CHAPTER 2

STUDY LITERACY

2.1 WPT
2.1.1 Biot-Savart Law
EM phenomenon has been studied for long time ago. It is a nature when electron
flowing in a conductor there is magnetic field around the conductor. Figure 2. 1 shows
magnetic field in the point q. Magnetic Field B is a vector at point q with radius r. This
magnetic field magnitude is the same in around circle. Direction of magnetic field follows
Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule.

Figure 2. 1 Magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor

Biot and Savart did experiments about the force that produced by an electric current
that surrounded by magnet. They concluded their experimental results in a mathematical
expression. This expression gives the value of the magnetic field in space in respect with
the current that produces the field. The formula is:
i l  q
H   (2-1)
4 q 3

Where
H : slightly-different of magnetic field vector (A/m)
i : instantaneous current (A)
l : slightly-different of coil length (m)

5
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q : vector of examined point (m)

q : magnitude of examined point (m)

H-Field is measured in A/m, while B field is measured tesla T or W/m 2. Connection

between those magnetic fields explained in Maxwell’s Equation as:
B  H (2-2)
Where  : magnetic constant (4π 10-7)
Applying Equation (2-1) to Equation (2-2), the equation becomes:
i l  q
B   (2-3)
4 q 3

2.1.2 Magnetic Field Vector in Circular Current Carrying Conductor

Current flowing in circular conductor generates magnetic field in the surrounding.
Since current flowing is same in any circle point, let us consider magnetic field at point P
to point Q as shown in Figure 2. 2. Slightly change in coil length affects slightly change in
magnetic field at Q. Plane axes in circular conductor are y-axis as radius r and x-axis as
come in paper. While Z-axis is perpendicular with plane axes.

Figure 2. 2 Magnetic field on a circular current-carrying conductor

We derived the vector of conductor length and vector of magnetic point in space.
Circular conductor has radius r1 and angle θ.
l  ( sin  ,cos ,0)r1 (2-4)

q  PQ  ( x  r1 cos  , r1 sin  , z ) (2-5)

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 z cos  
i1r1 
z sin   ( x 2  z 2  r12  2 xr1 cos  ) 3 2 d
2
B (2-6)
0 4 
 r  x cos  

Cosine function is even function, else sine function is odd function. The integral from
0 to 2π separated into two functions which has integral from 0 to π. Since two odd
functions cancelled each other, magnetic field in y-axis is zero. Else, even function become
twice of its own function.
i1r1 
Bx 
2 0
cos  ( x 2  z 2  r12  2 xr1 cos  )3 2 d (2-7)

By  0 (2-8)

i1r1 
2 0
Bz  (r1  x cos  )( x 2  z 2  r12  2 xr1 cos  ) 3 2 d (2-9)

2.1.3 Magnetic Field in the Z-Axes

Transmitter coil are separated with receiver coil in distance z as shown in Figure 2. 3.
Magnetic field in center point of one coil to another coil is decreasing as z increasing.
Considering coil 2 has slightly increase radius r and has different Δr, magnetic field is
slightly change too.

Figure 2. 3 Magnetic field of two coils in the z-axis

WPT has two coils located in the same axis. A coil itself has plane axes as an area of
circle. Magnetic density defined as the integrals of magnetic field over the circle area in a
coil. Magnetic field in the z-axis in Equation (2-9) is substituted in Equation (2-10). The
magnetic flux φ, which is integral with the area of differential circle, is:
   B  d S (2-10)
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 i r  
   1 1  (r1  x cos  )( x 2  z 2  r12  2 xr1 cos  )3 2 d   2 r r (2-11)
 2 0

r2 
  i1r1  r  (r1  r cos  )(r 2  z 2  r12  2rr1 cos  )3 2 d dr (2-12)
0 0

To get more simply magnetic flux φ, the integral parameters are divided by radius of
transmitter coil r1. If WPT has two coils with same diameter, then the ratio q is equal to 1.
r z r
r , z , q 2 (2-13)
r1 r1 r1
q 
  i1r1  
2 2
r (1  r cos  )(r  z  1  2r cos  ) 3 2 d dr (2-14)
0 0

Constant number which has no θ and r̃ components, are computed later to give a
simple integral equation of magnetic flux φ. The 𝜓 is the integral function that depend on q
and z̃ values.
q 
 ( q, z )   
2 2
r (1  r cos  )(r  z  1  2r cos  ) 3 2 d dr (2-15)
0 0

  i1r1 ( q, z ) (2-16)

2.1.4 Magnetic Field Generated by N-Turns of Two Coils

Two coils are transmitter and receiver. One turn can produce one magnetic flux φ.
Adding more turns on the coil, then the magnetic flux φ multiplies as the number of turns.
Two coils in one pair also multiplies the magnetic flux.
  i1r1n1n2 ( q, z ) (2-17)

2.1.5 Inductive Voltage in a Pair of Coils

Faraday observed generated voltage under magnetic field in coil edges known as
induced voltage. In a pair of two coils where two currents are flowing at same directions,
induced voltages are generated with polarity follows the direction of currents as shown in
Fig 2. 4.
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Figure 2. 4 Inductive voltage in a pair of two coils

Faraday’s Law has differential form where C is the closed path encircling cross-
sectional area S. Induced voltage via the time variation of a magnetic field has the potential
to do work in an electric field. In this case, Faraday’s Law expressed in terms of the
induced electric field as:

d  
 E  dr   dt   B  dS 
C S
(2-18)

From that integral form, the potential of two points is the reversal of closed loop of
electric field. Potential in the two point of one coil from the closed path of electric field is:
v L    E  dr (2-19)
C

By applying Faraday’s Law in Equation (2-18) to the edge potential of one coil, the
induced voltage is equal to magnetic flux φ in time rate. The equation is:

d   d
vL      B  dS   (2-20)
C
dt  S  dt
The flux density equation is substituted from Biot-Savart in Equation (2-16). First, the
voltage induced by current in same coil. The current flowing in coil 1 influence the amount
of coil 1 voltage. The density flux generated by current in coil 1 induces it self. In other
word, the distance z is 0. So do the coil 2 has the same condition as coil 1. The self-
induced voltages v11 and v22 become:
d11 di
v11    r1n12 (1,0) 1 (2-21)
dt dt
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d22 di
v22    r2 n22 (1,0) 2 (2-22)
dt dt
Another induced voltage is coming from the amount of current in different coil. The
current flowing in coil 2 induces the coil 1 with a finite distance z. The density flux is
different from before. It does not apply z=0 anymore. The induced voltage in coil 1
because of the current flowing in coil 2, or the opposites, is:
d12 di
v12    r2 n1n2 r1 z 2 (2-23)
dt ( , ) dt
r2 r2

d21 di
v21    r1n2 n1 r2 z 1 (2-24)
dt ( , ) dt
r1 r1

2.1.6 Self and Mutual Inductance in a Pair of Coils

Turning a coils by hand might be difficult to arrange. Irregular turns might appear.
This condition should make approach. Horizontally and vertically turns is applied as
shown Fig 2. 5. Brown colored means the very first turn. Red colored is next horizontal
turns notated by n. Blue colored is next vertical turns notated by m. Every horizontal turn
adds distance by wire diameter between a pair of coil. While every vertical turn adds the
radius between them.
Faraday’s Law describes the amount of self-induction emf which is equal to the time
rate of change of the magnetic flux. The magnetic flux is proportional to the magnetic field
due to the source current, which in turn is proportional to the source current in the circuit.
Therefore, a self-induced emf is always proportional to the time rate of change of the
source current.

Figure 2. 5 Inductive voltage with n-turns coils

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The magnetic flux through the area enclosed by a circuit varies with time because of
time-varying currents in nearby circuits. This condition induces an emf through a process
known as mutual induction, so called because it depends on the interaction of two circuits.
The induced voltage in coil 1 is coming from self-induction and another induction. In
other words, the induced voltage of coil 1 vL1 is the sum of self-induction voltage v11 and
another coil induction v12. Coil 2 also has its self and another induction voltage. These self-
inductions became constant parameters as self-inductors L1 and L2. Those two other
inductions also constant parameters, they are mutual inductances M12 and M21.
vL1  v11  v12
vL 2  v21  v22

di1 di
vL1  L1  M12 2 (2-25)
dt dt
di1 di
vL 2  M 21  L2 2 (2-26)
dt dt
Several turns on a coil increase amount of magnetic flux. The common way to make
turn are horizontally n and vertically m. nm notation means the ratio of q or z in two pair of
nm turns. Distance between two coils affects the value of magnetic flux. Far distance
makes magnetic flux is slightly different in every pair of two coils. That means in far
distance, magnetic flux multiply with the number of turns. In a short distance, every
magnetic flux generated by a pair is different from another pair.
di1 di1 di1
v11   r1 (1,0)    r1 ( q ,0)    r1 ( nm,0)
dt dt dt
di2 di1 di2
v12   r2 (1, z )    r2 ( q , z )    r2 ( nm,nm)
dt dt dt
From Equation (2-13), the ratio is changed. Now flux parameters are over r 2. The flux
parameter is change with prime notation.
𝑟 𝑧 𝑟1
𝑟̃ ′ = , 𝑧̃ ′ = , 𝑞′ =
𝑟2 𝑟2 𝑟2

L1   r1 (1,0)    r1 ( q,0)    r1 ( nm,0) (2-27)

L2   r2 (1,0)    r2 ( q' ,0)    r2 ( n'm' ,0) (2-28)

M12   r2 (1, z )    r2 ( q, z )    r2 ( nm,nm) (2-29)

M12   r2 '    r2 '    r2 ( n'm' ,n'm' ) (2-30)

(1, z ) ( q' , z )
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In mutual induction, the emf induced in one coil is always proportional to the rate at
which the current in the other coil is changing. Although the proportionality constants M12
and M21 appear to have different values, it can be shown that they are equal.
2.1.7 Ohm’s Law in WPT Circuit
Employing Faraday’s Law of induction, the polarities of inductor and the current
directions is a fixed set as shown in Fig 2. 6. Changing current direction in revers makes
polarity change. Capacitor voltage appear as parasite as well as internal resistance in a coil.

Figure 2. 6 WPT’s circuit diagram

One circuit has its own equation derived from Ohm’s Law and Kirchoff’s Law. WPT
consists of two different circuits. Transmitter circuit consists of power supply u, power
supply inner resistance R1, coil resistance R2, self-inductance L1, mutual inductance M12,
parasitic capacitance C1. This circuit equation is:
di1 di
u  ( R1  R2 )i1  vC1  L1  M1 2 (2-31)
dt dt
Receiver circuit consists of load R4, coil resistance R3, self-inductance L2, mutual
inductance M21, parasitic capacitance C2. This circuit equation is:
di1 di
0  ( R3  R4 )i2  vC 2  M 2  L2 2 (2-32)
dt dt
Both transmitter and receiver circuits has parasitic capacitor on it. Capacitor hold the
electric energy from a electric charge flowing through it and release in a voltage form. The
value of voltage depend on the integral of current in time respect. From Ohm’s Law, the
equations of capacitor voltages are:
1
C1 
vC1  i1dt (2-33)
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1
C2 
vC 2  i2 dt (2-34)

Those four equations Equation (2-31~2-34) contain the integral differential form with
time. They need to be solved into differential of i 1, i2, vC1, and vC2. These four parameters
are important to continue analyzing coil circuits.
2.1.8 State Space Equation
As we know, when we apply Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL) or Kirchoff’s Voltage
Law (KVL) in networks that contain energy−storing devices, we obtain
integro−differential equations. Also, when a network contains just one such device
(capacitor or inductor), it is said to be a first−order circuit. If it contains two such devices,
it is said to be second−order circuit, and so on. Thus, a first order linear, time−invariant
circuit can be described by a differential equation of the form [Karris, 2008]:
dy
a1  a0 y (t )  x(t ) (2-35)
dt
A second order circuit can be described by a second−order differential equation of the
same form as Equation (2-35) where the highest order is a second derivative. An nth−order
differential equation can be resolved to first−order simultaneous differential equations with
a set of auxiliary variables called state variables. The resulting first−order differential
equations are called state−space equations, or simply state equations. These equations can
be obtained either from the nth−order differential equation, or directly from the network,
provided that the state variables are chosen appropriately. The state variable method offers
the advantage that it can also be used with non−linear and time−varying devices. However,
our discussion will be limited to linear, time−invariant circuits.
To get the equations of the circuit, Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL) and Kirchoff’s
Voltage Law (KVL) are used. The equations contains integral and/or differential because
of L-C components. When there are nth-order differential equations, state-space equations
can be obtained. The state-space equation from the circuit is:
x  Ax  Bu (2-36)
Where
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dx
x
dt
  
 0 0
C1
0 
 
1  
A  0 0 0 
 C2

  L2 M 21 ( R1  R2 ) L2 ( R3  R4 ) M 21 
 
 M 12  L1 ( R1  R2 ) M 12 ( R3  R4 ) L1 
x   vC1 vC 2 i1 i2 
T

 0 
 
1 0 
B
  L2 
 
  M 12 
  L1 L2  M 1M 2
2.1.9 Steady State Solution
If a circuit contains only one energy−storing device, the state equations are written as
Equation (2-36) with output:
y  Cx  Du (2-37)
Where A, B, C, D are constants matrices. Also, for two or more simultaneous
differential equations, and are 2x2 or higher order matrices, and are column vectors with
two or more rows. A pair of state equation Equation (2-36) and (2-37) with initial
conditions:
x(t0 )  x0 (2-38)

The solution of those pair state equation is:

t
x(t )  e A(t t0 ) x0  e A(t )  e A( ) Bu ( )d (2-39)
t0

Using Equation (2-38) and substituting u(τ) = sin(ωt) to Equation (2-39), The
Steady State Solution of Equation (2-36) is:
xs (t )  ( I cos(t )  A sin(t ))( 2 I  A2 )1 B (2-40)

2.1.10 Transfer Function

The state transition matrix can be computed from the Inverse Laplace transform. The
transfer function can be found from the coefficient matrices of the state equations. The
state space equation in Equation (2-36) taking Laplace transform on both sides:
sX (s)  x(0)  AX (s)  BU (s)
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or
(sI  A) X (s)  x(0)  BU (s) (2-41)
Multiplying both sides of Equation (41) with (sI − A)−1 , the equation become:
X (s)  (sI  A)1 x(0)  (sI  A)1 BU (s) (2-42)
Comparing Equation (42) with:
t
x(t )  e A(t ) x0  e A(t )  e A( ) Bu ( )d (2-43)
t0

The right side of Equation (2-42) is the Laplace transform of Equation (2-43). The
relation between state transition matrix 𝑒 𝐴(𝑡) from the Inverse Laplace of (sI − A)−1 is:
𝑒 𝐴(𝑡) = ℒ −1 {(sI − A)−1 } (2-44)
Next, Consider output state equation is Equation (2-37):
y  Cx  Du
Taking the Laplace of both sides of Equation (2-37), the equation becomes:
Y (s)  CX (s)  DU (s) (2-45)
Substituting Equation (42) to Equation (2-45), the equation becomes:
Y (s)  C (sI  A)1 x(0)  C (sI  A)1 B  D  U (s) (2-46)

If the initial condition is 0, Equation (2-46) reduces to

Y (s)  C (sI  A)1 B  D  U (s) (2-47)

In Equation (2-47), U(s) is the Laplace transform of the input u(t); then, division of
both sides by U(s) yields the transfer function:
Y ( s)
G(s)   C ( sI  A)1 B  D  U ( s) (2-48)
U ( s)

2.1.11 Bode Plot Diagram

A Bode diagram consists of two graphs: One is a plot of the logarithm of the
magnitude of a sinusoidal transfer function; the other is a plot of the phase angle; both are
plotted against the frequency on a logarithmic scale.
The standard representation of the logarithmic magnitude of G(jω) is 20 log |G(jω)|,
where the base of the logarithm is 10.The unit used in this representation of the magnitude
is the decibel, usually abbreviated dB. In the logarithmic representation, the curves are
drawn on semi log paper, using the log scale for frequency and the linear stale for either
magnitude (but in decibels) or phase angle (in degrees). (The frequency range of interest
determines the number of logarithmic cycles required on the abscissa.)
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The main advantage of using the Bode diagram is that multiplication of magnitudes
can be converted into addition. Furthermore, a simple method for sketching an
approximate log-magnitude curve is available. It is based on asymptotic approximations.
Such approximation by straight-line asymptotes is sufficient if only rough information on
the frequency-response characteristics is needed.
The steady-state output of a transfer function system can be obtained directly from the
sinusoidal transfer function, that is, the transfer function in which s is replaced by jω,
where ω is frequency.

Figure 2. 7 Block diagram of a system

Consider the stable, linear time-invariant system shown in Figure 2. 7. The input and
output of the system, whose transfer function is G(s), are denoted by x(t) and y(t),
respectively. If the input x(t) is a sinusoidal signal, the steady-state output will also be a
sinusoidal signal of the same frequency, but with possibly different magnitude and phase
angle. Let us assume that the input signal is given by:
x(t )  X sin(t ) (2-49)
Suppose The Laplace-transformed output Y(s) is
G( s) p( s)
Y ( s)   X (s) (2-50)
X ( s) ( s  s1 )( s  s2 ) ( s  sn )
where X(s) is the Laplace transform of the input x(t).
After waiting until steady-state conditions are reached, the frequency response can be
calculated by replacing s in the transfer function by jω. It will also be shown that the
steady-state response can be given by
G( j )  Me j  M  (2-51)
where M is the amplitude ratio of the output and input sinusoids and α is the phase
shift between the input sinusoid and the output sinusoid. In the frequency-response test.
the input frequency ω is varied until the entire frequency range of interest is covered.
2.1.12 Average Power Input and Output
For a one-port, let the port voltage and current pair be specified as v(t) and i(t). Both
of them has angular frequency with frequency f and period T.
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2
  2 f  (2-52)
T
For a periodic voltage and current pair, the average power dissipation over a period T
is defined as:
1 T
T 0
Pav  v(t )i (t )dt (2-53)

With the given WPT circuit as shown in Figure 6, the average power input P1 and
power output P4, are:
1 T
T 0
P1  is1 (t )(u (t )  R1is1 (t ))dt (2-54)

1 T 2
T 0
P4  R4is 2 (t )dt (2-55)

2.1.13 Efficiency of the WPT

Efficiency of the system is the ratio between its output with its input. Measurement of
power output and input give the efficiency as follows:
P4
 (2-56)
P1
2.2 Solar Cell
Solar cell is an electrical conversion device which transform energy from sun light
into electrical energy. Conventional solar cell use photovoltaic (PV) cell. The radiation
from sun light contains photon energy. When sun light reach solar cell, some energy added
to material inside solar cell. Sun lights continuously add photon energy until material has
enough energy to release its electron. There are many electrons released from material.
This electron moves to the positive output terminal. Current will flow if the output terminal
connected to load.
Solar cell output power is fluctuated. Intensity of sun light affects power output.
Because of that, the control circuit should be applied to maintain the continuous electricity.
Power is define as:
P  IV
The power output of solar cell is [El-sharif]:
Pout  Vout I out  VOC I SC FF (2-57)
Where FF is coefficient factor of solar cell
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Solar cell can be connected in parallel and/or series. Parallel connection of solar cell
adds power output by increasing its output current. While series connection adds power
output by increasing its output voltage.
The efficiency of solar cell is
solar  Vout Iout Pin  VOC I SC FF Pin (2-58)

Solar cell can be combined in hydrogen generator. Hydrogen generator need hydrogen
which produced from water electrolysis process. Solar cell produces electricity which is
used to produce pure hydrogen.
2.3 Fuel Cell
Fuel Cell is electrochemical conversion device which transform hydrogen into
electrical energy and vapor. In Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM), hydrogen generated by
electrolysis process flows to the PEM. Proton continue flowing to other side membrane,
while electron flowing to the load. On the other side membrane, proton reacted with
oxygen also with electron. So that it transform into water and heat.
The decomposition chemical reaction of water is [ULUOĞLU, 2010]:
2H 2O(l )  electricity  2H 2 ( g )  O2 ( g )
To decompose hydrogen and oxygen, there is minimum voltage between two
electrodes. The minimum voltage Vref is:
Vref  1.229V (2-59)

The reaction also need external energy. The thermoneutral voltage Vtn is:
Vtn  1.482V (2-60)
The energy efficiency is given as:
Vtn
cell  (2-61)
Vcell
The hydrogen production need power from PV panel as shown in Figure 2. 8. Here is
the data from [D. Scamman, 2014].
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Figure 2. 8 ELY-800 polarisation curves for a) cold and b) warm start-up system
temperature
Source [Karris, 2008]

2.4 Power Electronic Control Circuit

Electricity from solar cell depends on the availability of sun light. The sun light may
be predicted but the weather can not be controlled. Sometime cloudy condition happen and
reduces the intensity of sun light. Solar cell power output changes as the change of sun
light intensity.
In order to get constant output voltage, solar cell output terminal should be connected
to controller circuit which convert fluctuate voltage into fixed voltage. This controller
circuit name SEPIC which is shown in Figure 2. 9 [Elena Niculescu, 2006].
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Figure 2. 9 Equivalent circuit for a) two coupled inductor and b) sepic with coupled
inductor
Using the waveforms of inductor currents, the formula of average value of ripple
component of inductor currents can be written as:
D1 ( D1  D2 )V1 D1 ( D1  D2 )V1
I L1D   (2-62)
2 L1e f s K1m R
D1 ( D1  D2 )V1 D1 ( D1  D2 )V1
I L2D   (2-63)
2 L2e f s K2m R
Where
IL1D : average value of i1
IL2D : average value of i2
D1 : switch-on duty cycle
D2 : diode-on duty cycle
VI : dc input voltage
L1e, L2e : effective inductances
fs : switching frequency
K1m, K2m : parameters of conduction through the inductors
The calculation of these components of inductor currents needs to find the parameter
D2 firstly. In order to find the expression of the component IL0, we use again the
relationship of the converter efficiency, that is
VO IO  sepicV1 ( I L1D  I LO ) (2-64)

For assumption of 100% efficiency, the above equation yields

DV  D1 D 
I LO  1 1
  2  (2-65)
R  K 2 m K1m 
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2.5 Simulation and Mathematics Software

To help computation of formula, three kinds of mathematics software are used. They
are Mathematica developed by Wolfram Research, Scilab developed by Scilab Enterprises,
and Pyhthon developed by Phyton Software Foundation. One simulation software is used
too. It is LT-Spice developed by Linear Technology.
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