Introduction to Vectors

Dr Petrovious Horton

University of Eswatini
[email protected]

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Learning Outcomes

By the end of this section, students will be able to:

distinguish between a vector and a scalar
add or subtract two given vectors
multiply a vector by a scalar
find the magnitude of a given vector.

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Introduction
Vectors are used to represent quantities that have both a magnitude and a
direction. For example, force and velocity can be represented by vectors
since they each have a direction and a magnitude.

In general, a vector carries information on its magnitude and direction – no

information about where it is applied is imparted. For example, a force of
2 Newtons that is applied in a particular direction can be applied at any
point in space.

A scalar, on the other hand, is specified by magnitude only. Examples of

scalars are distance, temperature, etc.

A vector has both magnitude and direction, and both these

properties must be given in order to specify it.

A quantity with magnitude but no direction is called a scalar.

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Geometric Representation of Vectors
In space, a vector can be represented by an arrow from a point P, called
the initial point, to a point Q, called the terminal point.
z

P y

x
−→
We may denote the above vector by PQ. The distance between the points
−→
P and Q is called the magnitude (or length) of the vector PQ and is
−→ −→ −→
denoted |PQ|. Since magnitude is a length, |PQ| ≥ 0 for every vector PQ.
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Geometric Representation of Vectors

z
Q

position vector of the point Q in space

O y

x
−→
If the initial point is the origin O, then OQ is called the position vector of
the point Q.

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Some Notation

A vector may also be represented by a lower case letter in bold, such as a,

or by an underlined (or overlined) lower case letter (especially in
hand-writing), such as a or a.

The magnitude of a vector a is denoted by |a| or a (i.e., the unbolded, not

underlined, nor overlined letter a may be used to denote the magnitude of
the vector a).

Note: The magnitude of a vector is a scalar (i.e., a real number) and is

never negative.

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Some Definitions

Definition (Equal vectors)

Two vectors a and b are said to be equal if they have the same magnitude
and direction, (irrespective of their initial points).

Definition (Negative of a vector)

A vector having the same magnitude as vector a but having opposite
direction to that of a is called the negative of vector a and is denoted by
−a.

Definition (Zero vector)

A vector whose initial and terminal points coincide is called the zero vector
(or null vector ) and is denoted by 0.

Note that the zero vector cannot be assigned a definite direction as it has
zero magnitude – it can be regarded as having any direction.
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Example
z

c
a

In the above diagram, we have the following:

a = b, c = −a.

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Unit Vectors

Definition (Unit vector)

A vector with a magnitude of one unit is called a unit vector. The unit
vector in the direction of vector a is denoted by â.

If a is a vector of magnitude a > 0, then

a a
â = =
a |a|
is a unit vector having the same direction as that of a.

That is, if you’re asked to find a unit vector in the direction of a given
non-zero vector a, find the magnitude |a| of the vector a, and the required
unit vector is then given by a/|a|.

It will be sometimes convenient to write

a = aâ = |a|â
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Vector Addition
−→
The vector PQ represents the (straight line) displacement from the point
P to the point Q. Now, suppose that someone moves from point P to
point Q and then on to point R. The net displacement made is the vector
−→
PR and is expressed as
−→ −→ −→
PR = PQ + QR.
The above is known as the triangle law of vector addition (see figure
below).
Q

P R

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Vector Addition

In general, to add two vectors a and b, position them in such a way that
the initial point of one coincides with the terminal point of the other (see
figure (ii) below).

a+b
a a
b

(i) (ii)

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Vector Addition

If a and b represent two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, in magnitude

and direction, then a + b is represented, in magnitude and direction, by
the diagonal through their common point (see figure (iii) above). This is
known as the parallelogram law of vector addition.
Note that from the above figure,

a + b = b + a.

The sum a + b is sometimes called the resultant of a and b.

The difference of a and b is given by

a − b = a + (−b)

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Properties of Vector Addition

Let a, b, and c be vectors. Then, the following properties hold.

1. Commutative Property: a + b = b + a.
2. Associative Property: a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c.
The associative property of vector addition enables the sum of three
or more vectors to be written without brackets, e.g. a + b + c.
3. Additive Identity: a + 0 = a.

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Scalar Multiplication

Let a be a vector and p be a scalar.

The product pa is called the scalar multiplication of a by p.

pa is defined as the vector with magnitude |p||a| in the direction of â if

p ≥ 0 or in the direction of −â if p < 0.
Properties of Scalar Multiplication
Let a, b be vectors and p, q be scalars. Then the following properties hold.
1. Associative Property: p(qa) = (pq)a = q(pa).
2. Distributive Properties:
i. (p + q)a = pa + qa.
ii. p(a + b) = pa + pb.

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Components of a Vector

Consider a rectangular coordinate system and the points A(1, 0, 0) on the

x-axis, B(0, 1, 0) on the y -axis, and C (0, 0, 1) on the z-axis (see figure
below).
z

P (p1 , p2 , p3 )

C(0, 0, 1) p

O y
B(0, 1, 0)
A(1, 0, 0)

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Components of a Vector
−→ −→ −→
Then |OA| = 1, |OB| = 1, and |OC | = 1. These unit vectors are called
unit vectors along the x-axis, y -axis, and z-axis, denoted by ı̂, ̂, and k̂
respectively.

Let p be the position vector of the point P(p1 , p2 , p3 ). (In general, the
position vector of a given point A will be denoted by a or a, i.e., the
corresponding lower case letter bolded or underlined.)

Then (from vector addition)

p = p1 ı̂ + p2 ̂ + p3 k̂.
The vectors p1 ı̂, p2 ̂, and p3 k̂ are called the component vectors of p in
the x, y and z directions respectively, whilst p1 , p2 , p3 are called the
components of p. The magnitude of p is given by
q
p = |p| = p12 + p22 + p32 .

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Components of a Vector
For a vector p = p1 ı̂ + p2 ̂ + p3 k̂, we may use the notation
p = (p1 , p2 , p3 ) when it is clear from the context that we are speaking of
the vector and not the coordinates of the point P(p1 , p2 , p3 ).

Example
Determine the vector having initial point A(4, 1, −7) and terminal point
B(3, 0, 5).

Solution
Denote the origin by O. Then
−→ −→ −→
AB = AO + OB
−→ −→
= −OA + OB
= −(4, 1, −7) + (3, 0, 5)
= (−1, −1, 2)
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Some Examples
Definition (Collinear vectors)
Two vectors a and b are said to be collinear if there exists a scalar p such
that a = pb.

Example
Show that the points A, B, and C with position vectors a, b, and 3b − 2a
respectively are collinear.

Solution
We have
−→ −→ −→
AB = OB − OA = b − a
and
−→ −→ −→ −→
AC = OC − OA = (3b − 2a) − a = 3(b − a) = 3AB
−→ −→
showing that the vectors AB and AC are collinear, which implies that A, B
and C are collinear.
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Some Examples

Example
Let point A have position vector a and point B have position vector b.
Show that the position vector r of the point R that divides the line AB in
the ratio m : n is given by
na + mb
r= .
m+n
Deduce the midpoint formula.

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Some Examples

Solution
Consider the following figure.
B
n
R

A r b

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Some Examples

Solution (Contd.)
We have
−→ −→ m −→
OR = OA + AB
m+n
m

r=a+ b−a
m+n
(m + n)a + mb − ma
=
m+n
na + mb
=
m+n
as required. The midpoint formula is found by putting m = n to get

r = 21 (a + b).

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Some Examples

Example
If a = (2, −3, 1) and b = − ı̂ + 2 ̂ + 3 k̂, find a unit vector in the direction
of the vector a − 2b.

Solution
Let

c = a−2b = (2, −3, 1)−2 (−1, 2, 3) = (2, −3, 1)−(−2, 4, 6) = (4, −7, −5) .

Then
c (5, −7, −5) 1
ĉ = =p = √ (4, −7, −5)
|c| 42 + (−7)2 + (−5)2 90

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Some Examples
Example
Show that the points A(2, −1, 1), B(1, −3, −5) and C (3, −4, −4) are the
vertices of a right angled triangle.

Solution
Note that
−→ −→
AB = (1 − 2) ı̂ + (−3 + 1) ̂ + (−5 − 1) k̂ = − ı̂ − 2 ̂ − 6 k̂, |AB|2 = 41
−→ −→
BC = (3 − 1) ı̂ + (−4 + 3) ̂ + (−4 + 5) k̂ = 2 ı̂ − ̂ + k̂, |BC |2 = 6
−→ −→
AC = (3 − 2) ı̂ + (−4 + 1) ̂ + (−4 − 1) k̂ = ı̂ − 3 ̂ − 5 k̂, |AC |2 = 35
−→
Now note that |AB|2 = (−1)2 + (−2)2 + (−6)2 = 41,
−→
|BC |2 = (2)2 + (−1)2 + (1)2 = 6, and
−→ −→ −→ −→
|AC |2 = (1)2 + (−3)2 + (−5)2 = 35. Thus, |AB|2 = |BC |2 + |AC |2 ,
showing that ∆ABC is a right angled triangle.
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Exercises
1. Give two examples of vector quantities and two examples of scalar
quantities not mentioned in these notes.
2. Let a = −2 ı̂ + 3 ̂ + 5 k̂, b = (3, −1, 1), c = ı̂ − 2 ̂ + 3 k̂.
Determine the following:

(a) 2c (c) b + c (e) â

(b) a − b (d) |a| (f) 2b − 3c

3. Determine the vector having initial point (2, −1, 3) and terminal point
(3, 2, −4). [ANS: (1, 3, −7)]
4. A triangle has vertices at the points A(2, 1, −1), B(−1, 3, 2) and
√(1, −2, 1). Find the length of the median to the side AB.
C [ANS:
6/2]
5. If a = 2 ı̂ − ̂ + 5k̂, b = (1, 1, 2) and c = (3, −2, 4), find a unit vector
in the direction of a + b + c. √
[ANS: (6, −2, 11)/ 161]
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Answers to Exercise 2

(a) 2 ı̂ − 4 ̂ + 6 k̂
(b) −5 ı̂ + 4 ̂ + 4 k̂
(c) (4, −3, 4)
p √ √
(d) |a| = (−2)2 + (3)2 + (52 ) = 4 + 9 + 25 = 38
a −2 ı̂ + 3 ̂ + 5 k̂
(e) â = = √
|a| 38
(f) (3, 4, −6)

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