What is a handle?
Handle in Parsing
A handle is a specific substring of the input string that matches the right-hand side of a production
rule and can be replaced by the corresponding left-hand side during bottom-up parsing.
Key Points:
1. Definition: A handle is a production rule and a position in the input string where the rule can
be applied to reduce the string.
2. Purpose: Guides the parser in determining how to reduce the input string to the start symbol
in a bottom-up parse.
3. Characteristics:
o It is the substring to be replaced during a reduction.
o Must appear as part of the rightmost derivation.
Example:
Consider the grammar:
E→E+E
E → id
Input string: id + id
1. Identify Handle: The first handle is id (matches E → id).
2. Reduce: Replace id with E.
3. Repeat: Continue until the start symbol is derived.
Handles are crucial in shift-reduce parsing, enabling the parser to correctly build the parse tree
bottom-up.
Write short note on the following:
a) left factoring
b) context-free grammar
c) Inherited attributes
Short Notes:
a) Left Factoring
Definition: A grammar transformation technique to eliminate left recursion or ambiguity by
factoring out common prefixes in production rules.
Purpose: Prepares the grammar for top-down parsing (like recursive descent parsers).
Example:
o Before Left Factoring:
A → αβ | αγ
o After Left Factoring:
A → αA'
A' → β | γ
b) Context-Free Grammar (CFG)
Definition: A type of grammar where each production rule has a single non-terminal on the
left-hand side and a string of terminals/non-terminals on the right-hand side.
Purpose: Defines the syntax of programming languages and constructs parsers.
Features:
o Can generate parse trees.
o Written as G = (N, T, P, S), where:
N: Non-terminal symbols.
T: Terminal symbols.
P: Production rules.
S: Start symbol.
c) Inherited Attributes
Definition: Attributes of a node in a parse tree that are derived from its parent or siblings in
the tree.
Purpose: Used in attribute grammars to pass context-sensitive information during syntax-
directed translation.
Example Use:
o In type checking, an inherited attribute might carry the expected type of an
expression from the parent node to its children.
