ElEctronics

GradE 11- sciEncE

lEsson 11

Sumithra Gunasekara

B.Sc./M.Ed./Marking Examiner
1

Nalanda college-Colombo
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Compare the differences between conductors and insulators

Conductors Insulators
 Materials that conduct electricity  Materials that do not conduct electricity
 They have free electrones or ions  They do not have free electrones or ions

Eg: Metals ( Ag,Cu,Al…steel ,)

Carbon (Graphite) -non metal Eg: non-metals
Some solutions (NaCl ,acedulatdwater Purified water
Diluted water Plastics
Sea water ) Rubber
Wood
diamond
oil

Semi -conductors

Materials that conduct small amount of electricity are called semi-conductors

Silicon (Si) elements

Germanium (Ge)

Lead sulphide

Gallium Arsenide Compounds

Indium Phosphate

Q1) List out some electronic devices that consist of semi-conductors

Computers, mobile phones, TV, joy sticks , Radio,

Q2) what are the advantages of using semi-conductors in above appliances?

 Objects become small

 Cheapable
 High durability
 Efficiency is high (less electricity consumption)

How semi-conductors are formed?

There are 2 types of semi-conductors

1. Intrinsic semiconductors
2. Extrinsic semiconductors
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Intrinsic semiconductors
Materials such as silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) in their crystelline form are known as intrinsic
semoiconductors

1) Which of the group in the periodic table belongs to Si and Ge?

Element Atomic number Electronic configuration Group

Si 14 2,8,4 iv

Ge 32 2,8,18,4 iv

2) How are these cryatals formed?

By making covalent bonds

3) Explain how covalent bonds in silicon Lattice are formed

By sharing 4 electrones

Si is mostly used for making semiconductors because

 Si can be easily dopped
 Cheap element

Consider the silicon (Si) Lattice at 0 K (zero kelvin)

Si lattice at 0 K Si lattice at temperature above 0 K

Temperature increases kinetic energy of electrons increases Breaking of

the bonds increases Increase the no. of free electrons and no of holes
conduct electricity
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 4)An electron …deficiency……………….. can be observed at the position that the free electrons
occupied previously. These positions are called as …holes………………and they are equivalent to
…positive………………..charges.

Electrons act as negative charge carriers……………and …holes…………..act as positive charge

…cariers…………………

Since a hole is generated in the breaking of a bond to release an electron, the no.of carrier electrons
present in a semiconductor is equal to no.of holes. Therefore, the semiconductor lattice is
electrically neutral………………

When an electric…current ……………is applied across a semiconductor …holes…………………. move from

positive to negative potential, while …electrons………………. move from the negative to positive
potential and convectional current flows from (+) to (-) potential.

Compare the differences between metallic conductors and semiconductors of electricity?

Metallic conductors semiconductors

 Large amount of electricity flows  Small amount of electricity flows
 There are metallic bonds among atoms  There are covalent bonds among atoms
 Bonds among atoms are strong  Bonds are weak
 Electrons act as charge carriers  Electrons and holes act as charge carriers

Extrinsic Semiconductors
Definr the word extriinsic semiconductors?

Semi conductors whose conductivity has been increased by doping it with another element are
known as extrinsic semi conductors

Doping
The process converting semi conductors into conductors by mixing with another element is known
as doping.

Semi conductors

Intrinsic Semi conductors Extrinsic Semi conductors

p-type Semi conductors n-type Semi conductors

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 p-type Semi conductors n-type Semi conductors

element Ato.no. Electronic con. element Ato.no. Electronic con.

B 5 2,3 p 15 2,8,5
Al 13 2,8,3 As 33 2,8,18,5
Ga 31 2,8,18,3 Sb (antemony)

This type semi conductors can be made by This type semi conductors can be made by
doping with elements in groug iii doping with elements in group v

When Si is doping When Si is doping

holes
Free
electron

Covalent bond

 B has 3 electrons in valency shell  P has 5 electrons in valency shell

 When connected with bond, a hole occurs  But only 4 electrons form the bond
near a single bond. remaining act as free electrons.

 Hole takes a (+) charge due to electron  As excess (-) charged electrons are act as
deficiency. charge carriers ,they are known as n type
 As excess holes are present, they are semi-conductors
called p type semi-conductors
 Since, holes that can receive electrons are  Electrons are donated to the lattice by
produced by group iii elements, they are group v elements and they are known as
known as acceptor atoms donor atoms

Q/ compare the differences between p-type and n-type semi conductors

p-type semi conductors n-type semi conductors

 Dopped with 3rd group eements  Dopped with 5th group eements

 Positively charged  Negatively charged

 Charge carriers are holes  Charge carriers are electrons

 Contains acceptor atoms  Contains donor atoms

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p-n Junction

 P-N junction can be made by joining a p type semiconductor and a n type semiconductor in
a special way.
 p-n junction diode can be connected to a metal connector with a material such as plastic or
glass. This is an electronic device

Eg – IN 4001

IN 4007

Potential barrier

Explain the action of p-n junction

Diffusion Depletion Region

 P type semi-conductor rich in …holes………………..

 N type semi-conductor rich in …free electrons……………….
 As soon as p-n junction is formed, some amount of holes in p region diffuses towards n
region and some amount of free electrons diffuses towards p region.

 Due to this diffusion, electrons and holes recombine forming a region devoid of charges near
the junction. This is known as depletion layer of depletion region.
 Extra electrons in p side gives negative charge while extra holes in n side gives positive
charge forming a voltage difference across the junction.
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 This potential difference is known as potential barrier

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 Potential barrier in silicon is 0.7v and in germanium is 0.3v

Junction diode cathode (n)

anode (P) silver line Silver line

Out appearance of diode

Internal structure symbol

Biasing a p-n junction

Applying a potential difference across the p-n junction using an external electric source is known as
biasing
Depending on the direction of the bias voltage across the junction, there are 2 types of biasing

1.forward bias

2.Reverse bias

Activity:

Observing the biasing process of diode

Observation:

Figure a : bulb lights up

Figure b : bulb does not light up
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Conclusion : a circuit is in forward bias while b circuit is in reversed bias

Forward biased p-n junction

 Positive terminal of battery should be connected with p type semi-conductor while negative
terminal of battery should be connected with n type semiconductor
 Holes in the p region repel by positive potential towards the junction while electrons in the n
region repel by negative potential towards junction
 Depletion layer becomes narrow
 If an external electric supply (VB) is lesser than 0.7 V in Si - VB < 0.7 -

Depletion layer decrease

Very small current may flow
 If an external electric supply (VB) is higher than 0.7 V in Si - VB > 0.7 -

depletion layer disappears

considerable current will flow

Reversed biased p-n junction

 Positive terminal of battery should be connected with n type semi-conductor while negative
terminal of battery should be connected with p type semiconductor
 Free electrons in n region attract towards the positive terminal of the battery while holes in p
region attract towards negative terminal of the battery
 Hence, broadening the depletion layer.
 So, no current flows across the junction
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 This is known as reverse bias

Q/compare the differences between forward bias and reverse bias of a diode

Forward bias Reversed bias

 Having thin depletion layer or no depletion  Having a broad depletion layer

layer
 Current passes  No current passes
 (+) terminal of the battery is connected to  (+) terminal of the battery is connected to
the p type semiconductor the n type semiconductor
 (-) terminal of the battery is connected to  (-) terminal of the battery is connected to
the n type semiconductor the p type semiconductor
 Less resistance  High resistance

Q/ (i) what is the main function of a diode?

Taking the current towards one direction

(ii) As which instrument it works i n a circuit?

As a switch

Forward bias act as switch on posotion

Reversed bias act as switch off posotion

Q/Draw the diagrams to show the wave patterns of direct current and alternating current
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Rectification
converting alternating current into direct current is known as rectification

There are 2 types of rectification patterns

1. half wave rectification

2. full wave rectification

Half wave Rectification

 Voltage is lowered to desired value using a step-down transformer

 Then it should be connected to a single diode rectifier circuit
 current flows through the diode only to the XL direction
 Then output can get always only half of a cycle of current (+ half)
 This is known as Half wave rectification

Draw the wave pattern for half wave rectification

Plot a graph to show that the current flows through R when only the terminals of diode is changed
while all the other parts of the circuit remain constant
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Full wave rectification
The process of both cycles of alternating current made to flow in the same direction is known as full
wave rectification

Bridge circuit

The circuit consist of 4 diodes as a bridge which is used to convert the AC current into DC current is
known as bridge circuit

By using a bridge circuit full wave rectification can be done

How full wave rectification is done

When a 4.5v battery and a 2.5V torch bulb is connected to the circuit, current will flow through
following path

Flowing path of current X D1 P B Q D3 Y (bulb illuminates)

If the terminals of the battery is changed (Negative terminal is connected to the Y and
positive terminal is connected to the x)

Flowing path of current Y D2 P B Q D4 X (bulb illuminates)

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In both events bulb illuminate

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Both cycles of the alternating current through the bulb is made to flow in the same direction
In half wave or full wave rectification, current flows in one direction. However, its magnitude
(voltage or current) varies between zero and a maximum value

Smoothing
 Process of reducing variation of rectified voltage by connection a capacitor parallel to the output
terminal is known as smoothing.
 When the voltage supplied by the diode gradually increases from zero, capacitor gets charged.
 When the voltage drops back after reaching the maximum value, charge stored in the capacitor
is released. So, bulb lights up constantly

Capacitor

Smoothing in Half Wave Rectification Smoothing in Full Wave Rectification

Wave pattern – Before Smoothing Wave pattern – Before Smoothing

-

Wave pattern – After Smoothing Wave pattern – After Smoothing

-
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Usage of diodes
1. A rectifier diode can be used to prevent the damage caused to a direct current appliance by
supplying power from the positive and negative terminals incorrectly.

Protecting a device from damages due to incorrectly connected terminals

2. To get light by Light emitting diode (LED)

 When the p-n junction diode is in forward bias, free electrons pass across the junction and
bind with holes.
 At that time these electrons emit part of their energy to the environment.
 This type of diode is known as LED (Light emitting diode)
 Although a normal silicon diode release heat, it can be converted in to light energy by adding
impurity to silicon

Eg: Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)and Gallium Phosphide (GaP) can be used to obtain red, green
,yellow and blue colours as well as infra-red radiation.

There are 3 factors that determine the colour

 Type of semiconducting material
 Type of substance(impurity) using for doping process
 Level of doping

Only 1 colour is given by LED. The cover is coloured to make it possible to identify its colour when
it is not lighted
When the current passing through the LED is increased, its brightness also increases. Lifetime
decreases with brightness

Ho w to identify the terminals of a LED?

1. longer terminal is anode
2. Terminal near the cut is cathode

Q/ Draw the circuit diagrams for following instances

(a) To light the LED (on) (b) to unlight the LED(off)
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Q/ Connect 2 LED s to a circuit with 2 dry cells to illuminate LEDs alternatively when the terminals
of batteries are interchanged

Q/Mention some instances of using LEDs

 LED screens
 Advertising boards
 In vesak pandols
 Decoration purposes
 Vehicle lamps
 Color lights
 Household lighting systems
 Identify false currency in banks
 For security purposes

Q/ What are the reasons for high demand for LEDs?

 Less current is used ( 10-15 mAh)
 Low power consumption ( 8-10 W)
 Low cost
 Available in various colors
 High lifetimes (50000 Hrs)

Solar Cells
 Solar cells are also constructed using p-n junctions
 Therefore, solar cells are diodes
 When sunlight in incident on the p-n junction, a small electromotive force (voltage) is
generated across the junction
 The voltage of a solar cell is 0.5 V
 Large no. of solar cells connects together in series and parallel to make a solar panel

Instances of using solar cells

 In artificial satellites
 To light up houses and factories
 In spacecrafts and space centers
 In some vehicles
 Street lamps
 In some wrist watches

Advantages of using solar cells

 Eco friendly
 Renewable energy is used
 Reduce the dependency of fossil fuels
 Income method
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Transistors
In 1965 American scientist William shockley ,Walton Britain ,John bardeen made the first transistor
in the world

Out appearance Symbol

There are two types of transistors

o npn transistor
o pnp transistor

npn transistor pnp transistor

There is a p portion in between 2 n portions There is a n portion in between 2 p portions

Current flows from base to emitter Current flows from emitter to base
Base is positive Base is negative
Emitter is connected to negative terminal of the Emitter is connected to positive terminal of
cell the cell

Define the following words

1. Emitter -Terminal which is connected to the high doping area
2.Collector- Terminal which is connected to the less doping area
3. Base- Terminal which is connected to middle point

Functions of transistor
1.Act as amplifier
2.Act as switch
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Amplifier process of transistor
Activity 1:

L1

IC

IB

IE
 BE junction is forward biased and BC junction is reversed biased. Hence, IC ,IE and IB currents
will flow
 IB and IC currents occur due to the movement of electrons.
 At the same time free electrons will flow to the base and combine with holes there.
 Flow of current is stopped due to that reason.
 Negative chargers at the base are neutralized by small I B current

Note: IE and IC currents are of milliampere range while IB is micro amphere range

Important feature of Transistor is ability to control IC current by small IB current

Observation:

Switch L1 L2
On
Off

Activity 2:
Open and close the switches S1 and S2 as indicated in the table and observe the brightness of the
bulbs and fill in the table
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 S1 S2 Bulb L1 Bulb L2
Lighting up Brightness Lighting up Brightness
off Off -- - ---
on off less ----
off on -- ----
on on less high

Conclusion:

 The current flows in the output circuit only when the current flows in the input circuit
 Even when a voltage is given to the output circuit the current does not flow in the output
circuit unless there is a current flowing in the input circuit
 When a small current flows in the input (when L1 lights up with a low brightness) a large
current allows in the output (L2 lights up with the higher brightness)
 (The input current is known as the base current IB and output current is known as the collector
current Ic)
 A small current IB in the input can be amplified into large current Ic in the output using a
transistor This is the process known as current amplification

Signal amplifier

Purpose of connecting a capacitor: to give the alternative signal to the base

When a small signal from an audio frequency (AF)signal generator is given to points A and B and
amplified output signal can be obtained.

Switching a action of a transistor 17

Instead of mechanical switch, transistor can be used as an electronic switch according to a certain
sensation.
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Method

 Close the switch s. Observe the voltmeter reading and the lighting up and the brightness of the
bulb
 Turn the volume controller gradually to the left, so as to increase the resistance while observing
the voltmeter reading and the bulb
Observation:

1.bulb begins to light up when the voltmeter reading is about 0.7V

2. bulb has the maximum brightness when the voltage is about 0.8V

Conclusion:
When the voltage difference between the emitter and base is less than 0.7V no IC current
When the voltage difference between the emitter and base is about 0.7V IC current
begins to flow

When the voltage difference between the emitter and base is over 0.7V I C current
reaches maximum

voltage difference between B-E terminal < 0.7V -Transistor acts as an open(off)switch
voltage difference between B-E terminal > 0.7V - Transistor acts as an closed (on)switch

Q/ How to design a switch circuit that automatically lights up in the darkness

LDR- Day time-(at light) -Resistance reduces

Night time- (at dark)-Resistance increases

At light resistance of LDR reduces, current flows through it Bulb does not light up
At dark, resistance of LDR increases, current does not flows through it Bulb lights up
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01)

02)

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