Unit 1: Introduction

1.1 Network as an infrastructure for data communication

Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and a receiver via
form of transmission media such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur, the
communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up of a combination
of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs).

The best-known computer network is the Internet. The communication system that consists
of the interconnection between two or more devices is referred to as a Network. A network
is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node
can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network.

Network Infrastructure
▪ Network infrastructure is the hardware and software resources of an entire network
that enable network connectivity, communication, operations and management of
an enterprise network
▪ Provides the communication path and services between users, processes,
applications, services and external networks/the internet
▪ Typically, part of the IT infrastructure found in most enterprise IT environments
▪ The entire network infrastructure is interconnected, and can be used for internal
communications, external communications or both

Data Communication Components

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 ▪ Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms
of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video
▪ Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on
▪ Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on
▪ Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a
message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media
include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber- optic cable, and radio waves
▪ Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communications. It represents
an agreement between the communication devices. Without a protocol, two devices
may be connected but not communicating.

Characteristics of Data Communications

The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics:
delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.

▪ Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be
received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user
▪ Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered
in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable
▪ Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they
are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significant
delay
▪ Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in
the delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets
are sent every 30 ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30ms delay and others with
40 ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.

Data Transmission Modes

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Simplex:
Data transmission mode in which the data can flow only in one direction, i.e., the
communication is unidirectional. In this mode, a sender can only send data but cannot
receive it. Similarly, a receiver can only receive data but cannot send it. For Example, Radio
and TV transmission, keyboard, mouse, etc.

Half-duplex:
Data transmission mode in which the data can flow in both directions but in one direction at
a time. It is also referred to as Semi-Duplex. In other words, each station can both transmit
and receive the data but not at the same time. When one device is sending the other can
only receive and vice-versa. For Example, Walkie-Talkie, Internet Browsers, etc.

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Full-Duplex:
Data transmission mode in which the data can flow in both directions at the same time. It is
bi-directional in nature. It is two-way communication in which both the stations can
transmit and receive the data simultaneously. For Example, a Telephone Network, in which
both the persons can talk and listen to each other simultaneously.

Network Criteria

A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these
are performance, reliability, and security.
Performance: Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and
response time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from
one device to another. Responsetime is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a
response. The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the
number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected
hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
Reliability: Network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a
link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,
protecting data fromdamage and development, and implementing policies and
procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.

Network Topology:

The term network topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. One or

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 more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a
network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking
devices (usually called nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologies possible:
mesh, star, bus, and ring.

Mesh:
In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts. This topology has hosts
in point-to-point connection with every other host or may also have hosts which are in
point- to-point connection to few hosts only.

Advantages:

1. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load,
thus eliminatingthe traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by multiple
devices.

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 2. A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the
entire system.
3. There is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message travel along a
dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other
users from gaining access to messages.
4. Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy. Traffic can be
routed to avoid links with suspected problems. This facility enables the network manager
to discover the precise location of the fault and aids in finding its cause and solution.
Disadvantages:

1. Disadvantage of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling because every device must
be connectedto every other device.
2. Installation and reconnection are difficult.
3. The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space (in walls, ceilings,
or floors) canaccommodate.
4. The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively
expensive.

Star:
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a
mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The
controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the
data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connecteddevice.

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Advantages:

1. A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device needs only
one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others.
2. Easy to install and reconfigure.

3. Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves, and deletions involve only
one connection:between that device and the hub.
4. Other advantage includes robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other
links remain active. This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification and fault
isolation. As long as the hub is working, it can be used to monitor link problems and
bypass defective links.
Disadvantages:

One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one
single point, thehub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead. Although a star
requires far less cable than a mesh,each node must be linked to a central hub. For this
reason, often more cabling is required in a star than in some other topologies (such as ring
or bus).

Bus:
A bus topology is multipoint. One long cable act as a backbone to link all the devices in a
network. Nodesare connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a
connection running between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that
either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact
with the metallic core. As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is
transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels fartherand
farther. For this reason, there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and on
the distance between those taps.

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Advantages:
Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation. Backbone cable can be laid along
the most efficient path, then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths. In
this way, a bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies. In a star, for example, four
network devices in the same room requirefour lengths of cable reaching all the way to the
hub. In a bus, this redundancy is eliminated. Only the backbone cable stretches through
the entire facility. Each drop line has to reach only as far as the nearestpoint on the
backbone.
Disadvantages:
Disadvantages include difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is usually designed to
be optimallyefficient at installation. It can therefore be difficult to add new devices. Signal
reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. This degradation can be controlled by
limiting the number and spacing of devices connected to a given length of cable. Adding new
devices may therefore require modification or replacement of the backbone. In addition, a
fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between devices on the same
side of the problem. The damaged area reflects signals back in the directionof origin,
creating noise in both directions.

Ring:

In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the
two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from
device to device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a
repeater. When a device receives a signal intendedfor another device, its repeater
regenerates the bits and passes them along.

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Advantages:

A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its
immediate neighbors(either physically or logically). To add or delete a device requires
changing only two connections. The only constraints are media and traffic considerations
(maximum ring length and number of devices). Inaddition, fault isolation is simplified.
Generally, in a ring, a signal is circulating at all times. If one devicedoes not receive a
signal within a specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the network
operator to the problem and its location.
Disadvantages:
Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such
as a disabled station) can disable the entire network. This weakness can be solved by
using a dual ring or a switchcapable of closing off the break. Ring topology was
prevalent when IBM introduced its local-area network Token Ring. Today, the need for
higher-speed LANs has made this topology less popular.
Tree:
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchicaltopology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

In this topology, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which
contains the repeater.The data flows from top to bottom i.e., from the central hub to
secondary and then to the devices or frombottom to top i.e., devices to secondary hub
and then to the central hub.

Advantages:

 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it increases the
distance that istravel by the signal to come to the devices.

 It allows the network to get isolate and also prioritize from different
computers.

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Disadvantages:

 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.

 The cost is high because of cabling

1.2 Application of Computer Networks

Networking of computers provides a communication link between the users, and provides
access to information. Networking of computers has several applications, described as
follows:
Resource Sharing: Share one hardware and software among multiple users. Hardware
includes printers, disks, fax machines, etc. computing devices and software includes virtual
machine etc.
Information Sharing: Share Information over the network, and it provides search capabilities
such as WWW. Over the network, a single information can be shared among the many users
over the internet.
Communication: Communication includes email, calls, message broadcast etc.
Entertainment: Uses computer networks widely. Some of the Entertainment industries are
video on demand, multi-person real-time simulation games, movie/TV programs, etc.
Back-up: Used to take back-up of critical data. In situations where there is a requirement of
always-on computer, another computer on the network can take over in case of failure of
one computer.
E-Commerce: A goal that is starting to become more important in businesses is doing
business with consumers over the Internet. Airlines, bookstores and music vendors have
discovered that many customers like the convenience of shopping from home.
Retrieving Remote Information: Users can retrieve remote information on a variety of
topics. The information is stored in remote databases to which the user gains access
through information systems like the World Wide Web.
VoIP: VoIP or Voice over Internet protocol has revolutionized telecommunication systems.
Through this, telephone calls are made digitally using Internet Protocols instead of the
regular analog phone lines.

1.3 Network Architecture

Network architecture is the design of a computer network. It is a framework for the specification
of a network's physical components and their functional organization and configuration, its
operationalprinciples and procedures, as well as communication protocols used.

There are two major types of network architectures:

 Peer-To-Peer Architecture
 Client/Server Architecture

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 Peer-To-Peer Architecture

 In a peer-to-peer network, tasks are allocated to every device on the network.

 Furthermore, there is no real hierarchy in this network, all computers are considered
equal andall have the same abilities to use the resources available on this network.
 Instead of having a central server which would act as the shared drive, each computer
that’s connected to this network would act as the server for the files stored on it.

Advantages of Peer-To-Peer Network:

 It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.

 If one computer stops working but, other computers will continue working.
 It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer
manages itself.Disadvantages of Peer-To-Peer Network:

 In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system.
Therefore, itcannot back up the whole data as the data is different in different
locations.
 Security and data backups are to be done to each individual computer.
 As the numbers of computers increases on a P2P network; performance, security,
and accessbecome a major headache.

Client/Server Architecture

 Client-server architecture, architecture of a computer network in which many clients

(remote processors) request and receive service from a centralized server (host
computer).
 In a client/server network, a centralized, really powerful computer(server) act as a hub in
which other computers or workstations(clients) can connect to. This server is the heart of
the system, which manages and provides resources to any client that requests them.
 A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.
 A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer, etc.

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  All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1
wants tosend some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the
permission. Theserver sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication
with the client 2.

Advantages of a client/server network

 Resources and data security are controlled through the server.

 Not restricted to a small number of computers.
 Server can be accessed anywhere and across multiple platforms
 Data backup is easy and cost effective as there is no need to manage the backup on
each computer
 Performance is better as the response time is greatly improves because the server
is more powerful computer than the other computers in the network

Disadvantages of a client/server network

 Can become very costly due to the need of a server as well as networking devices such as
hubs,routers, and switches.
 If and when the server goes down, the entire network will be affected.
 Technical staff needed to maintain and ensure network functions efficiently.

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Differences Between Client-Server & Peer-to-Peer

Basis Client-Server Peer-to-Peer

There is a specific server and

Clients and server are not distinguished; each
Basic specific clients connected to the
node act as client and server
server

Client request for service and Each node can request for services and can
Service
server respond with the service also provide the services

Focus Sharing the information Connectivity

Data is stored in a centralized
Data Each peer has its own data
server

Expense Expensive to implement Less expensive to implement

suffers if the number of peers increases in
Stability More stable and scalable
the system
When several clients request for As the services are provided by several
Server the services simultaneously, a servers distributed in the peer-to-peer
server can get bottlenecked system, a server in not bottlenecked

1.4 Types of Computer Network

Personal Area Network (PAN)

The smallest and most basic type of network, Computer network that connects
computers/devices within the range of an individual person. PAN provides a network range
within a person’s range typically within a range of 10 meters(33 feet). Typically involves a
computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) and other and other
entertainment devices like speakers, video game consoles etc.

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Local Area Network (LAN)
▪ Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area
such as building, office
▪ LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable etc
▪ It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as switch, network
adapters, and ethernet cables
▪ Data is transferred at an extremely faster rate
▪ Provides higher security

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 Characteristics of LAN:

 LANs are private networks, not subject to external control

 Simple and better performance
 Work in a restricted geographical area

Advantages:

 Resource sharing
 Software applications sharing
 Easy and Cheap communication
 Data Security
 Internet sharing

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

▪ Network that covers a larger geographic area by interconnecting a different LAN to
form a larger network
▪ Mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range
▪ Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables
▪ Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications

Advantages:
▪ Extremely efficient and provide fast communication
▪ Good backbone for larger networks and provides greater access to WAN

Disadvantages:
▪ Complex, more cabling required and expensive

Wide Area Network (WAN)

▪ Network that extends over a large geographical area such as states or countries
▪ Not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large geographical area through a
telephone line, fiber optic cable or satellite links

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 ▪ Internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world
▪ Widely used in the field of Business, government, and education

Advantages:
Geographical area: A WAN provides a large geographical area. Suppose if the branch of our
office is in a different city then we can connect with them through WAN
Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not need to
buy the emails, files or back up servers
Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the programmers
get the updated files within seconds
Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web application
like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype etc
Sharing of software and resources: we can share the software and other resources like a hard
drive, RAM
Global Business: We can do the business over the internet globally
High bandwidth: High bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn increases the
productivity

Disadvantages:
Security issue: More security issues as compared to LAN and MAN network as all the
technologies are combined together that creates the security problem
Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet which can be
changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used. Some people can inject
the virus in our system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus
High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves the
purchasing of routers, switches
Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult

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1.5 Protocols and Standards

Protocol is the set of rule and standard is agreed upon rules. These are the two widely used
terms innetworking.

Protocols:
In Order to make communication successful between devices, some rules and procedures
should be agreed upon at the sending and receiving ends of the system such rules and
procedures are called as Protocols. Different types of protocols are used for different types
of communication. For communication to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol. A
protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A protocol defines what is
communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated.

The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.

 Syntax. The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order
in whichthey are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of
data to be theaddress of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver,
and the rest of the stream to be the message itself.

 Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a
particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that
interpretation? For example, does an address identify the route to be taken or the final
destination of the message?

 Timing. The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how
fast theycan be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver
can process dataat only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and some data
will be lost.

Standards
Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market for
equipment manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and international interoperability of data
and telecommunications technology and processes. Standards provide guidelines to
manufacturers, vendors,government agencies, and other service providers to ensure the kind of
interconnectivity necessary in today's marketplace and in international communications. Data
communication standards fall into two categories: de facto (meaning "by fact" or "by convention")
and de jure (meaning "by law" or "by regulation").

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  De facto. Standards that have not been approved by an organized body but have been
adopted as standards through widespread use are de facto standards. De facto standards
are often established originally by manufacturers who seek to define the functionality of a
new product ortechnology.

De jure. Those standards that have been legislated by an officially recognized body are de jure
standards

Standard Organization
Standards are developed through the cooperation of standards creation committees, forums, and
governmentregulatory agencies.

International Organization for Standardization (ISO): The ISO is a multinational body whose
membership is drawn mainly from the standards creation committees of various governments
throughout the world. The ISO is active in developing cooperation in the fields of scientific,
technological, and economic activity.
International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T): This
committee was devoted to the research and establishment of standards for
telecommunications in general and for phone and data systems in particular.
American National Standards Institute (ANSI): Despite its name, the American National
Standards Institute is a completely private, nonprofit corporation not affiliated with the U.S.
federal government. However, all ANSI activities are undertaken with the welfare of the United
States and its citizens occupying primary importance.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): It is the largest professional engineering
society inthe world. International in scope, it aims to advance theory, creativity, and product
quality in the fields of electrical engineering, electronics, and radio as well as in all related
branches of engineering. As one of its goals, the IEEE oversees the development and adoption
of international standards for computing and communications.
Electronic Industries Association (EIA): Aligned with ANSI, it is a nonprofit organization devoted to
the promotion of electronics manufacturing concerns. Its activities include public awareness
education and efforts in addition to standards development. In the field of information technology,
the EIA has made significant contributions by defining physical connection interfaces and electronic
signaling specifications for data communication.

1.6 The OSI Reference Model

An Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model is a set of protocols that allows any two different
systemsto communicate regardless of their underlying architecture. The purpose of the OSI Model
is to show howto facilitate communication between different systems without requiring changes
to the logic of the underlying hardware and software. The OSI Model is not a protocol; it is a
model for understanding and designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust, and
interoperable. The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that
allows communication between all types of computersystems. It consists of seven separate but
related layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving information across a
network.

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 Figure: 7 layers of the OSI model

Figure: The interaction between layers in the OSI

model

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Physical Layer:
▪ The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one
node to another node
▪ It is the first layer of the OSI model
▪ It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection
▪ It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications
▪ Whatever data comes to this layer is converted in binary format, i.e. 0’s and 1’s.
After converting it, send data to the Data-link layer
▪ Resources such as network hubs, cabling, repeaters, network adapters or modems

Data Link Layer:

▪ Synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted over the physical layer
▪ Responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames
▪ Defines the format of the data on the network
▪ Encompasses two sub-layers of its own
– First, media access control (MAC), provides flow control and multiplexing for
device transmissions over a network
– Second, the logical link control (LLC), provides flow and error control over the
physical medium as well as identifies line protocols

Network Layer:
▪ Deliver the individual packets from the source to the destination located in different
network
▪ Determines the best path to move data from source to the destination
▪ Finds the destination by using logical addresses
▪ Acts as a network controller. It manages the subnet traffic

Transport Layer:
▪ Responsible for the end to end delivery of the complete message
▪ Receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known
as segments
▪ Ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which they are sent and there
is no duplication of data
▪ Regulates the size, sequencing, and ultimately the transfer of data between systems
and hosts

Session Layer:
▪ Establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction between communicating
devices
▪ A session or connection between machines is set up, managed and terminated
▪ Allows two systems to start communication with each other in half-duplex or full-
duplex
▪ Synchronization and recovery

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Presentation Layer:
▪ Also called the Translation layer
▪ Mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged
between the two systems
▪ While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to be ready for the
application layer
▪ Performs Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.

Application Layer:
▪ Serves as a window for users and application processes to access network service
▪ Sees network services provided to end-user applications such as a web browser or
Office 365
▪ Identifies communication partners, resource availability, and synchronizes
communication
▪ Also called Desktop layer

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Summary of Layers:

1.7 The TCP/IP Protocol Suite

The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) protocol suite was defined as having
four layers: host-to-network, internet, transport, and application. However, when TCP/IP is
compared to OSI, we can say that the host-to-network layer is equivalent to the combination of
the physical and data link layers. The internet layer is equivalent to the network layer, and the
application layer is roughly doing the job of the session, presentation, and application layers with
the transport layer in TCP/IP taking care of part of the duties of the session layer.

TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of which provides a specific
functionality; however, the modules are not necessarily interdependent. Whereas the OSI model
specifieswhich functions belong to each of its layers, the layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite
contain relatively independent protocols that can be mixed and matched depending on the needs
of the system. The termhierarchical means that each upper-level protocol is supported by one or
more lower-level protocols.
At the transport layer, TCP/IP defines three protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), User
Datagram Protocol (UDP), and Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP). At the network layer,
the main protocol defined by TCP/IP is the Internetworking Protocol (IP); there are also some
other protocolsthat support data movement in this layer.

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 Figure: TCP/IP and OSI model

Network Access Layer:

▪ This layer corresponds to the combination of Data Link Layer and Physical Layer
of the OSI model

▪ Also known as the network interface layer or data link layer

▪ It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network

▪ This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two
devices on the same network

Internet Layer:

▪ Also known as the network layer

▪ The main responsibility of this layer is to send the packets from any network
and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take

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 ▪ It defines the protocols which are responsible for logical transmission of data
over the entire network

The main protocols residing at this layer are:

IP – stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the
source host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers

ICMP – stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP

datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network
problems

ARP – stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of
a host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP,
Gratuitous ARP and Inverse ARP

Transport Layer:

▪ Responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data which is
being sent over the network

▪ The two main protocols present in this layer are:

– Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – It is known to provide reliable

and error-free communication between end systems. It performs
sequencing and segmentation of data. It also has acknowledgment
feature and controls the flow of the data through flow control
mechanism. It is a very effective protocol but has a lot of overhead due
to such features. Increased overhead leads to increased cost

– User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – On the other hand does not provide
any such features. It is the go-to protocol if your application does not
require reliable transport as it is very cost-effective. Unlike TCP, which is
connection-oriented protocol, UDP is connectionless.

Application Layer:

▪ This layer performs the functions of top three layers of the OSI model:
Application, Presentation and Session Layer

▪ Allows the user to interact with the application

▪ When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another

application layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer

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1.8 Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models

The OSI and TCP/IP reference models have much in common. Both are based on the
concept of a stack ofindependent protocols. Also, the functionality of the layers is
roughly similar. For example, in both modelsthe layers up through and including the
transport layer are there to provide an end-to-end, network- independent transport
service to processes wishing to communicate. These layers form the transport
provider. Again, in both models, the layers above transport are application-oriented
users of the transport service. Despite these fundamental similarities, the two models
also have many differences Threeconcepts are central to the OSI model.
1. Services.

2. Interfaces.

3. Protocols.

Probably the biggest contribution of the OSI model is to make the distinction between these three
concepts explicit. Each layer performs some services for the layer above it. The service definition
tells what the layer does, not how entities above it access it or how the layer works. It defines the
layer's semantics.

A layer's interface tells the processes above it how to access it. It specifies what the parameters
are and what results to expect. It, too, says nothing about how the layer works inside.

The TCP/IP model did not originally clearly distinguish between service, interface, and protocol,
althoughpeople have tried to retrofit it after the fact to make it more OSI-like. For example, the
only real services offered by the internet layer are SEND IP PACKET and RECEIVE IP PACKET.
As a consequence, the protocols in the OSI model are better hidden than in the TCP/IP model and

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 can bereplaced relatively easily as the technology changes. Being able to make such changes is
one of the mainpurposes of having layered protocols in the first place. The OSI reference model
was devised before the corresponding protocols were invented. This ordering means that the
model was not biased toward one particular set of protocols, a fact that made it quite general. The
downside of this ordering is that the designers did not have much experience with the subject and
did not have a good idea of which functionality to put in which layer.

TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet

OSI (Open System Interconnection)
Protocol)
1. TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols around
1. OSI is a generic, protocol independent standard,
which the Internet has developed. It is a communication
acting as a communication gateway between the
protocol, which allows connection of hosts over a
network and end user.
network.
2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not
2. In OSI model the transport layer guarantees the
guarantees delivery of packets. Still the TCP/IP model is
delivery of packets.
more reliable.
3. OSI model has a separate Presentation layer and 3. TCP/IP does not have a separate Presentation layer or
Session layer. Session layer.
4. Transport Layer is both Connection Oriented and
4. Transport Layer is Connection Oriented.
Connection less.
5. Network Layer is both Connection Oriented and
5. Network Layer is Connection less.
Connection less.
6. OSI is a reference model around which the
6. TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of the OSI
networks are built. Generally, it is used as a guidance
model.
tool.
7. Network layer of OSI model provides both 7. The Network layer in TCP/IP model provides
connection oriented and connectionless service. connectionless service.
8. OSI model has a problem of fitting the protocols
8. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
into the model.
9. Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are easily
9. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
replaced as the technology changes.
10. OSI model defines services, interfaces and
10. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and protocols are not
protocols very clearly and makes clear distinction
clearly separated. It is also protocol dependent.
between them. It is protocol independent.
11. It has 7 layers 11. It has 4 layers

1.9 Critiques of OSI Reference Model

Although, OSI model and its protocols even TCP/IP models and its protocols are not
perfect in each and manner. The criticism of the OSI model and its protocols can be
summarized as:

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Bad Timing:

• The competing TCP/IP protocols were already in widespread use by research

universities by the time the OSI protocols appeared.

• While the billion-dollar wave of investment had not yet hit, the academic
market was large enough that many vendors had begun cautiously offering
TCP/IP products.

• When OSI came around, they did not want to support a second protocol stack
until they were forced to, so there were no initial offerings.

• With every company waiting for every other company to go first, no company
went first and OSI never happened

Bad Technology:

• The second reason that OSI never caught on is that both the model and the
protocols are flawed.

• The choice of seven layers was more political than technical, and two of the
layers (session and presentation) are nearly empty, whereas two other ones
(data link and network) are overfull.

• The OSI model, along with its associated service definitions and protocols, is
extraordinarily complex.

• They are also difficult to implement and inefficient in operation.

• In addition to being incomprehensible, another problem with OSI is that some

functions, such as addressing, flow control, and error control, reappear again
and again in each layer.

Bad Implementations:

• Given the enormous complexity of the model and the protocols, it will come as
no surprise that the initial implementations were huge, unwieldy, and slow.

• It did not take long for people to associate "OSI" with "poor quality". Although
the products improved in the course of time, the image stuck.

• In contrast, one of the first implementations of TCP/IP was part of Berkeley

UNIX and was quite good.

• People began using it quickly, which led to a large user community, which led to
improvements, which led to an even larger community. Here the spiral was
upward instead of downward.

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Bad Politics:

• On account of the initial implementation, many people, especially in academia,

thought of TCP/IP as part of UNIX, and UNIX in the 1980s in academia was not
unlike parenthood and apple pie.

• OSI, on the other hand, was widely thought to be the creature of the European
telecommunication ministries.

• The very idea of a bunch of government bureaucrats trying to shove a

technically inferior standard down the throats of the poor researchers and
programmers down in the trenches actually developing computer networks did
not aid OSI's cause.

Critiques of TCP/IP Reference Model

▪ First, the model does not clearly distinguish the concepts of services, interfaces,
and protocols.

▪ Good software engineering practice requires differentiating between the

specification and the implementation, something that OSI does very carefully,
but TCP/IP does not.

▪ Consequently, the TCP/IP model is not much of a guide for designing new
networks using new technologies.

▪ Second, the TCP/IP model is not at all general and is poorly suited to describing
any protocol stack other than TCP/IP.

▪ Trying to use the TCP/IP model to describe Bluetooth, for example, is

completely impossible.

▪ Third, the link layer is not really a layer at all in the normal sense of the term as
used in the context of layered protocols.

▪ It is an interface (between the network and data link layers).

▪ The distinction between an interface and layer is crucial and one should not be
sloppy about it.

▪ Fourth, the TCP/IP model does not distinguish between the physical and data
link layers.

▪ These are completely different. The physical layer has to do with the
transmission characteristics of copper wire, fiber optics, and wireless
communication.

▪ The data link layer's job is to delimit the start and end of frames and get them
from one side to the other with the desired degree of reliability.

▪ A proper model should include both as separate layers. The TCP/IP model does
not do this.

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