Operational Amplifiers - Electrical Engineering Notes
1. Introduction to Operational Amplifiers
An Op-Amp (Operational Amplifier) is a high-gain voltage amplifier with differential inputs and usually a
single-ended output.
Ideal Op-Amp Properties:
- Infinite gain
- Infinite input impedance
- Zero output impedance
Example: If you apply 1 mV difference between the inputs and the gain is 10^5, the output will be 100 V
(theoretically).
2. Differential Amplifier
A differential amplifier amplifies the difference between two input voltages.
Example: V_out = A(V1 - V2). It rejects common-mode signals (noise present on both inputs).
3. Transition Delay
Time lag between input change and output response due to slew rate limitations.
Example: Slew rate = 0.5 V/µs -> Takes 2 µs to swing from 0 to 1 V.
4. DC & AC Analysis of Differential Amplifier
DC Analysis: Biasing conditions with constant inputs.
AC Analysis: Amplification behavior with small signal inputs.
Example: Gain = Rc / 2re for a differential pair.
Operational Amplifiers - Electrical Engineering Notes
5. Dual Input Balanced Output Differential Amplifier
Both inputs are active, both outputs are used.
Improves CMRR and linearity.
Example: Vo1 = A(V1 - V2), Vo2 = A(V2 - V1)
6. Inverting and Non-Inverting Inputs
Inverting Mode: V_out = -(Rf/Rin)V_in
Non-Inverting Mode: V_out = (1 + Rf/R1)V_in
7. Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
CMRR = Ad / Acm; Measures ability to reject common-mode signals.
Example: If Ad = 1000, Acm = 1 -> CMRR = 1000 (60 dB)
8. Op-Amp Symbol and Circuit Model
Symbol: Triangle with + and - inputs, and output.
Model includes input resistance, voltage-controlled source, output resistance.
9. The Ideal Op-Amp
- Infinite input resistance
- Zero output resistance
- Infinite gain
- Zero offset
- Infinite bandwidth
Operational Amplifiers - Electrical Engineering Notes
10. Equivalent Circuit of an Op-Amp
Simplified model: differential input resistance, voltage source with gain, output resistance.
Used in DC/AC analysis.
11. Open Loop Op-Amp Configuration
Used without feedback. High gain; not used for linear amplification.
Mainly used as a comparator.
12. Op-Amp Parameters
- Input Offset Voltage
- Input Bias Current
- Slew Rate
- Bandwidth
- CMRR
- PSRR
Example: Slew Rate = 1 V/µs limits response speed; PSRR = rejection of power supply noise.
