CE 207 MATERIAL SCIENCE AND

ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

Lecture #08-09
Mechanical Properties

Moriom Akter
Lecturer
TENSION TEST
One of the most common mechanical stress–strain tests is performed in
tension. A specimen is deformed, usually to fracture, with a gradually
increasing tensile load that is applied uniaxially along the long axis of a
specimen. A standard tensile specimen is shown in Figure.

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TENSION TEST(Cont.)
Diameter = 0.34 in
Load, F (lb) Length, l (in)
0 2.500
310 2.501
625 2.502
1265 2.505
1670 2.508
1830 2.510
2220 2.525
2890 2.575
3170 2.625
3225 2.675
3110 2.725
2810 2.775
Fracture

Schematic representation of the apparatus used to conduct tensile

stress strain tests
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ENGINEERING STRESS AND STRAIN
Engineering stress is defined by the relationship: Load, Length, stress, σ
strain, ε
F (lb) l (in) (psi)
0 2.500 0.00 0.0000
310 2.501 3306.67 0.0004
625 2.502 6666.67 0.0008
1265 2.505 13493.33 0.0020
1670 2.508 17813.33 0.0032
1830 2.510 19520.00 0.0040
Engineering strain is defined by the relationship: 2220 2.525 23680.00 0.0100
2890 2.575 30826.67 0.0300
3170 2.625 33813.33 0.0500
3225 2.675 34400.00 0.0700
3110 2.725 33173.33 0.0900
2810 2.775 29973.33 0.1100
Fracture

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TENSION TEST(Cont.)

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STRESS–STRAIN BEHAVIOR
For most metals that are stressed in tension and at
relatively low levels, stress and strain are
proportional to each other through the relationship:
This is known as Hooke’s law, and the constant of
proportionality E (GPa or psi) is the modulus of
elasticity, or Young’s modulus.
Deformation in which stress and strain are
proportional is called elastic deformation. The slope
of this linear segment corresponds to the modulus of
elasticity E. This modulus may be thought of as
stiffness, or a material’s resistance to elastic
deformation.
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STRESS–STRAIN BEHAVIOR (Cont.)
With increasing temperature, the modulus of elasticity diminishes.

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EXAMPLE PROBLEM 6.1
A piece of copper originally 305 mm (12 in.) long is pulled in tension with a
stress of 276 MPa (40,000 psi). If the deformation is entirely elastic, what
will be the resultant elongation?
Solution:

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TRUE STRESS AND STRAIN
True stress is defined as the load F divided by the
instantaneous cross-sectional area over which deformation is
occurring (i.e., the neck, past the tensile point).

True strain

In this expression, K and n are constants.

The parameter n is often termed the
strain hardening exponent and has a
value less than unity.
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ENGINEERING VS TRUE STRESS AND STRAIN
Engineering Inter-relation True

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EXAMPLE PROBLEM
6.4 A cylindrical specimen of steel having an original diameter of 12.8 mm
(0.505 in.) is tensile tested to fracture and found to have an engineering
fracture strength of 460 MPa (67,000 psi). If its cross-sectional diameter at
fracture is 10.7 mm (0.422 in.), determine the true stress at fracture.

6.5 Compute the strain-hardening exponent n in Equation for an alloy in

which a true stress of 415 MPa (60,000 psi) produces a true strain of 0.10;
assume a value of 1035 MPa (150,000 psi) for K.

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ANELASTICITY
In most engineering materials there will also exist a time-dependent elastic
strain component. That is, elastic deformation will continue after the stress
application, and upon load release some finite time is required for complete
recovery. This time-dependent elastic behavior is known as anelasticity, and
it is due to time-dependent microscopic and atomistic processes that are
attendant to the deformation. For metals the anelastic component is normally
small and is often neglected. However, for some polymeric materials its
magnitude is significant; in this case it is termed viscoelastic behavior.
strain

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POISSON’S RATIO
When a tensile stress is imposed on a metal specimen,
an elastic elongation and accompanying strain result in For isotropic
the direction of the applied stress (arbitrarily taken to materials, shear
be the z direction). As a result of this elongation, there and elastic
will be constrictions in the lateral (x and y) directions moduli are
perpendicular to the applied stress; from these related to each
contractions, the compressive strains and may be other and to
determined. If the applied stress is uniaxial (only in the Poisson’s ratio
z direction), and the material is isotropic, then A according to
parameter termed Poisson’s ratio is defined as the
ratio of the lateral and axial strains, or

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EXAMPLE PROBLEM 6.2
A tensile stress is to be applied along the long axis of a cylindrical brass rod
that has a diameter of 10 mm. Determine the magnitude of the load required
to produce a 2.5× 10−3 mm change in diameter if the deformation is entirely
elastic. (E= 97 × 103 GPa; ν = 0.3)
Solution:

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PLASTIC DEFORMATION & TENSILE PROPERTIES
For most metallic materials, elastic deformation persists only to strains of
about 0.005. As the material is deformed beyond this point, the stress is no
longer proportional to strain (Hooke’s law, ceases to be valid), and
permanent, nonrecoverable, or plastic deformation occurs.
A structure or component that has plastically deformed, or experienced a
permanent change in shape, may not be capable of functioning as intended.
It is therefore desirable to know the stress level at which plastic deformation
begins, or where the phenomenon of yielding occurs.
For metals that experience this gradual elastic–plastic transition, the point of
yielding may be determined as the initial departure from linearity of the
stress–strain curve; this is sometimes called the proportional limit, as
indicated by point P.
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PLASTIC DEFORMATION & TENSILE PROPERTIES (Cont.)

(a) Typical stress– strain

behavior for a metal showing
elastic and plastic
deformations, the
proportional limit P, and the
yield strength as determined
using the 0.002 strain offset
method.
(b) Representative stress–strain
behavior found for some
steels demonstrating the
yield point phenomenon.
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PLASTIC DEFORMATION & TENSILE PROPERTIES (Cont.)
A straight line is constructed parallel to the elastic portion of the stress–strain
curve at some specified strain offset, usually 0.002. The stress corresponding
to the intersection of this line and the stress–strain curve as it bends over in
the plastic region is defined as the yield strength σ𝒚 .

Some steels and other materials exhibit two yield points. At the upper yield
point, plastic deformation is initiated with an actual decrease in stress.
Continued deformation fluctuates slightly about some constant stress value,
termed the lower yield point; stress subsequently rises with increasing strain.
For metals that display this effect, the yield strength is taken as the average
stress that is associated with the lower yield point, since it is well defined
and relatively insensitive to the testing procedure.
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PLASTIC DEFORMATION & TENSILE PROPERTIES (Cont.)
After yielding, the stress
necessary to continue plastic
deformation in metals
increases to a maximum,
point M and then decreases
to the eventual fracture,
point F. The tensile strength
TS (MPa or psi) is the stress
at the maximum on the
engineering stress–strain
curve.

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EXAMPLE PROBLEM 6.3
Mechanical Property Determinations from Stress–Strain Plot: From the
tensile stress–strain behavior for the brass specimen shown in Figure,
determine the following:
(a) The modulus of elasticity
(b) The yield strength at a strain offset of 0.002
(c) The maximum load that can be sustained by a cylindrical specimen
having an original diameter of 12.8 mm (0.505 in.)
(d) The change in length of a specimen originally 250 mm (10 in.) long that
is subjected to a tensile stress of 345 MPa (50,000 psi) (Hint: Check whether
given stress is greater than yield stress. If yes, must use graph.)

Full Solution in Book

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EXAMPLE PROBLEM 6.3 (Cont.)

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DUCTILITY
Ductility is another important mechanical property. It is a measure of the
degree of plastic deformation that has been sustained at fracture. A material
that experiences very little or no plastic deformation upon fracture is termed
brittle.
Ductility may be expressed quantitatively as
either percent elongation (%EL) or percent
reduction in area (%RA).

𝑙𝑓 =fracture length; 𝑙𝑜 =original gauge length

𝐴𝑓 = Cross−sectional area at the point of fracture
𝐴𝑜 =Original cross-sectional area
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EXAMPLE PROBLEM
6.4 A cylindrical specimen of steel having an original diameter of 12.8 mm
(0.505 in.) is tensile tested to fracture and found to have an engineering
fracture strength of 460 MPa (67,000 psi). If its cross-sectional diameter at
fracture is 10.7 mm (0.422 in.), determine The ductility in terms of percent
reduction in area.

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RESILIENCE
Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy
when it is deformed elastically and then, upon unloading,
to have this energy recovered. The associated property is
the modulus of resilience, 𝑈𝑟 which is the strain energy
per unit volume required to stress a material from an
unloaded state up to the point of yielding. Assuming a
linear elastic region,

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TOUGHNESS
Toughness is a mechanical term that is used in several contexts; loosely
speaking, it is a measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy up to
fracture.

Toughness= Area under the

curve (shaded area)

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EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Two specimens (Specimen A & Specimen B) have been tested for tension
and resulting graphs are shown in Figure: 2. The initial length of each
specimen is 10 inch and diameter of each is 0.5 inch. Analyze the energy
absorbing capacity of the materials up to permanent deformation and up to
fracture.

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ELASTIC RECOVERY AFTER PLASTIC DEFORMATION

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ELASTIC RECOVERY AFTER PLASTIC DEFORMATION (Cont.)
Upon release of the load during a stress–strain test, some fraction of the total
deformation is recovered as elastic strain. During the unloading cycle, the
curve traces a near straight-line path from the point of unloading (point D),
and its slope is virtually identical to the modulus of elasticity, or parallel to
the initial elastic portion of the curve. The magnitude of this elastic strain
regained during unloading is the strain recovery. If the load is reapplied, the
curve will traverse essentially the same linear portion in the direction
opposite to unloading; yielding will again occur at the unloading stress level
where the unloading began. There will also be an elastic strain recovery
associated with fracture.

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REFFERENCE
Materials Science and Engineering An Introduction by William D. Callister,
Jr. (seventh edition) Chapter 6

PRACTICE MATERIAL
Question and problems: 6.3 to 6.10, 6.14 to 6.33, 6.36 to 6.41, 6.44, 6.45

ANY QUESTION?

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