EE 371
MICROELECTRONIC DEVICES
AND CIRCUITS
Outline
Introduction to Operational Amplifiers
Basic Amplifier Characteristics
Modeling the OpAmp
Basic Applications Of The Opamp
Differential Amplifiers
Non-ideal Characteristics Of Opamps
Introduction to Operational Amplifiers
Operational Amplifiers (OpAmps)
One of the primary active devices in analog electronics, second
only to transistors.
Used in low and intermediate frequency applications.
Widely accepted due to their usefulness, predictability, and cost-
effectiveness.
Fundamental for learning electronics circuit design and analysis.
What Makes OpAmps Important?
Easily configurable for various linear and non-linear functions.
Originally developed with vacuum tubes, now integrated as
transistorized circuits.
Applications And Concept of Opamps
Common Applications:
Signal Processing: Filters, limiters, synthesizers.
Communication Circuits: Oscillators, modulators, phase-locked loops.
Analog/Digital Conversion: A/D and D/A converters.
Mathematical Operations: Multipliers, dividers, adders.
Concept:
OpAmps are building blocks described by their terminal characteristics.
Can be modeled using resistors, capacitors, and voltage sources
Foundation for circuit design by interconnecting active and passive
components.
Basic Amplifier Characteristics
An amplifier is a device that increases the amplitude of a signal without
significantly altering its waveform
Amplifiers are essential in electronic systems for signal processing,
communication, and control systems.
Gain
Definition: The ratio of the output signal amplitude to the input signal amplitude.
Formula:
Where is the gain, is the output voltage, and is the input voltage.
Basic Amplifier Characteristics
Types of Gain:
Current Gain:
Amplifier Characteristics
Linearity: The output is directly proportional to the input within a specified
range.
Bandwidth: The range of frequencies over which the amplifier maintains a
consistent gain.
Efficiency: The ratio of output power to total power consumed.
Impedance Matching:
Input Impedance (Rin): Should be high to prevent loading the source.
Output Impedance (Rout): Should be low to drive loads effectively
is the time delay,
An amplifier introduces a time delay is the output DC offset
between input and output signals due to Saturation and Limitations
propagation through internal components. Power Supply Limitation: The maximum
output voltage is constrained by the
power supply voltage.
Saturation: The output cannot exceed
the power supply range.
Current Limitation: The output is limited
The relationship is given by: if the power supply cannot provide
sufficient current.
where An amplifier has an open-loop gain of
is the gain, 200,000 and an input voltage of 1mV.
Calculate the output voltage if the amplifier
is the input signal, operates within its linear range.
is the output signal, Solution,
Common OpAmps Practical Considerations
µA741 (LM741, MC1741): Most Input and Output Impedance:
commonly used general-purpose High input impedance prevents
OpAmp.
loading effects.
Low output impedance ensures
OP-27, LF411: High-performance strong signal delivery.
OpAmps. Noise and Distortion: Minimize external
noise sources and maintain linear
LM324: Single-supply OpAmp. operation.
Modeling the OpAmp
Modeling an operational amplifier
Non-inverting Input (V⁺):
(OpAmp) involves understanding
its terminal voltages, currents, The voltage applied to the
and behavior under different non-inverting terminal.
configurations. Inverting Input (V⁻): The
voltage applied to the
inverting terminal.
Output Voltage : The
resulting voltage at the
output terminal.
Power supply voltages:
(positive rail) and (negative
rail)
Voltage and Current
Constraints
Voltage Constraints:
The ideal OpAmp follows the .
equation:
where:
is the open-loop gain, which is
ideally very large.
The output voltage is limited by
the power supply:
If reaches these limits, the
OpAmp is said to be saturated.
.
The Virtual Short Concept KEY NOTE:
In the linear operating region, the OpAmp behavior is characterized
OpAmp enforces: by terminal voltages and currents.
The output voltage is proportional to
Ideal OpAmp Assumptions the input difference but limited by
power rails.
For analysis and circuit design,
Ideal OpAmps assume infinite gain,
an ideal OpAmp is assumed to
have: infinite input resistance, and zero
Infinite open-loop gain ) output resistance.
Infinite input resistance ) Circuit theory concept.
Zero output resistance ) The virtual short concept simplifies
circuit analysis.
BASIC APPLICATIONS OF THE OPAMP
Operational amplifiers (OpAmps) are widely used in various circuit
configurations to perform fundamental signal processing functions
such as amplification, summation, integration, and differentiation.
We will treat the following OpAmp application:
Inverting Amplifier
Summing Amplifier
Non-Inverting Amplifier
Difference Amplifier
Integrator
Differentiator
Inverting Amplifier
The node voltage method of The input voltage is applied through a resistor
analysis is applied at node 1, The inverting input is connected to and the
feedback resistor
The non-inverting input is grounded.
Since is at virtual ground ( The output voltage is fed back to the inverting
terminal through.
Solving for the gain:
The negative sign indicates signal
inversion.
Question 1
.
Find
Summing Amplifier
Output Voltage Expression Multiple input voltages, … are applied through
resistors …
Applying KCL at the inverting The inverting terminal is at virtual ground.
terminal The feedback resistor controls the output
voltage scaling.
Since is at virtual ground (
Solving for
Question 2
,
Non-Inverting Amplifier
The input signal is applied to the non-inverting
terminal.
Applying KCL at the inverting A voltage divider formed by and provides
feedback.
terminal: The output voltage is fed back to the inverting
terminal.
Solving for the gain:
This amplifier is used in
applications requiring unity gain
buffering.
Question 3 and 4
Find
Difference Amplifier
Two input voltages, and , are applied
Using voltage division: through resistor networks.
The output voltage depends on the resistor
ratios.
Applying KCL at node 1:
Solving for
Pay attention in class to get this part
😜😜😜
Question 5
• .
Question 6
.
Integrator
Output Voltage Derivation A resistor is connected to the input.
Using KCL at node 1: A capacitor is placed in the feedback loop
.
Since, simplifying:
Solving for
This circuit is used in analog
computing and signal processing.
Question 7 and 8
An integrator contains a .
100 kΩ and 1Capacitor. If
the voltage applied to the
integrator input is 1V, what
is voltage present at the
integrator output after 1s?
Differentiato
r Voltage Derivation
Output A capacitor is connected to the input.
Applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) at the A resistor is placed in the feedback loop.
inverting terminal: The non-inverting terminal is grounded.
Using the voltage constraint
e output voltage is therefore,
This shows that the output is the derivative of
the input.
Applications
Edge detection in signal processing
High-pass filtering in audio circuits.
Differential
Amplifiers Key Features
A Differential Amplifier is an Amplifies the difference between two input
essential circuit in analog signals.
electronics that amplifies the Rejects common-mode signals (same signal on
both inputs).
difference between two input
Used in signal processing, sensor applications,
signals while rejecting common-
and audio circuits.
mode noise.
It forms the foundation of many
advanced circuits, including
instrumentation amplifiers.
Differential Amplifiers
Working Principle To analyze the circuit, we apply Kirchhoff’s
Laws and Voltage Division.
. Voltage at Inverting Input (
. Using the voltage divider rule:
The feedback network
Since the OpAmp operates in a closed-loop
maintains balance. configuration, the virtual short principle
The output is proportional to applies, meaning the voltage at the non-
inverting input is equal to
At node 1,
Differential Amplifiers
Substituting :
Solving This means the amplifier
scales the voltage difference
If the resistor pairs are equal , the by a constant factor.
gain simplifies to:
Differential Amplifiers
One of the most important properties of a differential
amplifier is its ability to reject common-mode noise. Practical Applications
Common-Mode Gain () Differential amplifiers are
If both inputs have the same voltage: widely used in:
Instrumentation Amplifiers: High-
Then the output should ideally be zero. However, precision measurement circuits.
due to imperfections: Audio Systems: Removing
unwanted noise and
interference.
CMRR Definition
Communication Systems: Signal
The Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) is processing in radio receivers.
given by: Sensor Signal Conditioning:
Extracting weak differential
A higher CMRR means better noise rejection. signals from sensors.
Question 9
The difference amplifier of Figure
. 1.20 is constructed with an ideal
OpAmp and 1% tolerance resistors
of nominal values 2.2 kand 5.1k
The resistors were measured and
found to have the following
resistance values: =2.195 k, k
Determine gain of the differential
amplifier and its common-mode
rejection ratio.
Figure 1.20
NON-IDEAL CHARACTERISTICS OF OPAMPS
OpAmps exhibit non-ideal characteristics that can significantly
impact circuit performance.
Why Study Non-Ideal Characteristics?
Understanding OpAmp imperfections helps engineers:
Design accurate and stable circuits.
Minimize errors due to input offsets and bias currents.
Optimize performance for speed and frequency response.
Reduce noise and unwanted interferences.
