Causes.

Endogenic (tectonic forces) and Exogenic (gradational forces).

Landforms and crustal order of relief.

First order of relief Continental platforms and the ocean basins.

Mountains, plateaus, plains, continental shelves, continental slopes, abyssal plains, mid-oceanic
Second order of relief ridges, submarine canyons and trenches.

Third order of relief Mountain peaks, cliffs, hills, spurs, sand dunes, valleys, etc.

1. FLUVIAL (RIVER BASED) LANDFORMS

1.1 Erosion.

Hydraulic Action: Solution or Corrosion:

Breakdown of the rocks Hydraulic Chemical action
of valley sides due to action of river water.
the impact of
Water Currents.

Attrition
Solution

Attrition: Mechanical Abrasion Abrasion or Corrasion: Rock

tear and wear of the Particles bounce, scrape and drag
erosional tools in along the bottom and sides of the
themselves. river, they break off additional
rock fragments.

1.2 Transportation.

Suspension: Fine, light Solution: Minerals are

material is carried along dissolved in the water.
by the river This is a chemical change

Traction: Large boulders

and rocks are rolled along Saltation: small pebbles and
the river bed stones are bounced along the
river bed

River bed

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 1.3 Deposition: Including the features formed due to deposition.

Usually in plains and

Concave low lying areas.
side erode
actively and
Point bars are also known Floodplain
known as
cut bank. as meander bars, found in
convex side of meanders. Oxbow
Bar & swale lake Braided
topography Meander cut
stream:
off from the
Point Meander River splits
bar main stream
scars into a maze
and form of
of channels.
Channel an oxbow
Levee: cutoff lake.
Yazoo Fertile flood plain:
Raised Natural Incipient stream Layer of sediments
ridge of levee oxbow deposited during
coarse Alluvium
material. each flood forms
Bedrock flood plain.

Development of the river valley.

Headwater streams Erosional Landforms: Depositional Erosional and

swiftly flow down Waterfalls Landforms: Depositional:
steep mountain slopes Gorges Deltas Meanders
and cut deep, v-shaped Rapids Levees Oxbow lakes
valleys. Waterfalls and Potholes Braided Rivers Floodplains
rapids occur in this zone. V-shaped valleys
Interlocking spurs
At the lowest elevations,
Lower-elevtion streams a river meanders across
merge to flow down a broad, nearly flat valley
gentle slops. Valleys and floodplain. At a river’s
broaden as coalescing mouth, it may divide into
rivers start to meander. separate channels as it
flows across a delta
Youth extending out to sea. The
Stage coastal plain and delta
are made of river sediments.

ZONE
1 Head Maturity
wate Stage
rs
ZONE
2 Trans
Alluvial Fan fer zo
ne Old Stage
ZONE
3 Depo
sition
al zon
e

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 Youthful Stage - Mature Stage - Old Stage -
Upper course Middle Course Lower Course

Vertical and headward Vertical and Lateral Deposition

erosion erosion Lateral erosion
Rough channel bed Wider and deeper channel High discharge & velocity
High competence, low Competence decreases, High capacity, low competence
capacity capacity increases Meandering course
Characteristics
Large gradient / slope Wide flood plain
High turbulence Channel depth & width at
Narrow channel maximum
Straight course Low gradient / slope

V-shaped valley, waterfalls, Meanders, river, cliffs, slip, Levees, deltas, point bars,
rapids, potholes, gorges, off slopes, flood plains, sand bars, oxbow lakes,
Features braided streams, meanders, larger flood
interlocking spurs plain, raised banks

River rejuvenation, River Terrace and Incised or Entrenched Meanders.

River rejuvenation : Either due to a fall in sea level relative to the level of the land or a rise of the land relative to the sea.

River Terrace:
Remnant of a former Land surface has been Incised
floodplain. lifted above base level meanders
Source Paired Terraces
knick point:
Sudden break Original
sea-level
Or
or irregularity ig in
al gra
ded profile
in the gradient First fall in
sea-leavel
along the long Fir
st r
egra
ded
profile of a profile
Second fall in &
Unpaired Terraces
Uplift
river. Mo
st re present sea-lavel
cent gra
Knick points de d profile

Mouth Base level

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 2. COASTAL LANDFORMS: PROCESS INCLUDED TIDES,
CURRENT AND WAVES.

Direction of wind

Upper layer breaking wave

of air sinks Surf zone: Zone of breaking
of waves.
swash
Swash: After wave breaks,
water from it runs up the
Friction from the beach slows beach known as Swash.
air pressure the lower part of the wave but
creates waves upper part continues to move Backwash: Movement of
forward and breaks backwash water back down the beach
to the sea.

2.1 Coastal erosion.

Sea Arch: if Blow Hole: Hole on the roof of

Cave developed the cave due to hydraulic action Former
Cliff: Rock rising
on two sides, of waves. sea cliffs
Terrace vertically above
then
sea water with
headland join Sea Cave Wave- cut platform (terrace) steep slope.
to form Sea arch
sea arch
Sea Cliff
es Wave-cut platfrom:
s lid
nd Cliff retreats
La
Sea stack
Notched cliff Wave-cut forming
platform gentle sloping
rock cut flat
Wave- Built Platform: surface.
Due to deposition of
sediments derived from Geos: Roof of cave
Wave-built the erosion (Deopsitional collapses forming a
Continual erosion by waves in caves led to terrace feature) long narrow inlet, or
arch stack stump creek.

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 2.2 Depositional Features.
2.2.1 Wave-Built Platform or Terrace (Included in coastal erosion dig)
2.2.2 Beaches called shingle beaches contain excessively small pebbles and even cobbles.

If bars are formed

in such a way that
one end is linked to
land and the other
end projects into
Offshore bars may enclose the sea, they are
a water body to from a called spits.
lagoon.
Spit

Lagoon Baymouth bar

Tombola Sand bars that obtain a length

of hundreds of kilometres are
called offshore bars or
A connecting bar that joins longshore bars.
two landmasses (mainland to
island) is known as a tombola.

2.3 Types of Coasts.

2.3.1 Coastlines of submergence: Become lowered below current sea level.

Type of Coast Features Examples Image

Formed when a non-

glaciated highland coast
becomes submerged and North-western Spain and
Ria Coasts the valleys filled with sea south-western Ireland.
water. Often “V” shaped.

Fjord is a narrow, high-

walled, and very long
submerged glacial valley.
Fiord (Fjord) Coasts Fjord coasts of Norway.
Formed when a descending
glacier carves a U-shaped
valley into the bedrock.

ridges
Formed when a mountain
ridge running parallel to
Dalmatian or
the sea coast is submerged. Dalmatian coast of
Longitudinal former course
Alternating crests and Yugoslavia. of rivers whose
Coasts valleys have
troughs runs parallel to the been drowned
sea coast.

River
Coasts where lowland coast
are submerged, flooding
river. Their entrances are
Estuarine Coast Thames of Britain. Delta Estuary
sand and silt free.

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 2.3.2 Coastlines of Emergence: The coast has been raised (due to fall in
sea level or a rising of the crust) and the ocean waves now erode a lower level.

Type of Coast Features Examples Image

Old Coastline
Raised
Formedwhen coastal beach

plateau lands are raised Uplifted part

of continental
Emerged Upland above sea level. Northern part of west shelf forming
coastial plain
Coasts coast of India
Spit Bars
Raised beach or cliff-line.

Inlet

Produced by the uplift of Waves cut old Cave

part of the neighbouring Platform

continental shelf.
Present
Emerged Lowland cliff Inlet
Coasts of Kerala and
Coasts
Tamil Nadu Sea
Main feature: spits lagoons,
bars, marshes and beaches.

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 3. GLACIAL LANDFORMS: MOVING MASS OF ICE AND
SNOW. PROCESSES INVOLVED ARE OF ACCUMULATION,
COMPACTION AND RE-CRYSTALLISATION OF SNOW.
3.1 Action of Glacier.

Freeze-thaw is when melt Plucking is when melt Roche moutonnee: Rock hill shaped by the
water or rain gets into cracks water from a glacier passage of ice to give a smooth up-ice slide
in the bed rock and at night freezes around lumps of (stoss side) and a rough plucked surface on the
the water freezes, expands cracked and broken rock. down-ice side (lee side)
and causes the crack to get When the ice moves
larger. downhill, rock is plucked
from the back wall.

Freeze-thaw
Roche
Abrasion is when rock frozen moutonnee
Plucking
to the base and the back of the
glacier scrapes the bed rock.
Plucking

Abrasion
Ice

Rock lip

Abrasion Stoss side Lee side

3.2 The Landforms created by glacial erosion.

Pyramidal Peaks Arete: Narrow, knife edge Bergschrund: Crevasse or

or Horns: Formed when ridge separating two corries. wide crack opens along
three or more corries the headwall of a glacier.
from in the side of Tarn: Lake found in Cirque: Arm chair
one mountain. a corrie shaped hollow found in
the side of a mountain.
Arete
Horn A series of Tarns lakes,
Pater resembling a string of
Truncated spurs: Tarn noster prayer beads, are known
These ridges that have Hanging lakes Cirques as paternoster lakes.
triangular facets valley
produced by glacial Glacial trough
erosion at their
lower ends are
termed as
truncated
spurs.

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 3.3 Glacial landforms resulting from deposition.

Drumlins are Erratics: Boulders of considerable Outwash Deposits: Rock debris

elongated hills size are deposited far from their origin. washed down and deposited.
of glacial deposits. Outwash deposits are roughly
stratified and assorted.
Direction of glacier movement
Eskers: Drumlin Kames: Rounded mounds/
Sinuous ridges hills of fluvioglacial deposits.
Kettle lake
of sand and
gravel Te
rm
Kame
in
Outwash Plain: Broad
Esker al Out wash plain
Stream surface of stratified
M
or
ai
ne drifts is formed.
Glacial till or Boulder Lake behind Moraine
Clay: Unassorted coarse Boulder Clay
Sand and gravels
and fine debris dropped Kettle: Depressions
by the melting glaciers. found between the
outwash plains.
Glacio-Fluvial Deposits

Terminal moraines are

found at the terminus or
the furthest (end) point
reached by a glacier.

Lateral moraines are

found deposited along
the sides of the glacier.

Medial moraines are

found at the junction
between two glaciers.
Medial moraines Ground moraines are
disorganised piles of
Lateral moraines
rocks of various shapes,
Terminal moraines sizes and of differing
rock types.

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 4. LANDFORM BY THE ACTION OF WIND (AEOLIAN): MOST
OF THE DESERTS ARE CONFINED WITHIN THE 15° TO 30°
NORTH AND SOUTH LATITUDINAL BELTS. FACTORS
INCLUDING: MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL, COLD CURRENTS,
CONTINETIALITY, ETC.

Processes involved: Attrition, Deflation, Abrasion or Corrosion, etc.

Surfaces formed in desert.

Surface Features Example

Almost horizontal, sand sheets or of Erg in the Sahara and Saudi Arabia,
Erg (Sandy or True Desert) regular dune lines, or of an koum in Turkmenistan.
undulating sand sea.

Stony desert, horizontal sheets of

Stony Desert smoothly angular gravel cover the Reg in Algeria and Serir in Libya and
Surface. Egypt.

Characterised by deep dissection,

Badland ravines, gullies, and sharp- edged South Dakota, U.S.A.
ridges.

Large areas of sand and dust, with Deserts in Sahara are known
Hamada or Rocky Desert patches of barerock. as Hamada.

In highlands, mountain ranges and Ahaggar Mountain and Tibesti

Mountain Desert
the plateau areas. mountain of Sahara.

4.1 Erosional Landforms-Wind.

MESA resistant
Ventifact: Less resistant Resistant hard rock
Stone with one rock rock
CLIFF BENCH soft rock Mesa: Flat, table- like
or more Resistant landmass with a very
highly Rock rock worn CANYON resistant horizontal
polished, pedestals away slown top layer and very
BUTTE
flattened or steep sides.
facets as a Mushroom
result of Ventifacts or Rocks
erosion by Dreikanter Buttes: Mesas
windblown Hard rock gives rise to that are reduced to
sand. upstanding ridges flat- topped hills.
Upstanding ridges of Zeugens
Yardangs Inselberg or
resistant rock
bomhardts.:
Steepsided hill
Inselberg of solid
rock, rising
Undercutting by Prevailing Wind abraded furrows abruptly
wind abrasion wind in soft rock from a plain.

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 4.2 Depositional Landforms-wind.

Barchans: Crescent- Ripple Marks: Small

shaped sand dune. scale depositional
Barchan Seif features of sand.
Two”horns” that
face downwind.
Gradually migrate Sand dunes: Mounds
with the wind. or ridges of wind- blown
sand.

Transverse
Parabolic dunes
form when Seif has only one
sandy surfaces Parabolic wing or point.
are partially
covered with
veqetation. Transverse dunes are aligned
parabolic dunes perpendicular to wind direction.
are reversed
barchans. Direction of Wind

Langitudinal dunes form

when supply of sand is
poor and wind direction is
Longitudinal constant.

Loess: Fine-grained material that has been transported and deposited by the wind.

4.3 Fluvial Desert Landforms: Influenced by the action of running water.

material washed streams spread

old saline lake deposits forward into the alluvial fans at wadi or enclosing
(these deposits hold sudden changes arroyos rill mountains
alluvial zone
clues to climatic change) in slops

bajada

piedmont slope

piedmont

water table
playa lake (shallow
seen as a response to need for
temporary and salty)
the removal of debris, its angle sufficient
to ‘power’ water that carries debris

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 5. KARST TOPOGRAPHY: LIMESTONE OR DOLOMITIC
REGION SHOWING TYPICAL LANDFORMS PRODUCED BY
THE ACTION OF GROUNDWATER THROUGH THE
PROCESSES OF SOLUTION AND DEPOSITION IS CALLED
KARST TOPOGRAPHY.

5.1 Erosional landform.

Section of
collapse sink
Sequence: Sink Hole: Surface
Sink holes depression or hole in a
region of limestone
Sink hole->
terrain.
Swallow hole->
Doline->Uvalas
Cave Cave Swallow hole:
Coalescence of closely
spaced sink holes into
one large hole.
Caves having openings
at both the ends are Valley sinks/ Uvalas
Dolines: Futher Larger
called tunnels.
depression.

Uvalas are extensive Lapies: Weathered limestone

depression. surface found in karst
regions.

5.2 Depositional Landforms.

Well Jointed Lime stone

Stalactite: The depsoit
of limestone grows
downwards like pillars.
Vertical
Coloumns
Stalactite (pillars) Stalagamite: The deposite
grows upward from the floor.
Cave Stalagamite

Pillars: Both stalactite

and stalagmite often join
together to form vertical
Underground water column.

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