Electrical Signal
processing and
Transmission
CHAPTER - 4
Operational Amplifier (OP-AMP)
An Op-amp is a direct coupled amplifier which often powered by both
positive and negative for supply voltage which allows output to swing
above and below ground.
It is a differential input and single ended output amplifier. In other
words, it senses the difference between two input terminals and equal
to amplification factor times the difference in input voltage.
Vout = Av (V2-V1)
Av = gain of op-amp
V1 and V2 are inputs of the op-amp
Input
Input with High gain DC level Low output
high voltage shifting impedance
impedance Amplifier
Output
Block diagram of Op-amp
Operational amplifier is made of many transistors, diodes, resistors and
capacitors using integrated circuit technology.
One of the most popular op-amp is IC 741. Its pin configuration is
shown in figure.
Characteristic of ideal op-amp
Infinite input impedance (Zin = ∞)
Zero output impedance (Zout = 0)
Infinite open loop gain
Infinite band width
Virtual ground between input terminals
Technical characteristics of op-amp
Input impedance = 1Mohm
Output impedance = 75ohm
Common mode rejection = 100 dβ
Open loop gain = 1*105 times
Unit gain bandwidth = 1MHZ
Basic op-amp configurations
Input is fed to inverting terminal and a negative feedback is provided
from output to input.
From fig,
I1 = (Vin -0)/Rin =Vin/Rin
If = Vout – 0 /Rf =Vout/Rf
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law,
I1 + If =0
-Vin/Rin = Vout/Rf
Vout/Vin = - Rf/Rin
Vout = - (Rf /Rin)Vin
The negative sign indicated that output is inverted.
And Gain, A = -(Rf/Rin)
In case of, Rin = Rf, we obtain a phase inverter
Non- inverting Amplifier
From fig,
I1 = (Vin – 0)/Rin = Vin/Rin
If = (Vout – Vin)/ Rf
Applying Kirchoff’s current law,
I1 = If
Vin/Rin =Vout/Rf –Vin/Rf
Vin (1/Rin + 1/Rf) = Vout/Rf
Vout/Vin = Rf (1/Rin + 1/Rf)
Vout = (1+Rf/Rin)Vin Gain, A =
(1+Rf/Rin)
Voltage Follower
Vout = Vin
Gain, A = 1
Voltage follower is a unity gain amplifier.
It is used as a buffer amplifier to connect
a source with high impedance to a low impedance load.
Difference Amplifier
Difference amplifier is one that responds to difference between two
input and ideally rejects signal that are common to the two inputs.
First you determine the voltage at the noninverting input by using the voltage
divider relation,with the assumption that no current enters the inputs.
Now substituting the V+ term in for V- in the last equation, we get:
VOUT= R2/R1= (V2 - V1)
Since R1= R2, then VOUT= V2 - V1
So whatever we feed into the noninverting and inverting terminals, the
output voltage will be,
the voltage at the noninverting terminal minus the inverting terminal.
So if we feed 5V into V1 and 3V into V2, then the output voltage will be
2V (5V - 3V= 2V).
And this is how a difference amplifier can be built with an LM741.
Problems of difference amplifier
It has low input impedance
Gain cannot be varied easily
Instrumentation Amplifier
Instrumentation amplifier is a differential amplifier with extremely
high input impedance, high common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) and
precise gain setting by using resistors. The high common mode
rejection makes this amplifier very useful in recovering small signals
buried in large common-mode signals and noise.
The input amplifiers A1 and A2 act as input buffers with unity gain for
common mode signals and with a gain of( 1+2R/Rp) for differential
signals. A high input impedance is ensured by non-inverting configuration
in which they operate.
The common mode rejection is achieved by the following stage (A3). The
optimal common mode rejection is achieved by ensuring,
R4/R3 =R6/R5
Also, gain can be achieved changing the value of Rp
Signal Amplification and Attenuation
Signal Amplification
It is a process of increasing the level of signal. It can be achieved by using
op-amps as an amplifier.
Vout = - (Rf/Rin) Vin
If, Rf>R1, we obtain amplification.
Non-inverting amplifier can also be used to obtain amplification.
Signal Attenuation
It is a process of attenuating I/P signal or to decrease strength/amplitude of input
signal. Attenuation can also be obtained using potentiometer.
Op-Amp as summing Amplifier (adder)
Addition of input signals can be obtained by op-amp configuration as shown in figure
above.
Vout = -(Rf/R1)VI1 – (Rf/R2) VI2 - ….-(Rf/Rn)Vin
Let, R1=R2=…=Rn =R
And R = Rf
Then, Vout = - (VI1+VI2+….+VIn)
Subtractor Circuit
Vout = - R/R V1 + (1+R/R)(V2/2)
Vout = V2-V1
Hence, the output is defined as difference of two input signals.
Integrator
A circuit in which output voltage is proportional to integral of input voltage is called
an integrator.
An integrator circuit consists of a capacitor as a feedback element and input signal is
applied through a resistor in an inverting op-amp configuration.
Application
It is used to obtain area under a curve.
It is used to obtain triangular wave from rectangular.
Differentiator Amplifier
A circuit in which output voltage is proportional to differentiation of input voltage is
called an integrator.
A differentiator circuit consists of a resistor as a feedback element and input signal is
applied thorough a capacitor in an inverting op-amp configuration.
Application
Used to obtain slope of given signal
Used to produce rectangular wave from triangular wave
Also used to produce timing signal waveform
Network isolation/isolation Amplifier
An isolation amplifier is designed to provide an electrical barrier between the input
and output in order to provide protection in applications where hazardous conditions
exist.
Wave shaping filter
Noise
Signal Filtering
Analog Filter and digital Filter
Active Filters
• Low Pass filter
• High Pass filter
• Band Pass filter
• Band Pass Filter
Optical Fiber Communication
Optical fiber communication is the method of transmitting information using optical
signal. It uses optical fiber as a transmission media through which optical signal is
transmitted from source to destination. The information source passes an electrical
signal which derives an optical source to give optical signal. The optical source
which provides electrical to optical conversion may be either lead or LASER. The
transmission of media consists of optical fiber. The optical detector converts optical
signal back to the electrical signal. Optical detector which provides optical to
electrical conversion may be a photodiode or phototransistor. Both analog and digital
information can be used.
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