Partial replacement of coarse aggregate by coconut shell

Chapter 1
Introduction
Versatility of making concrete with locally available materials, ease in moulding it into
any shape and size and economy in its making has made concrete the 2nd largest consumed
material on earth.
 Far more concrete is produced than any other man-made material. Annual production
represents one ton for every person on the planet.
 It is incredibly versatile, and is used in almost all major construction projects.
 Aggregates are used in concrete for very specific purposes. Aggregates typically make
up about 60 % to 75 % of the volume of a concrete mixture, and as they are the least
expensive of the materials used in concrete, the economic impact is significant.
 80 % of buildings CO2 emissions are generated not by the production of the materials
used in its construction, but in the electric utilities of the building over its life-cycle.
 Compared to other comparable building materials, concrete is less costly to produce and
remains extremely affordable.

Use of waste in concrete:

A research effort has been done to match society’s need for safe and economic disposal of
waste materials. The use of waste materials saves natural resources and dumping spaces, and
helps to maintain a clean environment. The current concrete construction practice is thought
unsustainable because, not only it is consuming enormous quantities of stone, sand and
drinking water, but also two billion tons a year of Portland cement, which releases green-house
gases leading to global warming. Experiments has been conducted for waste materials like-
rubber tyre, e-waste, coconut shell, blast furnace slag, waste plastic, demolished concrete
constituents, waste water etc. Construction waste recycle plants are now installed in various
countries but they are partly solution to the waste problems.

Concrete is a composite material which composed of aggregates,

cement and water. Concrete is used more than any other manmade material in the world. The
utilization of concrete is increasing at a higher rate due to development in infrastructure and

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construction activities all around the world. The possibility of a complete depletion of
aggregate resources has rendered continued use of aggregates for construction unsustainable. In
view of this challenge, researchers throughout the world have been investigating ways of
replacing aggregates to make construction sustainable and less expensive. Research addressing
environmental and sustainability issues in construction has generated lot of interest in the
world. While wastes generated by industrial and agricultural processes have created disposal
and management problems which pose serious challenges to efforts towards environmental
conservation, their use contributes to resource conservation, environmental protection and the
reduction of construction costs. Since waste materials can be obtained at little or no cost, while
making significant contribution to the conservation of natural resources and maintenance of
ecological balance.

COCONUT SHELL AS AGGREGATE

Coconut shell particles are used as reinforcing material for investigation. Shell particles
of size between 20 mm – 600 μ are prepared in grinding machine. Coconut shell aggregates are
potential candidates for the development of new composites because of their high strength and
modulus properties. An approximate value of coconut shell density is 1.60 g/cm3.
Coconut shell is an agricultural waste. It is categorized as light weight aggregate.
Coconut shells are by-products of coconut oil production. Cost reduction of 48% can be
achieved if the waste utilization can be used in the concrete mixtures.
Coconut shell is categorized as light weight aggregate. The coconut shell when dried
contains cellulose, lignin and ash in varying percentage. In Asia, the construction industry is
yet to realize the advantages of light weight concrete in high rise buildings. Coconut shells are
not commonly used in construction industry and are often dumped as agricultural waste. The
aim of this research is to spread awareness of using coconut shell as partial replacement of
coarse aggregate in concrete and determining its compressive strength and density. Until now,
Industrial by products and domestic wastes has been utilized in concrete, but the use of
agricultural waste in concrete is in its infancy stage. Coconut shell is an agricultural waste

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Fig. Coconut shell as aggregate

COCONUT SHELL AS A ALTERNATIVE COARSE AGGREGATE

In view of thrust on energy saving and sustainable development, the use of
alternative constituents of natural resources and the search of suitable alternative to
conventional construction material is now a global concern. To make use of alternative
aggregate in concrete which is coconut shell has never been a common practice among the
people, particularly in areas where light weight concrete is required for non-load bearing walls
and nonstructural floors. Concrete obtained using coconut shell as a coarse aggregate satisfies
the minimum requirements of concrete. Coconut shell aggregate resulted acceptable strength
which is required for structural concrete. Coconut shell may present itself as a potential
material in the field of construction industries. The coconut shell is compatible with cement and
no need to pre-treatment for using it as coarse aggregate. Because of the smooth surface on one
side of the shells concrete made with coconut shell presents better workability. Coconut shell
concrete shows good impact resistance. As compared to conventional aggregate water
absorbing and moisture retaining capacity of coconut shell is more. The presence of sugar in
the coconut shell, does not affect the setting and strength of concrete because it is not in a free
sugar form. It is found that wood based materials being hard and of organic origin, will not
contaminate or leach to produce toxic substances once they are bound in concrete matrix.
Lightweight aggregate concrete (LWAC) is an important and versatile material
in modern construction. It has gained popularity due to its lower density and superior thermal

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insulation properties. Many architects, engineers, and contractors recognize the inherent
economies and advantages offered by this material as evidenced by the many impressive
lightweight concrete (LWC) structures found throughout the world. Lightweight concrete has
strengths comparable to normal concrete; yet is typically 25–35% lighter. Structural LWC
offers design flexibility and cost savings due to self-weight reduction, improved seismic
structural response, and lower foundation costs. Lightweight concrete pre-cast elements offer
reduced transportation and placement costs. Pumice, scoria and other materials of volcanic
origin are the lightweight aggregates available naturally. Expanded blast-furnace slag,
vermiculite and clinker, which are the by-products of industrial processes, are man-made
lightweight aggregates. The main characteristic of lightweight aggregate is its high porosity,
which results in a low specific gravity. Although commercially available lightweight aggregate
has been used widely for manufacture of LWC, more environmental and economical benefits
can be achieved if waste materials can be used as lightweight aggregates in concrete. In view of
the escalating environmental problems, the use of aggregates from by-products and/or solid
waste materials from different industries is highly desirable. In recent years, researchers have
also paid more attention to some agriculture wastes for use as building material in construction.
One such alternative is coconut shell (CS), which is one of the most common agricultural solid
wastes in many tropical countries. The main coconut players in the global market for 2005 are
shown in . Eight of the ten largest producers are in the Asia Pacific region. The three main
producers, Indonesia, the Philippines and India account for 75% of world production. India is
the third largest coconut producing country, with an area of 1.9 million ha and annual
production of 2.74 million tones copra equivalent. Within India, 90% of the total production of
coconut is concentrated in South India. The average annual production of coconut is estimated
at about 15 billion nuts in India. After the coconut is scraped out, the shell is usually discarded
as waste. The vast amount of this discarded CS resource is yet unutilized commercially; its use
as a building material, especially in concrete, on the lines of other lightweight aggregates is an
interesting topic for further studies. This coconut shell can be crushed and used as a coarse
aggregate in the production of LWC. Coconut Shell Concrete (CSC) could be used in rural
areas and places where coconut is abundant and may also be used where the conventional
aggregates are costly. In this study , the important mechanical properties of CSC, namely
compressive, flexural, splitting tensile strengths and impact resistance have been measured to

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assess its suitability as a lightweight aggregate. The bonding property of CS is also studied to
analyze the suitability from a structural point of view. The results are produced in the following
paragraphs.

Selected coconut production statistics, 2017.

Countries Production of coconut across the world

In kg In %
Indonesia 21565.70 35.44

Philippines 19500 32.04

India 10894 17.90

Sri lanka 2099 3.45

Brazil 1973.37 3.24

Thailand 1380.980 2.27

Vietnam 1246.400 2.04

Mexico 1246.4 2.04

Papua new guinea 930 1.53

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Objective of replacement of coarse aggregate by coconut shell:

In our country with increasing rate of rapid technologies construction process are growing fast
but on the other hand due to lack of money people in poverty margin are not able to pay more
cost for the constructions. To overcome this situation, solution is to minimize construction cost
and to maximize strength, durability of material used. This project comes under low cost
housing people under this margin are not able to pay this cost for entire construction. There are
some schemes like Prime Minister awas yojana. Such facilities are made available completing
construction at low cost. Income is the primary factor –not price and available that determines
housing affordability. So that understanding affordable housing challenges requires
understanding trends.

Housing is often the single biggest expenditure of low and medium income families. Owned
house is strong psychology desire for every mankind. This project deals with budget of total
construction and material cost. Reducing it as a whole but fulfilling all basic requirements .This
one of the solution using shells and locally available materials along with improved skills and
technology without sacrificing strength ,performance and life of structures.

Also such low cost structures can be used in earthquake prone areas. As capital investment is
low so that after any damage loss of property is low. Such structures with this material are light
in weight so that risk of loss of life is also less after collapse like damages.

 The main objective is to encourage the use of waste products as construction materials
in low-cost housing.
 To find economical solution for high cost construction material
 To prepare light weight concrete by using coconut shell as coarse aggregate
 Coconut shell exhibits more resistance against crushing, impact and abrasion, compared
to crushed granite aggregate. There is no need to treat the coconut shell before use as an
aggregate except for water absorption.
 These studies also paved the way to the recognition of using coconut shells and fibre as
substitute for aggregates in developing concrete hollow blocks.

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Chapter 2
MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

2.1 General
If a concrete is to be suitable for a particular purpose, it is necessary to select the
constituent materials and combine them in such a manner as to develop the special qualities
required as economical as possible. The selection of materials and choice of method of
construction is not easy, since many variables affect the quality of the concrete produced, and
both quality and economy must be considered. This chapter contain materials which are going
to be used in project, their properties and test carried on the materials.

2.2 Concrete
The characteristics of concrete should be evaluated in relation to the required quality for
any given construction purpose. The closest practicable approach to perfection in every
property of the concrete would result in poor economy under many conditions, and the most
desirable structure is that in which the concrete has been designed with the correct emphasis on
each of the various properties of the concrete, and not solely with a view to obtaining of
maximum possible strength. Following are the constituents of concrete.

2.2.1 Cement
Cement is a key to infrastructure industry and is used for various purposes and also
made in many compositions for a wide variety of uses. Cements may be named after the
principal constituents, after the intended purpose, after the object to which they are applied or
after their characteristic property. Cement used in construction are sometimes named after their
commonly reported place of origin, such as Roman cement, or for their resemblance to other
materials, such as Portland cement, which produces a concrete resembling the Portland stone
used for building in Britain. The term cement is derived from the Latin word Cementum, which
is meant stone chippings such as used in Roman mortar not-the binding material itself.
Cement, in the general sense of the word, described as a material with adhesive and cohesive
properties, which make it capable of bonding mineral fragments in to a compact whole. The

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first step of reintroduction of cement after decline of the Roman Empire was in about 1790,
when an Englishman, J. Smeaton, found that when lime containing a certain amount of clay
was burnt, it would set under water.

This cement resembled that which had been made by the Romans. Further
investigations by J. Parker in the same decade led to the commercial production of natural
hydraulic cement. Joseph Aspdin, an English mason, made an important advance towards the
manufacture of dependable hydraulic cement in 1824. His product was called Portland cement
because it resembled a building stone that was quarried on the Isle of Portland off the coast of
Dorset, UK. Until the end of the nineteenth century, large quantities of this cement were
exported to many parts of the world. The first factories for Portland cement outside the British
Isles were opened in France in 1840, Germany in 1855, and the United States in 1871 and in
Ethiopia in the twentieth century.

The division of cements into different types is necessarily no more than a broad
functional classification, and there may sometimes be wide differences between cements of
nominally the same type. Out of the several types of cements, two of them i.e. Portland
pozzolana cement and ordinary Portland cements produced in Ethiopia by the Mugher and
Messebo cement factories have been used for this research and are briefly discussed below.

Ordinary Portland (Type-I) cement is suitable for general concrete construction when
there is no exposure to sulphates in the soil. The standard requires that it is made from 95 to
100 percent of Portland cement clinker and 0 to 5 percent of minor additional constituents.
Minor additional constituents are one or more of the other cementations materials or filler.
Filler is defined as any natural or inorganic mineral material other than a cemetatious material.
Variations in its composition may produce a difference of up to ±20 % in the compressive
strength of concrete that is made with it, but uniform results are obtainable by drawing cement
from one source of supply. Hence we used Ordinary Portland cement 53 grade.

2.2.2 Aggregates
Aggregates were first considered to simply be filler for concrete to reduce the amount of
cement required. However, it is now known that the type of aggregate used for concrete can
have considerable effects on the plastic and hardened state properties of concrete. They can

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form 80% of the concrete mix so their properties are crucial to the properties of concrete.
Aggregates can be broadly classified into four different categories: these are heavyweight,
normal weight, lightweight and ultra-lightweight aggregates. However in most concrete
practices only normal weight and lightweight aggregates are used. The other types of
aggregates are for specialist uses, such as nuclear radiation shielding provided by heavyweight
concrete and thermal insulation using lightweight concrete.

 Classification of aggregates
The alternative used in the manufacture of good quality concrete, is to obtain the
aggregate in at least two size groups, i.e.:
1) Fine aggregate often called sand (BS 882; 1992) not larger than 5mm in size.
2) Course aggregate, which comprises material at least 5mm in size.
All natural aggregate particles originally formed a part of a large mass. This may have been
fragmented by natural processes of weathering and abrasion or artificially by crushing. Thus
many properties of the aggregate depend entirely on the properties of the parent rock. E.g.
chemical and mineral composition, petro logical character, specific gravity, hardness, strength,
physical and chemical stability, pore structure and colour. On the other hand, there are some
properties possessed by the aggregate but absent in the parent rock: particle shape and size,
surface texture, and absorption. All these properties have a considerable influence on the
quality of the concrete, either in fresh or in the hardened state. It has been found that aggregate
may appear to be unsatisfactory on some count but no trouble need be experienced when it is
used in concrete.

 Aggregate properties
By selecting different sizes and types of aggregates and different ratios of aggregate to
cement ratios, a wide range of concrete can be produced economically to suit different
requirements. Important properties of an aggregate which affect the performance of a concrete
are discussed as follows:

1) Sampling
Samples shall be representative and certain precautions in sampling have to be made.
No detailed procedures can be laid down as the conditions and situations involved in taking

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samples in the field can vary widely from case to case. Nevertheless, a practitioner can obtain
reliable results bearing in mind that the sample taken is to be representative of the bulk of the
material. The main sample shall be made up of portions drawn from different parts of the
whole. The minimum number of these portions is described in BS 812; part 105; 1990. In the
case of stockpiles, the sample obtained is variable or segregated, a large number of increments
should be taken and a larger sample should be dispatched for testing.

2) Particle shape and texture

Roundness measures the relative sharpness or angularity of the edges and corners of a particle.
Roundness is controlled largely by the strength and abrasion resistance of the parent rock and
by the amount of wear to which the particle has been subjected. In the case of crushed
aggregate, the particle shape depends not only on the nature of the parent rock but also on the
type of crusher and its reduction ratio, i.e. the ratio of the size of material fed into the crusher to
the size of the finished product. Particles with a high ratio of surface area to volume are also of
particular interest for a given workability of the control mix.

Elongated and flaky particles are departed from equi-dimensional shape of particles
and have a larger surface area and pack in an isotropic manner. Flaky particles affect the
durability of concrete, as the particles tend to be oriented in one plane, with bleeding water and
air voids forming underneath. The flakiness and elongation tests are useful for general
assessment of aggregate but they do not adequately describe the particle shape. The presence of
elongated particles in excess of 10 to 15% of the mass of coarse aggregate is generally
undesirable, but no recognized limits are laid down. Surface texture of the aggregate affects its
bond to the cement paste and also influences the water demand of the mix, especially in the
case of fine aggregate. The shape and surface texture of aggregate influence considerably the
strength of concrete. The effects of shape and texture are particularly significant in the case of
high strength concrete. The full role of shape and texture of aggregate in the development of
concrete strength is not known, but possibly a rougher texture results in a larger adhesive force
between the particles and the cement matrix. Likewise, the larger surface area of angular
aggregate means that a larger adhesive force can be developed. The shape and texture of fine
aggregate have a significant effect on the water requirement of the mix made with the given
aggregate. If these properties of fine aggregate are expressed indirectly by its packing, i.e. by

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the percentage voids in a loose condition, then the influence on the water requirement is quite
definite. The influence of the voids in coarse aggregate is less definite. Flakiness and shape of
coarse aggregates have an appreciable effect on the workability of concrete.

3) Bond of aggregate
Bond between aggregate and cement paste is an important factor in the strength of
concrete, but the nature of bond is not fully understood. Bond is to the interlocking of the
aggregate and the hydrated cement paste due to the roughness of the surface of the former. A
rougher surface, such as that of crushed particles, results in a better bond due to mechanical
interlocking; better bond is not usually obtained with softer, porous, and minor logically
heterogeneous particles. Bond is affected by the physical and chemical properties of aggregate.
For good development of bond, it is necessary that the aggregate surface be clean and free from
adhering clay particles. The determination of the quality of bond of aggregate is difficult and no
accepted tests exist. Generally, when bond is good, a crushed specimen of normal strength
concrete should contain some aggregate particles broken right through, in addition to the more
numerous ones pulled out from their sockets. An excess of fractured particles, might suggest
that the aggregate is too weak.

4) Strength of aggregate
The compressive strength of concrete cannot significantly exceed that of the major part
of the aggregate contained. If the aggregate under test leads to a lower compressive strength of
concrete, and in particular if numerous individual aggregate particles appear fractured after the
concrete specimen has been crushed, then the strength of the aggregate is lower than the
nominal compressive strength of the concrete mix. Such aggregate can be used only in a
concrete of lower strength. The influence of aggregate on the strength of concrete is not only
due to the mechanical strength of the aggregate but also, to a considerable degree, to its
absorption and bond characteristics. In general, the strength of aggregate depends on its
composition, texture and structure. Thus a low strength may be due to the weakness of
constituent grains or the grains may be strong but not well knit or cemented together. A test to
measure the compressive strength of prepared rock cylinders used to be prescribed. However,
the results of such a test are affected by the presence of planes of weakness in the rock that may
not be significant once the rock has been commented to the size used in concrete. In essence the

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crushing strength test measures the quality of the parent rock rather than the quality of the
aggregate as used in concrete. For this reason the test is rarely used. Crushing value test BS
812: part 105:1990, measures the resistance to pulverization. The crushing value is a useful
guide when dealing with aggregates of unknown performance, when lower strength may be
suspected. There is no obvious physical relation between this crushing value and the
compressive strength, but the results of the two tests are usually in agreement.

5) Deleterious substances of aggregate

For satisfactory performance, concrete aggregates should be free of deleterious
materials. There are three categories of deleterious substances that may be found in aggregates:
impurities, coatings and weak or unsound particle.

6) Organic impurities
Natural aggregates may be sufficiently strong and resistant to wear and yet they may not
be satisfactory for concrete making if they contain organic impurities, which interfere with the
chemical reactions of hydration. The organic matters are more likely to be present in sand than
in coarse aggregate, which is easily washed. The effects of organic impurities may be only
temporary. Results of a research have shown that concrete made with sand containing organic
matter had 24-hour strength equal to 53% of the strength of similar concrete made with clean
sand. In addition, at 3 days, this ratio rose to 82 percent, then to 92 percent at 7 days, and at 28
days equal strengths were recorded.

2.2.3 Water
Water is a key ingredient in the manufacture of concrete. Water used in concrete mixes
has two functions: the first is to react chemically with the cement, which will finally set and
harden, and the second function is to lubricate all other materials and make the concrete
workable. Although it is an important ingredient of concrete, it has little to do with the quality
of concrete. One of the most common causes of poor-quality concrete is the use of too much
mixing water. Fundamentally “the strength of concrete is governed by the nature of the weight
of water to the weight of cement in a mix, provided that it is plastic and workable, fully
compacted, and adequately cured”. It has been said that there is much more bad concrete made
through using too much good quality water than there is using the right amount of poor-quality
water. The rule of thumb for water quality is “if you can drink it, you can work concrete with

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it”. A large fraction of concrete is made using municipal water supplies. However, good quality
concrete can be made with water that would not pass normal standards for drinking water.

2.2.4 Coconut shell :

Coconut is grown in more than 96 countries. India is the third largest, having cultivation on an
area of about 1.67 million hectares for coconut production. Annual production is about 7798
million nuts with an average of 4342 nuts per hectare. The coconut industry in India accounts
for over a quarter of the world's total coconut oil output and is set to grow further with the
global increase in demand. However, it is also the main contributor to the nation's pollution
problem as a solid waste in the form of shells, which involves an annual production of
approximately 4.6 million tonnes. It also presents serious disposal problems for local
environment, is an abundantly available agricultural waste from local coconut industries.

In developing countries, where abundant coconut shell waste is discharged, these wastes can be
used as potential material or replacement material in the construction industry. This will have
the double advantage of reduction in the cost of construction material and also as a means of
disposal of wastes.

Coconut shell particles are used as reinforcing material for investigation. Shell particles of size
between 20 mm – 600 μ are prepared in grinding machine. Coconut shell aggregates are
potential candidates for the development of new composites because of their high strength and
modulus properties. An approximate value of coconut shell density is 1.60 g/cm3.

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PROPERTIES OF COCONUT SHELL

1. Coconut shell has high strength and modulus properties.
2. It has added advantage of high lignin content. High lignin content makes the composites
more weather resistant.
3. It has low cellulose content due to which it absorb less moisture as compare to other
agriculture waste.
4. Coconuts being naturally available in nature and since its shells are non-biodegradable; they
can be used readily in concrete which may fulfil almost all the qualities of the original form of
concrete.

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Chapter 3
Tests on materials

3.1 Sieve analysis of aggregate

Sieve analysis helps to determine the particle size distribution of the coarse and fine
aggregates.This is done by sieving the aggregates as per IS: 2386 (Part I) – 1963. In this we use
different sieves as standardized by the IS code and then pass aggregates through them and thus
collect different sized particles left over different sieves.
The apparatus used are –
i) A set of IS Sieves of sizes – 25mm, 20mm, 16mm, 12.5mm, 10mm, 6.3mm,4.75mm,
3.35mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600µm.
ii) Balance or scale with an accuracy to measure 0.1 percent of the weight of the test sample.
The sample for sieving should be prepared from the larger sample either by quartering or by
means of a sample divider.
Procedure to determine particle size distribution of Aggregates.
1. The test sample is dried to a constant weight at a temperature of 110 + 5oC and
weighed.
2. The sample is sieved by using a set of IS Sieves.
3. On completion of sieving, the material on each sieve is weighed.
4. Cumulative weight passing through each sieve is calculated as a percentage of the
total sample weight.
5. Fineness modulus is obtained by adding cumulative percentage of aggregates
retained on each sieve and dividing the sum by 100.

3.2 Sieve analysis of coconut shell

Sieve analysis helps to determine the particle size distribution of the crushed coconut shell.
This is done by sieving the crushed coconut shells. In this we use different sieves as
standardized by the IS code and then pass coconut shells through them and thus collect
different sized particles left over different sieves.

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The apparatus used are –

i) A set of IS Sieves of sizes – 20mm, 16mm, 12.5mm, 10mm, 6.3mm,4.75mm, 3.35mm,
2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600µm, 300µm, 150µm .
ii) Balance or scale with an accuracy to measure 0.1 percent of the weight of the test sample.

The sample for sieving should be prepared from the larger sample either by quartering or by
means of a sample divider.

Procedure to determine particle size distribution of Aggregates.

i) The test sample is dried to a constant weight at a temperature of 110 + 5oC and
weighed.
ii) The sample is sieved by using a set of IS Sieves.
iii) On completion of sieving, the material on each sieve is weighed.
iv) Cumulative weight passing through each sieve is calculated as a percentage of
the total sample weight.
v) Fineness modulus is obtained by adding cumulative percentage of crushed
coconut shell retained on each sieve and dividing the sum by.

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3.3 Fineness modulus:

Fineness modulus is an empirical factor obtained by adding the cumulative percentages of
aggregate retained on each of the standard sieves ranging from 80 mm to 150 micron and
dividing this sum by 100.

 Fineness modulus is generally used to get an idea of how coarse or fine the aggregate is.
More fineness modulus value indicates that the aggregate is coarser and small value of
fineness modulus indicates that the aggregate is finer.
 Fineness modulus of different type of sand is as per given below.

Type of Sand Fineness Modulus Range

Fine Sand 2.2 – 2.6

Medium Sand 2.6 – 2.9

Coarse Sand 2.9 – 3.2

 Generally sand having fineness modulus more than 3.2 is not used for making good
concrete.
 Fineness modulus can also be used to combine two aggregate to get the desirable grading.
Following procedure is adopted to calculate fineness modulus of aggregate.

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PROCEDURE

 Sieve the aggregate using the appropriate sieves (80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, 4.75
mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 micron, 300 micron & 150 micron)
 Record the weight of aggregate retained on each sieve.
 Calculate the cumulative weight of aggregate retained on each sieve.
 Calculate the cumulative percentage of aggregate retained.
 Add the cumulative weight of aggregate retained and divide the sum by 100. This value is
termed as fineness modulus
 Refer the following example calculation

FINENESS MODULUS OF SAND

Example Calculation of Fineness Modulus of Fine Aggregate

Weight of Cumulative
sand weight of Cumulative percentage of sand
Sieve Size
Retained sand retained (%)
(g) retained (g)

80 mm – – –

40 mm – – –

20 mm – – –

10 mm 0 0 0

4.75 mm 10 10 2

2.36 mm 50 60 12

1.18 mm 50 110 22

600
95 205 41
micron

300 175 380 76

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micron

150
85 465 93
micron

Pan 35 500

Total
500 Total=246
amount =

3.4 Specific Gravity Test:

The specific gravity of an aggregate is considered to be a measure of strength or quality of the
material. Stones having low specific gravity are generally weaker than those with higher
specific gravity values.
Aim
i) To measure the strength or quality of the material.
ii) To determine the water absorption of aggregates.
Apparatus:
The apparatus consists of the following:
(a) A balance of capacity about 3kg, to weigh accurate 0.5g, and of such a type and shape as to
permit weighing of the sample container when suspended in water.
(b) A thermostatically controlled oven to maintain temperature at 100-110° C.
(c) A wire basket of not more than 6.3 mm mesh or a perforated container of convenient size
with thin wire hangers for suspending it from the balance.
(d) A container for filling water and suspending the basket.
(e) An air tight container of capacity similar to that of the basket.

Procedure:

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(i) About 2 kg of aggregate sample is washed thoroughly to remove fines, drained and placed
in wire basket and immersed in distilled water at a temperature between 22- 32º C and a cover
of at least 5cm of water above the top of basket.
(ii) Immediately after immersion the entrapped air is removed from the sample by lifting the
basket containing it 25 mm above the base of the tank and allowing it to drop at the rate of
about one drop per second. The basket and aggregate should remain completely immersed in
water for a period of 24 hour afterwards.
(iii) The basket and the sample are weighed while suspended in water at a temperature of 22° –
32°C. The weight while suspended in water is noted =W1g.
(iv) The basket and aggregates are removed from water and allowed to drain for a few minutes,
after which the aggregates are transferred to the dry absorbent clothes. The empty basket is then
returned to the tank of water jolted 25 times and weighed in water=W2g. .
(v) The aggregates placed on the absorbent clothes are surface dried till no further moisture
could be removed by this cloth. Then the aggregates are transferred to the second dry cloth
spread in single layer and allowed to dry for at least 10 minutes until the aggregates are
completely surface dry. The surface dried aggregate is then weighed =W3 g
(vi) The aggregate is placed in a shallow tray and kept in an oven maintained at a temperature
of 110° C for 24 hrs. It is then removed from the oven, cooled in an air tight container and
weighted=W4 g.

(1) Specific gravity = (dry weight of the aggregate /Weight of equal volume of water)
(2) Apparent specific gravity = (dry weight of the aggregate/Weight of equal volume of water
excluding air voids in aggregate)
Observations:
Weight of saturated aggregate suspended in water with basket = W1 g
Weight of basket suspended in water = W2 g
Weight of saturated aggregate in water = W1 – W2 g
Weight of saturated surface dry aggregate in air = W3 g
Weight of water equal to the volume of the aggregate = W3–(W1–W2)g
Weight of oven dry aggregate = W4 g
(1) Specific gravity = W3 / (W3– (W1– W2))

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(2) Apparent specific gravity = W4 / (W4– (W1– W2))

(3) Water Absorption = ((W3 – W4) / W4) X 100
Result:
(1) Specific gravity =2.68
(2) Apparent specific gravity =
(3) Water Absorption =
Recommended value:
The size of the aggregate and whether it has been artificially heated should be
indicated. ISI specifies three methods of testing for the determination of the specific gravity of
aggregates, according to the size of the aggregates. The three size ranges used are aggregates
larger than 10 mm, 40 mm and smaller than 10 mm. The specific gravity of aggregates
normally used in road construction ranges from about 2.5 to 3.0 with an average of about 2.68.
Though high specific gravity is considered as an indication of high strength, it is not possible to
judge the suitability of a sample road aggregate without finding the mechanical properties such
as aggregate crushing, impact and abrasion values. Water absorption shall not be more than 0.6
per unit by weight.

3.5 Fineness of cement:

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we need to determine the fineness of cement by dry sieving as per IS: 4031 (Part 1) – 1996.The
principle of this is that we determine the proportion of cement whose grain size is larger then
specified mesh size. The apparatus used are 90µm IS Sieve, Balance capable of weighing 10g
to the nearest 10mg, A nylon or pure bristle brush, preferably with 25 to 40mm, bristle, for
cleaning the sieve. Sieve shown in pic below is not the actual 90µm seive.Its just for reference.

Procedure to determine fineness of cement:

i) Weigh approximately 100g of cement to the nearest 0.01g and place it on the sieve.
ii) Agitate the sieve by swirling, planetary and linear movements, until no more fine material
passes through it.
iii) Weigh the residue and express its mass as a percentage 6 of the quantity first placed on the
sieve to the nearest 0.1 percent.
iv) Gently brush all the fine material off the base of the sieve.
v) Repeat the whole procedure using a fresh 100g sample to obtain 7.Then calculate R as the
mean of 6 and 7 as a percentage, expressed to the nearest 0.1 percent. When the results differ
by more than 1 percent absolute, carry out a third sieving and calculate the mean of the three
values.
Reporting of Results:
Report the value R=6.5 of , to the nearest 0.1 percent, as the residue on the 90µm sieve.

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3.6 Standard Consistency of Cement

Standard consistency of a cement paste is defined as that consistency which will permit a vicat
plunger having 10 mm dia and 50 mm length to penetrate to a depth of 33-35 mm from top of
the mould.

Vicat’S Apparatus

Procedure
1. Take 500 gm of cement and place it in the enameled tray.
2. Mix about 24% water by weight of dry cement thoroughly to get a cement paste. Total
time taken to obtain thoroughly mixed water cement paste i.e. “Gauging time” should not
be more than 3 to 5 minutes.
3. Fill the vicat mould, resting upon a glass plate, with this cement paste.
4. After filling the mould completely, smoothen the surface of the paste, making it level with
top of the mould.
5. Place the whole assembly(i.e. mould + cement paste + glass plate) under the rod bearing
plunger.
6. Lower the plunger gently so as to touch the surface of the test block and quickly release
the plunger allowing it to sink into the paste.

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7. Measure the depth of penetration and record it.

8. Prepare trial pastes with varying percentages of water content and follow the steps (2 to 7)
as described above, until the depth of penetration becomes 33 to 35 mm.
Calculations
Calculate percentage of water (P) by weight of dry cement required to prepare cement paste of
standard consistency by following formula, and express it to the first place of decimal.

Where,
W=Quantity of water added
C=Quantity of cement used
Precautions
 Gauging time should be strictly observed
 Room temperature should be well maintained as per test requirement.
 All apparatus used should be clean.
 The experiment should be performed away from vibrations and other disturbances.

TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
 This test helps to determine water content for other tests like initial and final setting time,
soundness & compressive strength.

NAME OF TEST AMOUNT OF WATER REQUIRED

Soundness (Le-chatelier 0.78 P (P=Consistency of standard cement paste)

method)

Setting time 0.85 P (P=Consistency of standard cement paste)

Compressive strength
of combined mass of cement and sand.

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 Consistency refers to the relative mobility of a freshly mixed cement paste or mortar or its
ability to flow. For a mortar the standard consistency is measured by flow table test.
 Generally the normal consistency for OPC ranges from 26 to 33%.

3.7 Iinitial and final setting time of cement:

Initial setting time is that time period between the time water is added to cement and time at
which 1 mm square section needle fails to penetrate the cement paste, placed in the Vicat’s
mould 5 mm to 7 mm from the bottom of the mould.
Final setting time is that time period between the time water is added to cement and the time at
which 1 mm needle makes an impression on the paste in the mould but 5 mm attachment does
not make any impression.

APPARATUS MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

NAME CAPACITY / RANGE / ACCURACY / LEAST

SIZE COUNT

Vicat’s apparatus Should be made as per —

IS:5513

Balance 1000 g 1g

Measuring cylinder 100 ml 1 ml

Stop watch 30 min. 0.2 sec

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PROCEDURE
(A) TEST BLOCK PREPARATION
1. Before commencing setting time test, do the consistency test to obtain the water required
to give the paste normal consistency (P).
2. Take 500g of cement and prepare a neat cement paste with 0.85P of water by weight of
cement.
3. Gauge time is kept between 3 to 5 minutes. Start the stop watch at the instant when the
water is added to the cement. Record this time (t1).
4. Fill the Vicat mould, resting on a glass plate, with the cement paste gauged as above. Fill
the mould completely and smooth off the surface of the paste making it level with the top
of the mould. The cement block thus prepared is called test block.

(B) INITIAL SETTING TIME

1. Place the test block confined in the mould and resting on the non-porous plate, under the
rod bearing the needle.

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2. Lower the needle gently until it comes in contact with the surface of test block and quick
release, allowing it to penetrate into the test block.
3. In the beginning the needle completely pierces the test block. Repeat this procedure i.e.
quickly releasing the needle after every 2 minutes till the needle fails to pierce the block
for about 5 mm measured from the bottom of the mould. Note this time (t ). 2

(C) FINAL SETTING TIME

1. For determining the final setting time, replace the needle of the Vicat’s apparatus by the
needle with an annular attachment.
2. The cement is considered finally set when upon applying the final setting needle gently to
the surface of the test block; the needle makes an impression thereon, while the attachment
fails to do so. Record this time (t3).
CACULATION
Initial setting time=t2-t1= 40 min
Final setting time=t3-t1= 10 hrs.
Where,
t1=Time at which water is first added to cement
t2=Time when needle fails to penetrate 5 mm to 7 mm from bottom of the mould
t3=Time when the needle makes an impression but the attachment fails to do so.
PRECAUTIONS
 Release the initial and final setting time needles gently.
 The experiment should be performed away from vibration and other disturbances.
 Needle should be cleaned every time it is used.
 Position of the mould should be shifted slightly after each penetration to avoid penetration
at the same place.
 Test should be performed at the specified environmental conditions.

TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
 It is essential that cement set neither too rapidly nor too slowly. In the first case there
might be insufficient time to transport and place the concrete before it becomes too rigid.

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In the second case too long a setting period tends to slow up the work unduly, also it might
postpone the actual use of the structure because of inadequate strength at the desired age.
 Setting should not be confused with hardening, which refers to the gain in mechanical
strength after the certain degree of resistance to the penetration of a special attachment
pressed into it.
 Setting time is the time required for stiffening of cement paste to a defined consistency.
 Indirectly related to the initial chemical reaction of cement with water to form aluminum-
silicate compound.
 Initial setting time is the time when the paste starts losing its plasticity.
 Initial setting time test is important for transportation, placing and compaction of cement
concrete.
 Initial setting time duration is required to delay the process of hydration or hardening.
 Final setting time is the time when the paste completely loses its plasticity.
 It is the time taken for the cement paste or cement concrete to harden sufficiently and
attain the shape of the mould in which it is cast.
 Determination of final setting time period facilitates safe removal of scaffolding or form.
 During this period of time primary chemical reaction of cement with water is almost
completed.

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3.8 Compressive strength of cement:

This test is carried out to determine the compressive strength of cement.
Test Procedure for compressive strength of cement:
(i) The mortar of cement and sand is prepared. The proportion is 1:3 which means that 180gm
of cement is mixed with 555gm of sand.
(ii) The water is added to the mortar. The water cement ratio is kept as 0.4 which means that
(X) gm of water is added to dry mortar.
(iii) The mortar is placed in moulds. The test specimens are in the form of cubes with side as
70.6 mm or 76 mm. The moulds are of metal and they are constructed in such a way that the
specimens can be easily taken out without being damaged. For 70.6 mm and 76 mm cubes, the
cement required is 185 gm and 235 gm respectively.
The mortar, after being placed in the moulds, is compacted in vibrating machine for 2 minutes.
(iv) The moulds are placed in a damp cabin for 24 hours.
(vi) The specimens are removed from the moulds and they are submerged in clean water for
curing.
(vii) The cubes are then tested in compression testing machine at the end of 3 days and 7 days.
The testing of cubes is carried out on their three sides without packing. Thus three cubes are
tested each time to find out the compressive strength at the end of 3 days and 7 days. The
average value is then worked out. During the test, the load is to be applied uniformly at the rate
of 350 kg/cm2 or 35 N/mm2.
(viii) The compressive strength of cement at the end of 3 days should not be less than 115
kg/cm2 or 11.50 N/mm2 and that at the end of 7 days should no be less than 175 kg/cm2 or
17.50 N/mm2.

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Chapter 4
MIX DESIGN

4.1 First Trial Mix Design for M20 concrete

Design requirements
Characteristics compressive strength at 28 days 20 N/mm2
(fck)
Type of Cement OPC 53 Grade
Maximum nominal size of the available 20 mm
aggregates
Minimum Cement Content 280 kg/m3
Shape of coarse aggregate Angular
Workability 100 mm (Slump)
Exposure condition Severe
Maximum Cement content 450 kg/m3
Test data of materials
Specific Gravity of coconut shell 1.3
Specific gravity of cement 3.15
Specific gravity of coarse aggregate 2.68
Specific gravity of fine aggregate 2.63

Procedure
Step.1. Target Mean Strength:
For the degree of quality control specified namely “Good”, the value of standard
deviation, σ = 5 N/mm2 (IS code 456:2000).
Hence, the Target mean strength for the desired comp. strength
= fck + t × σ
= [20+ (1.65×5)]
= 26.6 N/mm2

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Step.2. Selection of water cement ratio:

According to IS 456 – 2000, Table 5, durability requirement condition maximum w/c
ratio for mild exposure is 0.55 .Hence w/c ratio is 0.5

Step.3. Selection of water content:

For maximum water content for 20mm aggregate, sand conforming to grading zone II,
water content per cubic meter = 186 liter.

Step.4. Determination of cement content:

Water cement ratio = 0.5
Water = 186.00 kg
Cement = 197/0.5
= 372 kg / m3

Step.5. Determination of fine aggregate content:

V = (W+C/SC +1/P* Fa/SFa )* 1/1000

V= (186+ 372/3.15 +1/0.35 * Fa/2.63 )* 1/1000
Fag = 622.17 kg/m3 ~623 kg/m3

Step.6.Determination of coarse aggregate :

Therefore, Mix-Proportion becomes,

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Table 4.1 Mix proportions for M 20

Sand(fine
Materials Cement Water Coarse Aggregate
aggregate)

Quantity 372 kg/ m3 186 kg / m3 623kg/ m3 1157 kg/ m3

Proportion 1 0.5 1.674 3.1102

Trial mix for replacement of aggregate by coconut shell ,

Mix ratio Cement Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate

Specimen control Cement Sand Aggregate

Specimen A Cement Sand 100%coarse aggregate+0% cs

Specimen B Cement Sand 80% coarse aggregate+ 20% cs

Specimen C Cement Sand 60% coarse aggregate + 40% cs

Specimen D Cement Sand 50% coarse aggregate + 50% cs

4.2Casting process
Ultra-tech Cement of 53 grade was used throughout the mixing process. Graded
aggregate fulfilling Ethiopian standards are also used both for trial and final mix preparation of
the samples. The preparation of the constituent materials was made by using weight
measurement. After determining the relative amounts of materials to be used for specimens, the
aggregates and cements were mixed dry for one minute. After the addition of water, all the
material mixed for another three minutes for normal and intermediate concrete strength. After

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deducting the amount of admixtures estimated from the weighed water, admixtures added
during mixing. Immediately after mixing the concrete, the workability is measured by using a
slump cone.

The specimens were then put on a firm and level surface of prepared moulds by
compacting in two layers using vibrating table. The specimens were vibrated for 45 seconds
and 30 seconds for the two steel moulds and one steel moulds, respectively based on past
experience. After vibration the top surface is finished using a trowel. Concrete specimens were
cured for seven and twenty-eight days and exposed to room temperature of the laboratory until
the day of testing. There is a process adopted for casting of concrete blocks as follows:

1. Preparation of material
All materials shall be brought to room temperature, preferably 27ºC before commencing
the tests. The cement samples, on arrival at laboratory, shall be thoroughly mixed dry either by
hand or in a suitable mixer in such a manner as to ensure the greatest possible blending and
uniformity in the material, care should being taken to avoid the intrusion of foreign matter. The
cement shall then be stored in dry place, preferably in air-tight metal containers.

Samples of aggregate for each batch of concrete shall be of the desired grading and
shall be in air-dried condition. In general, the aggregate shall be separated into fine and coarse
fractions and recombine for each concrete batch in such manner as to produce the desired
grading.

2. Proportioning
The proportions of the materials, including water, in concrete mixes use for determining
the suitability of the materials available, shall be similar in all respect to those to be employed
in the work. Where the proportions of the ingredients of the concrete as used on the site are to
be specified by volume, they shall be calculated from the proportions by weight used in the test
cubes and the unit weights of the materials.

3. Weighing
The quantity of cement, each size of aggregate, and water for each batch shall be determine
by weight, to an accuracy of 0.1% of the total weight of the batch.

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4. Mixing of concrete
The concrete shall be mixed by hand, or preferably, in laboratory batch mixer, in such a
manner as to avoid loss of water or other materials. Each batch of concrete shall be of such a
size as to leave a void 10% excess after moulding the desired number of test specimens.

Image 4.1 wet mixing of concrete

5. Moulding
Test specimens cubical in shape shall be 15 × 15 × 15 cm. If the largest nominal size of
the aggregate does not exceed 2cm, 10 cm cubes may be used as an alternative. Cylindrical test
specimens shall have a length equal to twice the diameter. They shall be 15 cm in diameter and
30 cm long. Smaller test specimens shall have a ratio of diameter of specimen to maximum size
of aggregate not less than 3 to 1, except that the diameter of the specimen shall be not less than
7.5 cm for mixtures containing aggregate more than 5 percent of which is retained on IS sieve
480.

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Image 4.2 Moulds

Metal moulds, preferably steel or cast iron, thick enough to prevent distortion is
required. They are made in such a manner as to facilitate the removal of the moulded specimen
without damage and are so machined that, when it is assembled ready for use, the dimensions
and internal faces are required to be accurate within the following limits. Each mould is
provided with a metal base plate having a plane surface. The base plate is of such dimensions
as to support the mould during the filling without leakage and it is preferably attached to the
mould by springs or screws. In assembling the mould for use, the joints between the sections of
the mould are thinly coated with mould oil and a similar coating of mould oil is applied
between the contact surface of the bottom of the mould and the base plate in order to ensure
that no water escapes during the filling.

6. Compaction
The test specimen shall be made as soon as practicable after mixing, and in such a way
as to produce full compaction of the concrete with neither segregation nor excessive laitance.
The concrete shall be fill into approximately 5 cm deep. In placing in each scoopful of
concrete, the scoop shall be moved around the top edge of the mould as the concrete slides
from it, in order to ensure a symmetrical distribution of concrete within the mould. After the
top layer has been compacted, the surface of the concrete shall be finished level with the top of

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the mould, using trowel, and covered with a glass or metal plate to prevent evaporation. There
are two methods of compaction:
Compaction by hand- when compaction by hand, the standard tamping bar shall be used and
the strokes of the bar shall be distributed in a uniform manner over cross section of the mould.
The number of strokes per layer required to produce specified condition will vary according to
the type of concrete. For cubical specimen, in no case shall the concrete be subjected to less
than 35 strokes per layer for15 cm cubes or 25 strokes per layer for 10 cm cubes. For
cylindrical specimen, the number of strokes shall not be less than 30 per layer. The strokes shall
penetrate into the underlying layer and the bottom layer shall be rodded throughout its depth.
Where voids are left by the tamping bar, the sides of the mould shall be tapped to close the
voids. Compaction by Vibration-when compaction by vibration, each layer shall be vibrated by
means of electric or pneumatic hammer or vibrator or by means of a suitable vibrating table
until the specified condition is attained.

Fig. Hand Compaction

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7. Curing
The test specimen shall be stored in place, free from vibration, in moist air of at least 90
percent relative humidity and at a temperature of 27º±2º for 24 hours ±½ hour from the
addition of water to the dry ingredients. After this period, the specimen shall be marked and
removed from the moulds and, unless required for the test within 24 hours, immediately
submerged in clean, fresh water or saturated lime solution and kept there until taken out just
prior to test. The water or the solution in which the specimen are submerged shall be renewed
every seven days and shall be maintained at a temperature of 27º±2ºC. The specimen shall not
be allowed to become dry t any time until they have been tested.

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Chapter 5
Test on fresh concrete
5.1 workability
Workability is generally defined in terms of the amount of mechanical work, or energy,
required to produce full compaction of the concrete without segregation, since the final strength
of the concrete is in large part a function of the amount of compaction. The ASTM C 125-93
defines workability as “property determining the effort required to manipulate a freshly mixed
quantity of concrete with minimum loss of homogeneity”. The ACI given in ACI 116R-90
defines “Property of freshly mixed concrete or mortar which determines the ease and
homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed, consolidated and finished.

Image . Observed slump

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 The need for sufficient workability

The presence of voids in concrete greatly reduces the strength. Five percent of voids can
lower strength by as much 30 percent, and even two percent voids can lower strength by as
much 10 percent. For hardened concrete to be of an acceptable quality for a given job, the fresh
concrete must be capable of satisfying the following requirements:

1) It must be easily mixed and transported;

2) It must be uniform throughout a given batch and between batches;
3) It should have flow properties such that it is capable of completely filling the forms for
which it was designed;
4) It must have the ability to be compacted fully without an excessive amount of energy being
applied;
5) It must not segregate during placing and consolidation; and
6) It must be capable of being finished properly, either against the forms or by means of
towelling or other surface treatment.
 Factors affecting workability
The workability of concrete is affected by a number of factors, which include the
following:

1. Water content of the mix

Increasing the amount of water will increase the ease with which concrete flows and can
be compacted. However, apart from reducing the strength, increased water may lead to
segregation.

2. Influence of aggregates
For a constant W/C ratio, an increase in the aggregate/cement ratio will decrease the
workability; also, more cement is needed when finer aggregate grading is used. A deficiency in
fine aggregate results in a mix that is harsh, prone to segregation, and difficult to finish. An
excess of fine aggregate will also lead to a rather more permeable and less economical
concrete. The shape and texture of aggregate particles can also affect the workability. The more
nearly spherical the particles, the more workable the resulting concrete will be. This is due
partly to the fact that the spherical particles will act as “ball bearings” while angular particles
will have more mechanical interlock and will therefore need more work to overcome the

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resulting internal friction. The porosity of the aggregate may also affect workability. If the
aggregate can absorb a great deal of water, less will be available to provide workability.

3. Time and temperature

With the increase of ambient temperature, the workability decreases since higher
temperature will increase both the evaporation rate and the hydration rate. More water may
have to be used in very warm weather to maintain the same workability.

4. Characteristics of the cement

The increased fineness of the high early strength cements will reduce workability at a
given w/c ratio due to their higher specific surface area and also hydrate more rapidly.

5. Admixtures
Air-entraining water reducing and set-retarding admixtures will all improve the workability.
However, chemical admixtures react differently with different cements and aggregate and can in
some circumstances aggravate the loss of workability.

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5.2 compaction Factor test

Appratus
Compaction factor apparatus’ trowels, hand scoop (15.2 cm long), a rod of steel or other
suitable material (1.6 cm diameter, 61 cm long rounded at one end ) and a balance.

Fig. Compaction factor test machine

Procedure:
(I)Place the concrete sample gently in the upper hopper to its brim using the hand scoop and
level it.
(ii) Cover the cylinder
(iii) Open the trap door at the bottom of the upper hopper so that concrete fall in to the lower
hopper .Push the concrete sticking on its sides gently with the road.
(iv) Open the trap door of the lower hopper and allow the concrete to fall in to the cylinder
below
(v) Cut of the excess of concrete above the top level of cylinder using trowels and level it. (vi)
Clean the outside of the cylinder.

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(vii) Weight the cylinder with concrete to the nearest 10 g. This weight is known as the weight
of partially compacted concrete (wi) =8721g
(viii) Empty the cylinder and then refill it with the same concrete mix in layers approximately
5cm deep, each layer being heavily rammed to obtain full compaction.
(ix) Level the top surface.
(x) Weigh the cylinder with fully compacted. This weight is known as the weight of fully
compacted concrete (w2) =11300g
(xi) Find the weight of empty cylinder (W)=7615g.

CALCULATION
1. The compaction factor is defined as the ratio of the weight of partially compacted concrete to
the weight of fully compacted concrete. It shall normally to be stated to the nearest second
decimal place.

1. Compaction Factor= (W1-W2 / W2-W)

RESULT
Compactio0n factor of the concrete =0.77

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Chapter 6
Testing on hardened concrete
6.1 compressive strength of concrete
The testing machine may be of any reliable type, of sufficient capacity for the tests and
capable of applying load at the rate specified in5.5.The permissible error shall not be greater
than ±2 percent of the maximum load. The testing machine shall be equipped with two steel
bearing platens with hardened faces. One of the platens (preferably the one that normally will
bear on upper surface of the specimen) shall be fitted with a ball seating in the form of a
portion of a sphere, the centre of which coincides with the central point of the face of platen.
The other compression platen shall be plain rigid bearing block. The bearing faces of both
platens shall be at least as large as, and preferably larger than the nominal size of the specimen
to which the load is applied. The bearing shall not depart from a surface of the platen, when
new, shall not depart from a plane by more than 0.01mm at any point, and they shall be
maintained with a permissible variation limit of 0.02mm. The movable potion of the spherically
seated compression platen shall be held on the spherical seat, but the design shall be such that
the bearing face can be rotated freely and titled through small angles in any direction.

Fig. Compressive testing machine

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Test shall be made at recognised ages of the test specimens, most usual being 7 and 28
days. Ages of 13weeks and one year are recommended if tests at greater ages are required.
Where it may be necessary to obtain the early strengths tests may be at the ages of 24 hours ±½
hours and 72 hours ±2 hours. The ages shall be calculated from the time of addition of water to
the dry ingredients.

Number of Specimens-
At least three specimens, preferably from different batches, shall be made for testing at the
selected age.
Procedure:
Specimen stored in water shall be tested immediately on removal from the water and
while they are still in wet condition. Surface water and grit shall be wiped off the specimens
and any projecting fins removed .Specimens when received dry shall be kept in water for 24
hours before they are taken for testing. The dimensions of the specimen to the nearest 0.2mm
and their weight shall be noted before testing. Placing the specimen in the testing machine the
bearing surfaces of testing machine shall be wiped clean and any loose sand or other material
removed from the surfaces of the specimen which are to be in contact with the compression
platens. In case of the cubes, specimen shall be placed in the machine in such a manner that the
load shall be applied to opposite sides of the cubes as cast, that is, not to the top to bottom.

The axis of specimen shall be carefully aligned with the centre of thrust of the
spherically seated platen. No packing shall be used between the faces of the test specimen and
the steel platen of the testing machine. As the spherically seated block is brought to bear on the
specimen, the movable portion shall be rotated gently by hand so that uniform seating may be
obtained. The load shall be applied without shock and increased continuously at a rate of
approximately 140kg/cm2/min until the resistance of the specimen to the increasing load breaks
down and no greater load can be sustained. The maximum load applied to the specimen shall
then be recorded and the appearances of the appearance of the concrete and any unusual
features in the type of the failure shall be noted.

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Image 4.4 Failure surfaces of blocks

Calculations: Compressive strength = (Max load taken by specimen) / (Cross sectional area of
specimen) kg/cm2.

6.2 flexural strength of concrete

Flexural quality can be portrayed as the limit of a bar or even a chunk

of cement to oppose disappointment because of twisting. This flexural quality is otherwise
called Modulus of Rupture. The impact of cement with different rate of coconut shell (CS) on
flexural quality is appeared on table 7. The flexural quality was tried on 7, 14 and 28 days of
curing. The outcomes demonstrated that the flexural quality of the solid diminished as the rate
of the CS expanded in the blend proportion. It was watched that the solid flexural quality of the
bar Examples increments with expanding age. The outcomes demonstrated that the flexural
quality of the solid diminished as the rate of the CS expanded in the blend proportion. It was
watched that the solid flexural quality of the shaft example increments with expanding age.
Objectives
To determine the Flexural Strength of Concrete, which comes into play when a road slab with
inadequate sub-grade support is subjected to wheel loads and / or there are volume changes due
to temperature / shrinking.

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Reference Standards
IS: 516-1959 – Methods of tests for strength of concrete
Equipment & Apparatus
Beam mould of size 15 x 15x 70 cm (when size of aggregate is less than 38 mm) or of size 10 x
10 x 50 cm (when size of aggregate is less than 19 mm) Tamping bar (40 cm long, weighing 2
kg and tamping section having size of 25 mm x 25 mm) Flexural test machine– The bed of the
testing machine shall be provided with two steel rollers, 38 mm in diameter, on which the
specimen is to be supported, and these rollers shall be so mounted that the distance from centre
to centre is 60 cm for 15.0 cm specimens or 40 cm for 10.0 cm specimens. The load shall be
applied through two similar rollers mounted at the third points of the supporting span that is,
spaced at 20 or 13.3 cm centre to centre. The load shall be divided equally between the two
loading rollers, and all rollers shall be mounted in such a manner that the load is applied axially
and without subjecting the specimen to any torsional stresses or restraints.

Flexural Strength Test Arrangement

Flexural testing machine

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PROCEDURE
1. Prepare the test specimen by filling the concrete into the mould in 3 layers of
approximately equal thickness. Tamp each layer 35 times using the tamping bar
as specified above. Tamping should be distributed uniformly over the entire
crossection of the beam mould and throughout the depth of each layer.
2. Clean the bearing surfaces of the supporting and loading rollers , and remove
any loose sand or other material from the surfaces of the specimen where they
are to make contact with the rollers.
3. Circular rollers manufactured out of steel having cross section with diameter 38
mm will be used for providing support and loading points to the specimens. The
length of the rollers shall be at least 10 mm more than the width of the test
specimen. A total of four rollers shall be used, three out of which shall be
capable of rotating along their own axes. The distance between the outer rollers
(i.e. span) shall be 3d and the distance between the inner rollers shall be d. The
inner rollers shall be equally spaced between the outer rollers, such that the
entire system is systematic.
4. The specimen stored in water shall be tested immediately on removal from
water; whilst they are still wet. The test specimen shall be placed in the machine
correctly centered with the longitudinal axis of the specimen at right angles to
the rollers. For moulded specimens, the mould filling direction shall be normal
to the direction of loading.
5. The load shall be applied at a rate of loading of 400 kg/min for the 15.0 cm
specimens and at a rate of 180 kg/min for the 10.0 cm specimens.

CALCULATION
The Flexural Strength or modulus of rupture (fb) is given by fb = pl/bd 2 (when a > 20.0cm for
15.0cm specimen or > 13.0cm for 10cm specimen)
Or
fb = 3pa/bd2 (when a < 20.0cm but > 17.0 for 15.0cm specimen or < 13.3 cm but > 11.0cm for
10.0cm specimen.)
Where,

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a = the distance between the line of fracture and the nearer support, measured on the center line
of the tensile side of the specimen
b = width of specimen (cm)
d = failure point depth (cm)
l = supported length (cm)
p = max. Load (kg)
REPORTS
The Flexural strength of the concrete is reported to two significant figures.
SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS:
1. Use hand gloves while, safety shoes at the time of test.
2. After test switch off the machine.
3. Keep all the exposed metal parts greased.
4. Keep the guide rods firmly fixed to the base & top plate.
5. Equipment should be cleaned thoroughly before testing & after testing.

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Chapter 7
Result analysis
7.1 General

It was stated above that the main objectives of the laboratory test specimens were to:

 Determine if a suitable workability and strength can be achieved in concrete containing coconut
shell as a partial replacement of coarse aggregate.
 Determine the rate of strength gain for the concrete with and without cors aggreagate.

In the following sections, the test results are presented and evaluated in light of the
requirements of concrete strength and workability.

Required proportioning (M 20) with w/c ratio 0.50 and procedure is followed for
sampling, mixing, moulding, compaction, curing and testing. The compressive strength of the
concrete specimens was determined by testing concrete cubes of size 100mm. All specimens
were weighed and measured to determine the area of the cube and density of the concrete. The
strength of the concrete has been determined at the ages of 7and 28 days. At each age a
minimum of three specimens were tested to ensure the accuracy of test results.

Mix ratio Cement Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate

Specimen control Cement Sand Aggregate

Specimen A Cement Sand 100%coarse aggregate+0% cs

Specimen B Cement Sand 80% coarse aggregate+ 20% cs

Specimen C Cement Sand 60% coarse aggregate + 40% cs

Specimen D Cement Sand 50% coarse aggregate + 50% cs

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Preparation of specimen

At least 3 specimens will be prepared for each parameter to be tested. The specimens are
prepared in accordance to BS 1881 Part 108:1983.The number of specimens will be
prepared is shown in table.

Table : The numbers of concrete specimen test for natural material aggregate in concrete

Compressive strength results:

Sr. no Mix Compressive strength in N/mm2

7 days Avg. 28 days Avg.

(Mpa) (Mpa)
1 0 18.67 15.75 16 16.80 25.80 20.94 21.40 22.71

2 20 13.79 14.85 13.45 14.03 18.85 19.29 19.70 19.28

3 40 11.90 12.06 11.76 11.09 16.90 17.02 17.22 17.04

4 50 10.60 10.90 9.86 10.45 15.40 15.90 15.30 15.53

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compressive strenght of concrete at 7 days

20
compressive strenght in N/mm2
18
16
14
12 Series 1
10 Series 2
8 Series 3

6
4
2
0
0% 20% 40% 50%

% replacemet of aggregate

Compressive strenght of concrete at 28days

30
compressive strenght in N/mm2

25

20
Series 1
15 Series 2
Series 3
10

0
0% 20% 40% 50%

% replacement of aggregate

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Compressive strenght of concrete

compressive strenght in N/mm2

40
35
30
25
Column1
20 28days
15
10
5
0
0% 20% 40% 50%

% Reduction of aggregate

Flexure test results

Sr.no Mix Flexure strength in N/mm2

7 days Avg. 28 days Avg

(Mpa)
(Mpa)

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1 0 2.44 2.34 2.42 2.40 4.88 4.60 4.58 4.68

2 20 2.31 2.29 2.30 2.305 4.50 4.52 4.60 4.54

3 40 2.27 2.15 2.20 2.20 4.15 4.07 4.10 4.10

4 50 2.00 1.92 1.96 1.96 3.36 3.12 3.40 3.29

Flexural strenght at 7days

2.5

2
Flexural strenght in N/mm2

1.5 Series 1
Series 2
Series 3
1

0.5

0
0% 20% 40% 50%

% Replacement of aggregate

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Flexural strenght at 28days

5
4.5
Flexural strenght in N/mm2
4
3.5
3 Series 1
2.5 Series 2
2 Series 3
1.5
1
0.5
0
0% 20% 40% 50%

% replacement of aggregate

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Flexural strenght of concrete

Flexural strenght in N/mm2

8
7
6
5
Column1
4 28days
3
2
1
0
0% 20% 40% 50%

% reduction in aggregate

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Chapter 8
Conclusion
To increase the speed of construction, enhance green construction environment we
can use lightweight concrete. The possibility exists for the partial replacement of coarse
aggregate with coconut shell to produce lightweight concrete. Coconut shell exhibits
more resistance against crushing, impact and abrasion, compared to crushed granite
aggregate. Coconut shell can be grouped under lightweight aggregate. There is no need to treat
the coconut shell before use as an aggregate except for water absorption. Coconut shell is
compatible with the cement.
Coconut shell concrete has better workability because of the smooth surface on
one side of the shells and the size of CS used in this study. The 28-days air-dry densities of CS
concrete of the typical mixes ranged from 1930 to 1970 kg/m3 and these are within the range of
structural lightweight concrete of density less than 2000 kg/m3. The flexural strength of CSC is
approximately 17.53% and 16.42% of its respective compressive strengths (26.70 N/mm2 and
25.95 N/mm2The impact resistance of coconut shell aggregate concrete is high when compared
with conventional concrete. The experimental bond strength of CSC is much higher compared
to the theoretical bond strength as stipulated by IS 456:2000 and BS 8110. In general, the bond
strength of CSC is comparable to the bond strength of normal and other lightweight aggregate
concretes. The experiments prove that coconut shells fulfill the requirements for use as
lightweight aggregate.

It is concluded that Increase in percentage replacement by coconut shell reduces

compressive strength of concrete. Increase in percentage replacement by coconut shell
increases workability of concrete.
Coconut Shell can be used as partial replacement of coarse aggregate in R.C.C concrete. It is
concluded that the Coconut Shells are more suitable as low strength-giving lightweight
aggregate when used to replace common coarse aggregate in concrete production.
 From the above researches it also found that the addition of CS decreases workability
and addition of fly ash either as cement replacement or aggregate replacement increases

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workability of CS concrete. We can also use fly ash to improve workability of CS

concrete.
 The amount of cement content may be more when coconut shell are used as an
aggregate in the production of concrete compared to conventional aggregate concrete.
 coconut shell aggregates have higher water absorption because of higher porosity in its
shell structure.
 Coconut shell can be grouped under lightweight aggregate because 28-day air-dry
densities of coconut shell aggregate concrete are less than 2000 kg/m3. Actual Density
of coconut shell is in the range of 550 - 650kg/m3 [18].
 From the experimental results and discussions of above researches on coconut shell, the
coconut shell has potential as lightweight aggregate in concrete. Also, using the
coconut shell as aggregate in concrete can reduce the material cost in construction
because of the low cost and its availability is abundance.
 Coconut Shell Concrete can be used in rural areas and places where coconut is abundant
and may also be used where the conventional aggregates are costly.

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