Unit I: Introduction to Mobile Computing and Cellular Systems

1. Introduction to Mobile Computing

Mobile computing refers to a set of technologies that allows people to access

network services anytime and anywhere without being constrained to a fixed
location. It enables users to transmit data through wireless networks using
portable computing devices such as smartphones, laptops, and tablets.
Mobile computing integrates wireless communication, hardware, and
software for seamless mobility.

Key characteristics include:

 Mobility: Ability to move freely while being connected.

 Connectivity: Access to internet or intranet networks wirelessly.

 Portability: Use of lightweight, battery-powered devices.

 Personalization: Support for user preferences and configurations.

Advantages include increased productivity, flexibility, and real-time

communication. Challenges include security, battery life, and fluctuating
network performance.

PYQ Insight: This topic is commonly asked as a 2-mark question.

2. Issues in Mobile Computing

Mobile computing presents unique issues, including:

 Limited Bandwidth: Wireless networks often offer lower bandwidth

compared to wired ones.

 Security Risks: Data transmitted over wireless channels is prone to

interception.

 Power Consumption: Mobile devices rely on batteries.

 Mobility Management: Ensuring uninterrupted service while

changing location.

 Handoff and Roaming: Seamless transfer between cells or networks.

 Data Synchronization: Keeping data consistent across multiple

locations.

These issues necessitate robust design in terms of software, protocols, and

hardware.
3. Overview of Wireless Telephony

Wireless telephony refers to communication systems that transmit voice and

data without wires. Technologies include GSM, CDMA, LTE, and VoIP. It allows
mobile and cordless phones to communicate via radio frequencies. Wireless
telephony enables features like call forwarding, SMS, and internet access.

4. Cellular Concept

The cellular concept divides the geographic area into hexagonal cells, each
with its own base station. This allows frequency reuse, increasing the
capacity of the system. Cells are interconnected and managed centrally,
enabling mobility and seamless communication.

Importance in PYQs: Frequently asked in 2- and 10-mark questions

(especially about hexagonal cell structure).

5. GSM Air Interface and Channel Structure

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) uses TDMA (Time Division
Multiple Access) for dividing each frequency into time slots. Each user is
assigned a time slot. The air interface connects mobile devices with the
network through logical and physical channels. Logical channels are used for
signaling and traffic, while physical channels are the time slots used for
transmission.

6. Location Management – HLR and VLR, Hierarchical, Handoffs

 HLR (Home Location Register): Stores permanent subscriber

information.

 VLR (Visitor Location Register): Temporarily stores data about

subscribers currently in the area.

 Hierarchical location management reduces signaling traffic by

dividing the network into regions.

 Hand-offs are required when a user moves from one cell to another,
and they ensure continuity in communication.

Frequently Asked: HLR/VLR and handoff concepts have appeared

repeatedly.

7. Channel Allocation in Cellular Systems

Channel allocation strategies:

  Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA): Predefined channels to each cell.

 Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA): Channels are assigned on

demand.

 Hybrid Schemes: Combine FCA and DCA for efficiency.

8. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

CDMA allows multiple users to share the same frequency band by assigning
unique codes. It's more efficient and provides better security and capacity
than TDMA. CDMA avoids interference using spread-spectrum technology.

9. GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)

GPRS is a packet-based wireless communication service for 2G and 3G

networks. It supports services like MMS, internet access, and WAP. GPRS
allows efficient data transmission and billing based on data volume.

PYQ Focus: GPRS is frequently asked.

10. MAC for Cellular System

Medium Access Control (MAC) determines how users access the

communication channel. In cellular systems, MAC protocols manage
contention, avoid collisions, and ensure fair access. TDMA and FDMA are
common methods.
Unit II: Wireless Networking and Protocols

1. Wireless Networking Overview

Wireless networking involves communication without physical cables, relying

on radio frequency signals. It includes technologies like Wi-Fi, cellular
networks (GSM, LTE), and satellite communications. It supports mobility,
provides flexible deployment, and reduces installation costs. Wireless
networks can be infrastructure-based or ad hoc.

2. Wireless LAN Overview – MAC Issues

Wireless LANs (WLANs) like Wi-Fi operate under IEEE 802.11 standards. MAC
issues arise due to:

 Hidden terminal problem

 Exposed terminal problem

 Collision avoidance instead of collision detection

Solutions include RTS/CTS mechanism and CSMA/CA protocol to avoid

collisions and improve performance.

PYQ Highlight: MAC issues and IEEE 802.11 are frequently asked.

3. IEEE 802.11

This standard defines protocols for implementing wireless LANs. It includes

physical and MAC layer specifications. It supports different modes:
Infrastructure and Ad-hoc. Security protocols like WEP, WPA, and WPA2 are
used for encryption and authentication.

4. Bluetooth

Bluetooth is a short-range communication technology used to connect

devices wirelessly. It operates at 2.4 GHz using FHSS (Frequency Hopping
Spread Spectrum). The Bluetooth protocol stack includes layers like L2CAP,
RFCOMM, and SDP. It is used in devices like headphones, smartphones, and
IoT devices.

5. Wireless Multiple Access Protocols

Wireless multiple access schemes allow multiple users to share bandwidth

efficiently:

 FDMA: Frequency-based division

 TDMA: Time-slot based

 CDMA: Code-based sharing

 OFDMA: Modern multi-carrier technique These ensure efficient

spectrum use and reduce interference.

6. TCP over Wireless

TCP assumes that packet loss is due to congestion, but in wireless networks,
loss can also be due to errors or disconnection. Enhancements include:

 I-TCP: Splits TCP connection at base station

 Snoop TCP: Local retransmission at base station

 TCP Westwood: Adjusts congestion window intelligently

7. Wireless Applications

Wireless applications span various domains:

 Mobile banking

 Healthcare (Telemedicine)

 Navigation and tracking (GPS)

 E-commerce

 IoT systems They rely on constant connectivity and real-time

processing.

8. Data Broadcasting

Data broadcasting refers to transmitting information to multiple users

simultaneously. It's used in services like traffic updates, weather alerts, and
stock tickers. Broadcasting reduces network load and is ideal for delivering
common data efficiently.
9. Mobile IP

Mobile IP allows a user to move across networks while retaining the same IP
address. It uses:

 Home Agent (HA)

 Foreign Agent (FA)

 Care-of Address (CoA) This ensures session continuity while moving.

10. WAP Architecture and Protocol Stack

Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is designed to enable mobile access to

internet services. The protocol stack includes:

 WDP (Wireless Datagram Protocol)

 WTLS (Security)

 WTP (Transaction Protocol)

 WSP (Session Layer)

 WAE (Application Layer)

It optimizes data for mobile devices with limited bandwidth and processing
power.
Unit III: Data Management in Mobile Computing

1. Data Management Issues

Managing data in mobile computing is challenging due to disconnections,

limited resources, and mobility. Key issues include:

 Data availability

 Data consistency

 Low latency access

 Efficient synchronization Strategies like caching, prefetching, and

replication are used to address these.

2. Data Replication for Mobile Computers

Replication ensures that a copy of data is available locally on the mobile

device. Techniques include:

 Full Replication: Complete data is stored locally.

 Partial Replication: Frequently accessed data is cached.

 Dynamic Replication: Adjusts data based on usage. Replication

supports offline access and fast response, but increases complexity in
maintaining consistency.

3. Adaptive Clustering for Mobile Wireless Networks

Adaptive clustering involves organizing nodes into clusters to improve

scalability and manageability. A cluster head coordinates within the cluster.
Adaptive methods adjust clusters dynamically based on mobility, load, and
topology changes. This helps reduce overhead and improve performance in
mobile environments.

PYQ Relevance: Frequently asked in 7–10 mark questions.

4. File System in Mobile Computing

File systems must support disconnections, limited storage, and power

constraints. Examples:

 FAT: Used in external storage

 YAFFS: For flash memory

 CODA File System: Supports disconnected operations and hoarding.

File systems in mobile computing prioritize reliability, synchronization,
and low resource use.

5. Disconnected Operations

In disconnected operations, mobile devices operate offline by accessing

locally cached data. Changes are logged and synchronized upon
reconnection. Techniques include:

 Caching

 Logging and Hoarding

 Conflict Resolution This enhances user experience during network

outages.
Unit IV: Mobile Agent Computing and Security

1. Mobile Agent Computing

Mobile agents are software entities that move across networks and perform
tasks on behalf of users. Features:

 Autonomous

 Mobile

 Intelligent Applications include data collection, filtering, and network

monitoring.

2. Security in Mobile Computing

Security challenges in mobile computing include:

 Eavesdropping

 Spoofing

 Data leakage

 Denial of Service (DoS) Solutions involve:

 Encryption (SSL, TLS)

 Authentication and access control

 Secure protocols and firewalls Security is essential for data

protection and user trust.
3. Fault Tolerance

Fault tolerance ensures system reliability despite failures. Techniques

include:

 Redundancy

 Checkpoints

 Recovery logs It ensures continuity in operations and prevents data

loss.

4. Transaction Processing

Transactions in mobile environments face challenges like intermittent

connectivity. Properties:

 Atomicity

 Consistency

 Isolation

 Durability Mobile transaction models support partial commits,

logging, and rollback to handle failures.
Unit V: Ad-hoc Networks and Routing Protocols

1. Ad-hoc Networks

Ad-hoc networks are decentralized and infrastructure-less. Nodes

communicate directly and may act as routers. They are ideal for temporary
or dynamic setups like military or disaster scenarios.

Highly Repeated in PYQs

2. Localization

Localization is the process of determining the physical position of nodes.

Techniques include:

 GPS-based

 Proximity-based

 Triangulation and trilateration It supports navigation, tracking, and

location-based services.

3. MAC Issues in Ad-hoc Networks

Challenges:

 Hidden/exposed terminal

 Collision avoidance

 Limited bandwidth Protocols like MACA and MACAW are used.

4. Routing Protocols Overview

Routing in ad-hoc networks is complex due to dynamic topology. Protocols

are categorized into:

 Proactive: Maintain routes at all times (e.g., DSDV, GSR)

 Reactive: Discover routes on-demand (e.g., AODV, DSR)

 Hybrid: Combine both (e.g., ZRP)

5. GSR (Global State Routing)

GSR maintains global network state by regularly exchanging topology

information. Suitable for medium-size networks. It ensures up-to-date routing
tables but has higher overhead.

6. DSDV (Destination Sequenced Distance Vector)

A table-driven protocol that uses sequence numbers to avoid routing loops.

Updates are periodic or triggered. Ensures reliable routing in static or low-
mobility scenarios.

7. DSR (Dynamic Source Routing)

Uses source routing where packet headers carry the full path. It's loop-free
and on-demand. Suitable for small networks but has high header overhead.

8. AODV (Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector)

AODV uses route requests (RREQ) and route replies (RREP) for discovering
paths. It maintains sequence numbers and routing tables. It balances
performance and overhead well.

9. TORA (Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm)

TORA uses a height-based link reversal approach. It quickly adapts to

changes and is scalable. Maintains multiple routes and is suitable for
dynamic networks.

10. QoS in Ad-hoc Networks

Quality of Service ensures reliable delivery of multimedia and real-time data.

Metrics include:

 Bandwidth

 Delay
  Jitter

 Packet delivery ratio QoS-aware routing and resource reservation

protocols help achieve required performance.

11. Applications of Ad-hoc Networks

 Military communications

 Emergency services

 Sensor networks

 Vehicular networks (VANETs) They support rapid deployment and

self-organization.