University Biology Notes: Cellular Structure and Function
Introduction to the Cell
The cell is the most basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all
known organisms. It is often referred to as the "building block of life." The
study of cells, or cytology, is essential for understanding all levels of biology,
from molecular processes to entire ecosystems. The modern understanding
of the cell is based on the Cell Theory, which states that all living things are
composed of cells, the cell is the basic unit of life, and all cells arise from pre-
existing cells.
There are two fundamental types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic cells are the simplest and most ancient forms of life. They are
characterized by the absence of a nucleus and other membrane-bound
organelles. Bacteria and archaea are examples of prokaryotic organisms.
Key Features:
Nucleoid Region: The genetic material (DNA) is located in a
centralized region called the nucleoid, but it is not enclosed by a
membrane.
Ribosomes: Responsible for protein synthesis.
Cytoplasm: The jelly-like substance that fills the cell.
Cell Wall: A rigid layer outside the cell membrane that provides
structural support and protection. It is typically made of peptidoglycan
in bacteria.
Plasma Membrane: Encloses the cytoplasm and regulates the
transport of substances into and out of the cell.
Capsule (optional): A sticky outer layer that provides protection and
helps the cell adhere to surfaces.
Flagella (optional): Tail-like structures that help in cell movement.
Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells. They are
distinguished by the presence of a nucleus, which houses the genetic
material, and various membrane-bound organelles, each with a specialized
function. Eukaryotes include plants, animals, fungi, and protists.
Key Organelles and Their Functions
Nucleus: The control center of the cell. It contains the cell's genetic
material (DNA) organized into chromosomes. The nucleus is enclosed
by a nuclear envelope, a double membrane with pores that regulate
the passage of molecules. A dense region within the nucleus called the
nucleolus is where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized.
Ribosomes: The site of protein synthesis. They are composed of
ribosomal RNA and proteins. Ribosomes can be found free in the
cytoplasm or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): A network of membranes that forms
flattened sacs and tubules.
o Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes, it is primarily involved in
the synthesis and modification of proteins destined for secretion
or other organelles.
o Smooth ER: Lacks ribosomes and is involved in lipid synthesis,
detoxification, and calcium ion storage.
Golgi Apparatus: A stack of flattened membrane-bound sacs called
cisternae. Its main function is to modify, sort, and package proteins
and lipids for secretion or delivery to other organelles. It acts as the
cell's "post office."
Lysosomes: Membrane-enclosed sacs containing hydrolytic enzymes.
They function as the cell's "recycling center," breaking down waste
products, damaged organelles, and engulfed foreign material.
Mitochondria: The "powerhouse" of the cell. These double-
membraned organelles are the primary site of cellular respiration,
where chemical energy from nutrients is converted into ATP.
Chloroplasts (in plant cells and algae): The site of
photosynthesis. These organelles contain the green pigment
chlorophyll and are responsible for converting light energy into
chemical energy in the form of glucose. Like mitochondria, they have a
double membrane.
Vacuoles: Membrane-bound sacs used for storage. Plant cells have a
large central vacuole that stores water and provides turgor pressure
to maintain the cell's shape.
Cytoskeleton: A network of protein fibers that extends throughout the
cytoplasm. It provides structural support, helps maintain cell shape,
and is involved in cell movement and the transport of materials within
the cell.
Cell Wall (in plant cells, fungi, and some protists): A rigid outer
layer that provides structural support and protection. In plants, it is
primarily composed of cellulose.
Comparison of Plant and Animal Cells
While both are eukaryotic, there are some key differences between plant and
animal cells.
Feature Animal Cell Plant Cell
Present (composed of
Cell Wall Absent
cellulose)
Chloropl Present (for
Absent
asts photosynthesis)
Small, temporary
Vacuole One large central vacuole
vacuoles
Round, irregular
Shape Fixed, rectangular shape
shape
Centriole Present (for cell Absent in most higher
s division) plants
Summary of Key Organelles
Organelle Function Analogy
The cell's brain or control
Nucleus Stores DNA, controls cell activity
center
Mitochon Produces ATP through cellular
A power plant or battery
dria respiration
Chloropla Converts light energy to
A solar panel
sts chemical energy
Ribosome
Synthesizes proteins A protein factory
s
Modifies and transports
ER A cellular highway system
proteins/lipids
Packages and sorts The cell's post office or
Golgi
proteins/lipids shipping center
Lysosome A recycling or waste disposal
Breaks down waste and debris
s center
