval ∆t. Displacements have units of length (meters) and can be
positive or negative!
If we divide the displacement by the time interval we get the average velocity for the
particle for the given time period ∆t.

2.1.2 Speed and Velocity

When an object undergoes a displacement ∆x in a time interval ∆t, the ratio is the average
velocity v for that time interval:
∆x
v = (2.1)
∆t
Velocity has units of length divided by time; in physics, we will usually express velocity
in ms .

19
20 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

The average velocity depends on the time interval chosen for the measurement ∆x and
as such isn’t a very useful quantity as far as physics is concerned. A more useful idea is that
of a velocity associated with a given moment in time. This is found by calculating v for a
very small time interval ∆t which includes the time t at which we want this velocity.
The instantaneous velocity v is given by:
∆x
v= for “very small” ∆t. (2.2)
∆t
The instantaneous velocity has a definite value at each point in time.
The idea of an instantaneous velocity is familiar from the fact that you can tell the speed
of a car at a given time by looking at its speedometer. Your speedometer might tell you
that you are travelling at 65 mi
hr
. That doesn’t mean that you intend to drive 65 mi or that
you intend to drive for 1 hour! It means what Eq. 2.2 says: At the time you looked at
the speedometer, a small displacement of the car divided by the corresponding small time
interval gives 65 mi
hr
. (Of course, when we use the idea in physics, we use the metric system!
m
We will us s .)
The concept of taking a ratio of terms which are “very small” is central to the kind of
mathematics known as calculus. Even though this course is supposed to be “non–calculus”
we have to cheat a little because the idea of instantaneous velocity is so important!!

2.1.3 Motion With Constant Velocity

When an object starts off at the origin (so that x = 0 at time t = 0) and its velocity is
constant, then
x = v0 t Constant velocity!! (2.3)
Which is the familiar equation often stated as “distance equals speed times time”. It is only
true when the velocity of the object is constant. But in physics the really interesting cases
are when the velocity is not constant.

2.1.4 Acceleration
We need one more idea about motion to do physics. The (instantaneous) velocity of an
object can change. It can change slowly (as when a car gradually gets up to a cruising
speed) or it can change rapidly (as when you really hit the gas pedal or the brakes in your
car). The rate at which velocity changes is important in physics.
If the velocity of an object undergoes a change ∆v over a time period ∆t we define the
average acceleration over that period as:
∆v
a= (2.4)
∆t
2.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 21

Acceleration has units of ms divided by seconds (s) which we write as sm2 .

As with velocity, the average quantity is not as important as the “right–now” quantity so
we need the idea of an instantaneous acceleration. Therefore at any given time want to know
that ratio of ∆v to ∆t for a very small change in time. The instantaneous acceleration
a is given by:
∆v
a= for “very small” ∆t. (2.5)
∆t
Generally the acceleration of an object can change with time. Now, since it’s a free
country we could ask how rapidly the acceleration is changing, but it turns out that this
is not so important for physics. Furthermore for a great many of our problems the moving
object will have a constant acceleration.

2.1.5 Motion Where the Acceleration is Constant

As we will see later on, the case of constant acceleration is encountered often because this is
what happens when there is a constant force acting on the object. In the following equations
we assume that we’re talking about a particle whose acceleration a is constant.
If the object accelerates uniformly (i.e. it moves with constant a) then its velocity changes
by the same amount for equal changes in the time t. We can express this as:
∆v
a=
∆t
We will now introduce some notation that will be used in the next couple chapters: We
will say that when we discuss the motion of a particle over a certain time period, the clock
starts at t = 0. So if we ask about the velocity and position at a later time, that later time
is just called “t”. We will say that the velocity of the particle at t = 0 is v0 , and its velocity
at the time t is v. Then we have ∆v = v − v0 and ∆t = t, and the last equation can be
rewritten as:
v = v0 + at (2.6)
Next, we ask about the displacement of the particle at time t, given that it started off
with a velocity v0. Recall that we had a formula for x in Eq. 2.3 but when there is an
acceleration that equation is no longer true!!! (In fact it is no longer meaningful since it is
not clear what “v” means.)
Again we will say that the particle is initially located at x = 0, that is, it is initially at
the origin. Then the displacement of the particle at time t is given by:
x = v0t + 12 at2 (2.7)

By combining these equations we can show:

v 2 = v02 + 2ax (2.8)
22 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

which can be useful because it does not contain the time t. We can also show:

x = 12 (v0 + v)t (2.9)

which can be useful because it does not contain the acceleration a. But in order to use this
equation we must know beforehand that the acceleration is constant.

2.1.6 Free-Fall
The most common kind of acceleration which we encounter in daily life is the one which an
object undergoes when we drop it or throw it up in the air. Before stating the value of this
acceleration we need to be clear about the coordinates used to describe the motion of an
object in (one–dimensional) free–fall.
In our free–fall problems we will always have the y axis point straight up regardless of
the initial motion of the object. So when y increases the object is moving upward and the
velocity v will be positive; when y decreases the object is moving downward and the velocity
v will be negative
It turns out —for reasons we can understand only after learning about forces— that when
an object is moving vertically in free–fall its velocity decreases by 9.80 ms every second . This
is true when the object is moving upward and when it is moving downward and for that
matter when the object has reached its maximum height. Then the rate of change of the
object’s velocity has a constant value given by

∆v (−9.80 ms )
a= = = −9.80 sm2
∆t (1 s)

The minus sign is important and comes from the fact that our y axis points upward but
things fall downward . This number is known as the acceleration of gravity.
Before going too far we should say that the acceleration of falling objects has this value
over the surface of the Earth and that the value may be slightly different depending on
location, i.e. at some place on earth the value may be more like −9.81 sm2 .
The magnitude of acceleration of gravity is such an important number in physics that we
give it the name, g, so that to a good approximation we can use

g = 9.80 sm2 (2.10)

But be careful: g is defined as a positive number, and with our y axis going upward, the
value of a (the acceleration for a freely-falling object) is a = −g. Signs are important!
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 23

v0 = 69 m/s v = 6.1 m/s

750 m

Figure 2.1: Jet landing and decreasing its speed, in Example 1.

2.2 Worked Examples

2.2.1 Motion Where the Acceleration is Constant

1. A jetliner, travelling northward, is landing with a speed of 69 ms . Once the

jet touches down, it has 750 m of runway in which to reduce its speed to 6.1 ms .
Compute the average acceleration (magnitude and direction) of the plane during
landing. [CJ6 2-25]

We organize ourselves by drawing a picture of the landing plane, as shown in Fig. 2.1.
The plane touches down at x = 0; that’s where the motion begins, as far as we’re concerned.
The initial velocity is v0 = 69 ms . In the final position (after it has travelled the full extent
of the runway), x = 750 m and v = 6.1 ms . But we are not given the time t for this motion
to take placed and we don’t know the (constant) acceleration a.
If we want to get a we can use Eq. 2.8, because it doesn’t contain the time t. Plugging
in the numbers, we get:
(6.1 ms )2 = (69 ms )2 + 2a(750 m)
Do some algebra and solve for a:

(6.1 ms )2 − (69 ms )2
a = = −3.15 m
s2
2(750 m)

We get a negative answer, and we expect that; the plane’s velocity (in the direction of motion,
North) is decreasing. The acceleration has a magnitude of 3.15 sm2 and its direction is opposite
the direction of motion, i.e. South.

2. A drag racer, starting from rest, speeds up for 402 m with an acceleration of
+17.0 sm2 . A parachute then opens, slowing the car down with an acceleration of
−6.10 sm2 . How fast is the racer moving 3.50 × 102 m after the parachute opens? [CJ6
2-28]
24 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

2 2
a = 17.0 m/s a = - 6.10 m/s

402 m 350 m

Figure 2.2: Motion of the drag racer in Example 2.

A diagram of the motion will help! This is shown in Fig. 2.2. First, let’s find the velocity
of the racer at the time the chute opened. We can use Eq. 2.8; with v0 = 0 (the racer starts
from rest), a = +17.0 sm2 and x = 402 m, solve for v:
m2
v 2 = v02 + 2ax = 2(402 m)(17 sm2 ) = 6.83 × 103 s2

So then
v = 82.7 ms
Now consider the part of the motion after the chute opens; we must consider it separately
since the acceleration here is different from the first part of the motion. For this part of the
motion the initial velocity is the value we found for the final velocity of the earlier motion:

v0 = 82.7 ms Second part of motion

We have the distance covered for this part of the motion (x = 350 m) and the acceleration
(a = −6.10 sm2 ; the racer’s velocity decreases during this part) and we can again use Eq. 2.8:
m2
v 2 = v02 + 2ax = (82.7 ms )2 + 2(−6.10 sm2 )(350 m) = 2.56 × 103 s2

and this gives

v = 50.6 ms
The racer has a speed of 50.6 ms when it has moved 350 m past the point where the chute
opened.

2.2.2 Free-Fall

3. A penny is dropped from the top of the Sears Tower in Chicago. Considering
that the height of the building is 427 m and ignoring air resistance, find the speed
with which the penny strikes the ground. [CJ6 2-37]

A picture of the problem is given in Fig. 2.3, where we’ve drawn the coordinate axis. The
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 25

0
Sears

a = -9.8 m/s2

y = -427 m

Figure 2.3: Penny dropped from top of Sears Tower in Example 3.

penny begins its motion at y = 0 and since it falls down, its coordinate upon striking the
ground is −427 m. Since we drop the penny its initial velocity is v0 = 0 and its acceleration
during the fall is a = −g = −9.8 sm2 .
We are looking for the final velocity v but we don’t have the time of the fall. We can use
Eq. 2.8 since that equation doesn’t contain t. We find:
v 2 = v02 + 2ax
= 02 + 2(−9.8 sm2 )(−427 m)
m2
= 8.37 × 103 s2

Taking the square root of this number gives 91.5 ms but there are really two answers for v,
namely ±91.5 ms , and since the penny is falling downward when it hit the ground we want
the negative one:
v = −91.5 ms .
But the answer to the question is that the penny’s speed (the absolute value of v) was 91.5 ms
when it hit the ground.

4. From her bedroom window a girl drops a water–filled balloon to the ground,
6.0 m below. If the balloon is released from rest, how long is it in the air? [CJ6
2-41]

The problem is diagrammed in Fig. 2.4. The coordinate system is shown; the positive y
axis points up, and (as always) we assume that the balloon starts its motion at y = 0. But
if that is the case, then when the balloon hits the ground, its y coordinate is −6.0 m.
The initial velocity of the balloon is v0 = 0 and its acceleration is a = −g = −9.80 sm2 .
To find how long the balloon is in the air, we ask the question: At what time is y equal to
−6.0 m? We can then find t using Eq. 2.7. So we write:
−6.0 m = 0 + 21 (−9.80 sm2 )t2
26 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

v0 = 0

6.0 m

Figure 2.4: Water–balloon is dropped in Example 4.

v0
t = 2.00 s

Figure 2.5: Rock is tossed up in the air in Example 5.

and solve for t. We find:

2(−6.0 m)
t2 = m = 1.22 s2
(−9.80 s2 )
and then
t = 1.11 s
The balloon hits the ground at t = 1.11 s, so it spends 1.11 s in the air.

5. A ball thrown vertically upward is caught by the thrower after 2.00 s. Find
(a) the initial speed of the ball and (b) the maximum height the ball reaches.
[Ser7 2-48]

(a) We sketch the problem in Fig. 2.5. The ball has some initial speed v0 (which we don’t
know). We know the acceleration of the ball, namely a = −g = −9.80 sm2 . We also know that
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 27

at t = 2.00 s the y coordinate of the ball was zero. (As usual, we say the ball starts off at
y = 0.) If we put that information into Eq 2.7 we get:

x = v0t + 12 at2 =⇒ 0 = v0(2.00 s) + 12 (−9.80 sm2 )(2.00 s)2

and now we can solve this for v0:

v0(2.00 s) = 21 (9.80 sm2 )(2.00 s)2 = 19.6 m

This gives:
(19.6 m)
v0 = = 9.80 ms
(2.00 s)

(b) We know that at maximum height the velocity v is zero. We can use Eq 2.8 to get
the value of y at this time:

v 2 = v02 + 2ay =⇒ 0 = (9.80 ms )2 + 2(−9.80 m

s2
)y

Solve this for y and get:

(9.80 ms )2
y= = 4.90 m
2(9.80 sm2 )
so the maximum height attained by the ball was 4.90 m.

6. An astronaut on a distant planet wants to determine its acceleration due

to gravity. The astronaut throws a rock straight up with a velocity of +15 ms
and measures a time of 20.0 s before the rock returns to his hand. What is the
acceleration (magnitude and direction) due to gravity on this planet? [CJ6 2-39]

A diagram of the path of the rock is shown in Fig. 2.6. The y axis is measured upward
from the position of the hand.
We know the initial velocity of the rock, v0 = +15.0 ms but we don’t know the value of
the acceleration, ay . (We do know that it will be a negative number, because objects fall
down on this planet too!) We know that at t = 0.0 s y is 0.0 m (of course) but we also know
that at t = 20.0 s, y is equal to 0.0 s.
If we put the second piece of information into Eq. 2.7 we get

0.0 = (15.0 ms )(20.0 s) + 12 a(20.0 s)2

from which we can find a. Some algebra gives us:

1
2
a(20.0 s)2 = −300 m
28 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

t = 20.0 s
v0 = 15 m/s

Figure 2.6: Path of tossed rock in Example 6.

12 m/s

110 m

Figure 2.7: Man throws rock downward with speed 12 ms , in Example 7.

Then:
2(300 m)
a = − = −1.50 sm2
(20.0 s)2
The magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity on the planet is 1.50 sm2 and from the minus
sign we know that the direction of the acceleration is downward. (No surprise... things fall
down on other planets as well!

7. A man stands at the edge of a cliff and throws a rock downward with a speed
of 12.0 ms . Sometime later it strikes the ground 110 m below the place where it
was thrown. (a) How long does it take to reach the ground? (b) What is the
speed of the rock at impact?

(a) The problem is illustrated in Fig. 2.7. Since the rock is thrown downward , the initial
velocity of the rock is v0 = −12.0 ms , and of course a = −9.80 sm2 . When the rock hits the
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 29

ground its y coordinate is y = −110 m, so in this part we are asking “At what time does
y = −110 m?”
y is given by
y = v0t + 12 at2 = (−12.0 ms )t − 21 (9.80 sm2 )t2
so we just need to solve

−110 m = (−12.0 ms )t − 21 (9.80 sm2 )t2

Dropping the units for simplicity, a little algebra gives

(4.90)t2 + (12.0)t − 110 = 0

which is a quadratic equation. (Recall Eq. 1.1.) Using the quadratic formula, there are two
possible answers, given by
q
(−12.0) ± (12.0)2 + 4(4.90)(110)
t= .
2(4.90)

A little calculator work gives the two (?) answers:

t = −6.12 s or t = 3.67 s

So which is the answer? (There can only be one time of impact!) The answer must be the
second one because a negative time t is meaningless; the rock was thrown at t = 0. Therefore
the rock takes 3.67 s to reach the ground.
(b) We need to find the velocity of the rock at the the time found in part (a). The velocity
of the rock is given by
v = v0 + at = (−12 ms ) + (−9.80 sm2 )t
so at t = 3.67 s it is

v = (−12.0 ms ) − (9.80 sm2 )(3.67 s) = −18.1 ms

and so the speed of the rock at impact is 18.1 ms .

8. Two identical pellet guns are fired simultaneously from the edge of a cliff.
These guns impart as initial speed of 30.0 ms to each pellet. Gun A is fired straight
upward, with the pellet going up and falling back down, eventually hitting the
ground beneath the cliff. Gun B is fired straight downward. In the absence of air
resistance, how long after pellet B hits the ground does pellet A hit the ground?
[CJ6 2-43]
30 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

v0 = +30.0 m/s
v0 = -30.0 m/s

Figure 2.8: Two pellet guns shoot pellets; pellet from Gun A goes up then down. Pellet from B goes
straight down.

Hoo! This one sounds complicated. And they didn’t even tell us how high the cliff is!
(Doesn’t it matter?) We draw a picture of the problem, as in Fig. 2.8.
It turns out that if we understand something about the motion of pellet A the problem
is much simpler. Let’s ask: What is the velocity v of pellet A when it returns to the height
at which it was thrown? Here we don’t care about the time, just the distances and velocities
are involved, so we want to use Eq. 2.8. When the pellet returns to the original height then
y = 0 and so we get:
2
v 2 = v02 + 0 = (+30 ms )2 = 900 ms2
and the proper solution to this equation is

v = −30 ms .

Here we choose the minus sign because the pellet is moving downward at that time. So when
the pellet returns to the same height it has the same speed but is moving in the opposite
direction.
But recall that pellet B was thrown downward with speed 30 ms , that is, its initial velocity
was −30 ms . So from this point on, the motion of pellet A is the same as that of pellet B. So
from that point on it will be the same amount of time until A hits the ground. Therefore
the amount of time which A spends in the air above that spent by B is the time it spends it
takes to go up and then down to the original height. Therefore we now want to answer the
question: How long does it take A to go up and back to the original height?
To answer this question we can use Eq. 2.7 with x = 0. We can also ask how long it take
until the velocity equals −30 ms , and that will be simpler. So using Eq. 2.6 with a = −9.80 sm2
we solve for t:
−30 ms = +30 ms + (−9.80 sm2 )t
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 31

We get:
(−60 ms )
t= = 6.1 s
(−9.80 sm2 )
Summing up, it takes 6.1 s for pellet A to go up and back down to the original height;
this is the amount of time it spends in the air longer than the time B is in the air. So pellet
A hits the ground 6.1 s after B hits the ground.