Unit:1 Introduction to Engineering Survey

1.1 Definition of Engineering survey

 Defined as those activities of surveys for the planning, design, construction, operation, and
maintenance of engineering projects like railway, road, bridge, transmission line, water supply,
irrigation, hydropower project etc.
 A detail surveying, to prepare a large-scale topographical maps, plans, and profiles, which helps for
design and successful execution of an engineering project, is called engineering survey.
 For the successful implementation of engineering projects, an accurate, large-scale surveying and
mapping is necessary.

1.2 Survey component in various engineering construction projects

1. Control Survey
 Are the foundation of successful survey projects, and creates a reference framework that means
provides precise horizontal and vertical positions of a series of stations distributed over an area for
all subsequent survey activity on your project.
 Provides the origin of all engineering projects.

2. Topographic survey
 Surveying involves preparation of a map or plan showing existing features of the ground.
 Survey that locates all surface features (man-made and artificial) with both planimetric and
altimetric details for planning of all engineering projects.
 Provides an accurate land measurement and a clear indication of how an existing site is arranged.

3. Construction Survey
 Is to layout or set-out of buildings, pipelines, culverts, bridges, highways etc. on the field according
to design plan or maps. Some modifications can be made to the design plan if necessary.
 Measurements are done from reference points which determine the location of the planned
structure, vertical and horizontal positioning and dimensions.

4. As-Built survey
 Provides formal documentation of exactly how a project was installed.
 Survey conducted and shown on a drawing prepared by a Registered Surveyor and/or Engineer
indicating an information.
 Is a record of location of the improvements “as they are built” during construction.
 Carried out to determine of structures were constructed according to plan. They are usually required
for regulatory or payment purposes.

5. Referencing with National geodetic network

 Consisting of monumented points whose locations have been accurately determined with respect to
a mathematical framework, this system permits the spatial referencing of all land data to identifiable
positions on the Earth’s surface.
 A geodetic reference framework provides not only an accurate and efficient means for positioning
data, but it also provides a uniform, effective language for interpreting and disseminating land
information.

1|U ni t- 1
 1.3 Establishment/ extension of Ground survey controls (Horizontal and Vertical)
 Construction survey requires two controls: horizontal and vertical control can be established by TS, GPS,
plane table, theodolite etc.
Before Construction: New control points around the site must be established with high accuracy. All
points must be “tied out” for repositioning.
During Construction: Additional control is extended by the contractor as needed, around or inside the
structure. These additional points should be close enough to the structure so that workers with simple
equipment can use them.

Horizontal control
 For big structures of major importance, primary and
secondary control may be established

 The primary points may be the triangulation stations

(GPS station) and secondary points may be established by
traversing which serve as the major control during construction.

Vertical control
 Vertical controls are used to measure and control the levels of the structure.
 Consists of establishment of reference marks of known height relative to some specified datum.
 Master Bench Marks (MBM) are established close to the site by running levels from nearby bench
mark and Temporary Bench Marks are established with referencing of MBM.
 The setting of points in the vertical direction is usually done with the help of following rods:
1. Boning rods and travelers
2. Sight Rails
3. Slope rails or batter boards
4. Profile boards

1.4 Precision and Accuracy specifications

Accuracy
 Is the agreement between an experimental value or is how close a given set of measurements are to
their true value.
 Is usually expressed either as a percent difference or a unit of measurement and can be positive or
negative.
 Inverse relation to least-count of an instrument.
 For example, if in lab you obtain a weight measurement of 3.2 kg for a given substance, but the actual
or known weight is 10 kg, then measurement is not accurate. In this case, the measurement is not close
to the known value.
Precision
 Is the agreement among several determinations of the same quantity.
 The better the precision the lower the difference amongst the values.
 High precision is only achieved with high quality instruments and careful work.
 Precision is the degree of perfection used in methods.

2|U ni t- 1
 1.5 Choice of instruments and methods of surveying
Instruments are choose based on the size of project, accuracy, fund, time, nature of terrain etc.
Methods of Surveying
1. Primary Classification
- Plane surveying
 Curvature of earth is neglected.
 Suitable for an area about less than 250 sq. km
 Triangle formed by the three points considered as plane triangle
 A line joining any two points is considered as straight line.

- Geodetic surveying
 Curvature of earth is taken-into account.
 Done on an area greater than 250 sq.km
 Triangle formed by the three points considered as spherical triangle
 A line joining any two points is considered as curve line.

2. Secondary Classification
- Based on instruments
 Theodolite survey
 Chain survey
 Total station survey
 Plane table survey

- Based on method
 Traverse survey
 Triangulation survey
 Photogrammetric survey
 Aerial survey

- Based on object
 Geological Surveying
 Mine Surveying
 Archaeological surveying
 Military surveying

- Based on nature of the field

 Land Surveying
 Topographical Surveys
 Marine or Hydrographic Survey

3|U ni t- 1
UNIT -2 EXPLORING AND Developing
ENTREPRENEURSHIP COMPETENCIES
Concept and development of entrepreneurship competency:
1. Entrepreneurship competencies:
a) Opportunities competencies: The most distinguishing competencies for the entrepreneur are the
opportunity related Competency. For illustration, it was author McClelland (1987) who finds "to see
and act on opportunities" as one of the competency for successful entrepreneurs. Chandler and
Jansen (1992) recommended that the most significant entrepreneurial roles are the ability to
recognize and foresee taking benefit of opportunities. Hence, this category of Competencies includes
entrepreneurial activities in term of spotting opportunities; Actively seek new opportunities, and
developing opportunities.
b) Relationship competencies: This category of competencies relates to person-to-person or individual-
togroup based Interactions, e.g., building a context of cooperation and trust, using contacts and
connections, persuasive ability, communication and interpersonal skill (Man et al., 2002) and to
become successful entrepreneur needs to possess competencies in relationship Building,
communication, persuasive and interpersonal abilities (McClelland, 1987; Lau et Al., 2000). Bird
(1995) also described this relationship building activities as Entrepreneurial bonding.
C) Conceptual competencies: Conceptual competencies represent a category of competencies which are
not easily Identifiable behaviors but are often considered to be important for entrepreneurial Success.
Conceptual competencies have a stronger linkage with entrepreneurial traits and Are less directly
observable. It involves high level of conceptual activities and is reflected in the entrepreneur’s
behaviors, learning, make decisions and solve problems etc. These Competencies enhance the
effectiveness of carrying a task in the present or in the future.
D) Organizing competencies: Another group of competencies is organizing competencies which are very
similar to the Managerial competencies as suggested in the literature (Boyatzis, 1982). According to
McClelland’s (1987) “efficiency orientation”, “concern for high quality of work”, and “monitoring” are
the competencies which are required in managing various functional Areas of a firm so as to keep the
firm operation well. These groups of competencies are Known for their ability to lead, control,
monitor, organize, and develop external and Internal resources for the firm to operate and function
effectively.
E) Commitment competencies: Successful entrepreneurs are often characterized as diligent people with
a restless attitude in their work. In other words, they have a strong competency in totally committing,
Determining and dedicating, as well as taking proactive actions towards their Responsibilities and
duties. Another aspect of this competency area is the initiative or Proactive orientation, which calls
for the entrepreneurs taking actions before being asked or forced to by events (McClelland, 1987) and
these commitment competencies drive the entrepreneur to move ahead with the business.
F) Strategic competencies: Being the owner of the firm, the entrepreneur must set the direction for the
whole Company and for this entrepreneur require strategic competency to have a vision, Business,
clear goals, and to formulate and implement strategies to achieve these vision and goals. Hence, these
competencies are related to setting, evaluating and implementing the strategies of the firm, while
calling for abilities and skills from a broader and long-Term perspective.
G) Personal entrepreneurial competencies: These are required to perform the tasks effectively and
efficiently. This includes the Following:
- Initiative. - Ability to see or act on opportunity. - Persistence. - Information seeking. - Concert on
high quality work. - Commitment to work. - Commitment to efficiency. - Systematic planning. -
Problem solving. - Assertiveness - Persuasion - Use of influence strategies.

1|U ni t2
 Developing Entrepreneurial Competency
A) Competency identification and recognition: Acquisition of a new behavior like entrepreneurial
behavior begins with understanding, identifying and recognizing of what entrepreneurial behavior
means. In other words, the first step involved in developing the entrepreneurial competency is first
to identify and recognize the set of competencies required to effectively behave like an entrepreneur.
B) Competency assessment: Once the set of competencies is identified and recognized to behave like
an entrepreneur, the next step is now to see what entrepreneurial competencies the person actually
possesses. In other words, the actual competencies possessed by an entrepreneur are examined
against the required set of competencies to effectively behave or act like an entrepreneur. Where
one stands with respect to a set of required competencies to act like an entrepreneur or what is the
level of one’s competence can be ascertained by asking the relevant questions to a competence.
C) Competency mapping: Now, the actual competencies possessed by an entrepreneur are compared
with the competencies required to become a successful entrepreneur to ascertain the gap in the
entrepreneurial competencies of an entrepreneur (Cooper 2000). This is called in the human resource
training and development lexicon as ‘Competency Mapping.’ In other words, this is just like ‘training
needs identification’ in case of HR training.
D) Development intervention: After understanding, internalizing and practicing a particular behavior or
competence, one needs to make an introspection of the same in order to sharpen and strengthen
one’s competency. This is called ‘feedback’. In simple terms, feedback means to know the strengths
and weaknesses of one’s new behavior. This helps one know how the new behavior has been
rewarding.

Assessing individual entrepreneurial inclination:

A) Need for achievement: Need for achievement refers to the degree to which one sets and strives to
reach goals and the degree to which one work hard and is satisfied with result of the work. A number
of studies have presented need for achievement as a key determinant of entrepreneurship potential.
Achievement in business helps to make an individual motivated in the entrepreneurship and helps in
the growth of the entrepreneurship.
B) locus of control: Locus of control refers to the extent which an individual believes they have power
over events in their lives. Psychology literature distinguishes between internal and external locus of
control. People with internal loci of control believe in their ability to control their fate and
environment. Because of this, they are more prone to throw themselves at personal achievement
oriented task like entrepreneurial opportunity recognition and persuit. On the other hand, individuals
with external loci refer to external influence.
C) Creative thinker: The entrepreneurs are at work. Highly successful entrepreneurs can creatively look
beyond the present and imagine possible futures for their company. If you are a creative thinker, you
are driven to steer your business in a new direction. As a creative thinker, you are quick to act. You
seize opportunities and are usually the first mover in the market.
d) NEW TECHNOLOGY:
e) PROFIT:
f) ECONOMIC GROWTH:
g) RISK TAKING PROPENSITY:
h) JOB SATISFACTION:
i) PREVIOUS WORK EXPERIENCE:
j) AGE:
k) EDUCATION ETC.

2|U ni t2
 Assessment of decision making attitude:
ACCESSIBLE

ATTITUDE

AVAILABLE. TRUSTED.
Attitudes are the feelings and evaluations associated with a representation of an object in memory.
Attitude differ from attitudinal beliefs, which are subjective knowledge of the evaluative qualities,
attribute, or relation of an attitude object.
Q) HOW DO ATTITUDE GUIDES DECISION?
1) Attitude guide appraisal through a variety of process.
2) Attitude guide appraisal of situations, goals, routines and other decision-relevant construct.
3) Attitude guide decision in conjunction with other construct.
4) Attitude guide decision in conjunction with choice option presentation.

Risk taking behaviour and risk minimization:

Risk taking behaviors can enable one to be explorative and creative leading to benefits that were
previously inaccessible, but they can also be detrimental to the safety, mental and physical health of the
individual if the risk is not assessed properly. It is in this light that examining the mechanisms involved in
making decisions involving risk should be further researched. It is proposed that these risk taking behaviors
are guided by mental processes, specifically intelligence level, that lead to informed and effective risk
taking decisions. Risk minimization is the process of doing everything possible to reduce the probability
and/or impact of a risk towards zero.
-Risk is the possibility of suffering loss, damage or failure. It is the dark side of entrepreneurship.
-Entrepreneurship is a risk taking activities. Risk has negative and destructive consequences for
entrepreneurship. Starting a new venture involve risk. The higher the reward, the greater the risk and vice
versa.

Risk:
A risk is a situation involving exposure to danger. Risk involves uncertainty about the
effects/implications of an activity with respect to something that humans value, often focusing on negative
and undesirable consequences.
Types of risk:
A) financial risk: - Financial risk is the risk of a business running out of finances. Entrepreneurs need to
have a good financial sense in order to run a business successfully. They need to manage cash flow, predict
demand and supply so that financial decisions can be taken properly.
B) Career risk: - Some entrepreneurs start company after company (aka “serial entrepreneurs”), others
turn back to the job market. Unfortunately, your resume can look odd after a few years at startups, making
it tough to fit neatly into any well-defined corporate roles. And if employers sense that you’d rather be
starting your own businesses than holding a job, they might perceive you as a “flight risk”.
C) Family and social risk: - The risk of walking away from security and career path to create something
new. The risk of taking yourself and your family into an unfamiliar storm of stress and uncertainty. The risk
that you’ve miscalculated an opportunity, or your own internal resources as you plunge into a new
venture.
D) Psychic risk: - It is greatest risk to the wellbeing of an entrepreneur, money can be replaced a new
house can be built, friends and family can adapt. But some entrepreneurs who have suffered financial
catastrophes have not been able to bounce back especially immediately. The psychological impact has
been considered as the most serious one.

3|U ni t2
Risk minimization technique:
Risk minimization is the process of doing everything possible to reduce the probability and/or impact of a
risk towards zero.
1) REDUCE RISK: It means the Decision or action taken to either reduce how bad the end result of a risk
will be or the chances of it occurring in the first place. Substitute high level risk action with low level. Adopt
good management practices to avoid or reduce risk.
2) ASSUME RISK: Assumption of risk helps to distinguish between the risk that can be avoided from the
risk that cannot be avoided. Those risk which can be avoided are analyzed properly and required task are
performed to control it. On the other hand, those risk which cannot be avoided are also analyzed and
necessary assumptions are made to minimize it.
3) SHIFT RISK: Risk shifting is a risk strategy that involves transferring the responsibility for risk or liability
to another party. The risk can be transferred in full or partially, and it ensures that the third party will deal
with the risk as and when it materializes.
FORMS OF RISK SHIFTING:
a) OUTSOURCING: Outsourcing involves shifting the risks involved in a project to another party. Most
businesses engage in outsourcing as a way of transferring the risks to a more competent entity and
then focusing on the functions that they are more competent in.
b) HEDGING: Hedging is a financial strategy that should be understood and used by investors because of
the advantages it offers. As an investment, it protects an individual’s finances from being exposed to
a risky situation that may lead to loss of value. However, hedging doesn’t necessarily mean that the
investments won’t lose value at all. Rather, in the event that happens, the losses will be mitigated by
gains in another investment.
c) INSURANCE: Insurance is a contract, represented by a policy, in which an individual or entity receives
financial protection or reimbursement against losses from an insurance company. The company pools
clients’ risks to make payments more affordable for the insured. Insurance policies are used to hedge
against the risk of financial losses, both big and small, that may result from damage to the insured or
her property, or from liability for damage or injury caused to a third party.

Creativity and innovation in business:

CREATIVITY:
Creativity is the generation of new ideas that improve efficiency and effectiveness. It is the ability to
discover new ways of looking at problem and opportunities. Entrepreneurs are creative people, they
develop an ability to see, recognizing and create opportunity. They look at the world in new and different
ways. A thorough observation of the entrepreneurial process shows that creative thinking is the must have
“skill” of an entrepreneur for the creation of new ideas. Creativity allows a person to devise interesting
processes, which gives so many advantages to entrepreneurs.
STEPS IN CREATING PROCESS.
a) Knowledge accumulation: b) Incubation: c) Idea experience: d) Evaluation and implementation:

CONCEPT OF INNOVATION
Innovation is doing new things. It is the process by which entrepreneurs convert opportunities into
marketable ideas. Creativity discover new ways of looking at problems and opportunities and innovation
applies creative solution to those problems and opportunities. Innovation transforms the new knowledge
into new product or process. It is the result of extended thinking, research, experience and work. A new
or improved product or process (or a combination thereof) that differs significantly from the unit’sprevious
products or processes and that has been made available to potential users (product) or brought into use
by the unit (process) is called innovation.
Types of innovation.
1. INVENTION: Innovation is the process of creating something that has never been made before, or the
process of creating something that has never been made before. The invention process is a process
within an overall engineering and product development process. It may be an improvement upon a
machine or product or a new process for creating an object or a result.
4|U ni t2
2. EXTENSION: Extensions introduce new sub-categories within existing offering groups. Much of the
infrastructure stays the same, but user-facing features or packaging changes sufficiently to create
novel products and services.
3. DUPLICATION: It is the act or process of making an exact copy of something. In other words, the
practice of doing the same thing more than once, or having more than one person or thing to do the
same task, when this is not necessary. This does not involve crating of new things it’s just a creation of
previously innovated things.
4. SYNTHESIS: Synthesis happens in all phases of innovation, starting from the very beginning. We usually
like to start a project by collecting trends and synthesizing or combining them to create new,
alternative futures (or scenarios).
Enterprise management competencies:
Enterprise management competencies plays vital role in the different types of organizations. The aim of
enterprises is to move the performance of their employees still further and further Competencies can
detect the differences between average and excellent managers. Perhaps the potential power of an
organization is to possess excellent or above average employees, through the elimination of average
employees with continual education and the development of their personality. Although there are a lot of
theoretical knowledge and concepts, the introduction of competency approach is not quite a simple
process.
At first, it means a change with the aim of improving performance, across the organization and these facts
require a change for each employee.
There are mainly three management competencies which are as follows :
1. GENERAL MANAGERIAL COMPETENCIES: Every manager should be able to give quality work
performance in any management position.
2. SPECIFIC MANAGEMENT COMPETENCIES: It will include the managerial competencies, which are
needed to fulfill the standard performance for a particular management position.
3. KEY MANAGERIAL COMPETENCIES: Manager give increased importance to and which enhance
employee performance. Hence, management competencies provide a very valuable addition and
enhancement to the typical performance management process with benefits for both the employee and
the organization/enterprise.

Entrepreneurial competencies.
Initiative: Entrepreneurs seek opportunities and take the initiative to transform them into business
situations.
Commitment: Entrepreneurs keep their promises, no matter how great the personal sacrifice.
DEMAND for efficiency and quality: Entrepreneurs try to do something better, faster or cheaper.
Taking calculated risks: Taking calculated risks is one of the primary concepts in entrepreneurship.
Goal setting: This is the most important competency because none of the rest will function without it.
Entrepreneurs set goals and objectives which are meaningful and challenging.
Information seeking: Entrepreneurs gather information about their clients, suppliers, technology and
opportunities.
Systematic planning and monitoring: Systematic behavior means acting in a logical way. Planning is
deciding what to do. Monitoring means checking.
Persuasion and networking: Entrepreneurs influence other people to follow them or do something for
them.
Independence and self-confidence: Entrepreneurs have a quiet self-assurance in their capability or
potential to do something.
Problem solving: Entrepreneurs have a capability to solve a problem in the business and maintain good
environment.
Creativity and innovation: Entrepreneurs are creative and always tries to come up with new ideas to
increase efficiency in the business.

5|U ni t2