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ATOMIC ENERGY HR. SEC. SCHOOL, KALPAKKAM

HAND NOTES FOR CLASS-XI: PHYSICS (2023-24)

CHAPTER-5 : MOTION OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND RIGID BODIES

I. Very short Answer Questions: ( 2 Marks each )

1. What is a rigid body?

A rigid body is the one which maintains its definite and fixed shape even when an external force
acts on it.
2. What is a point mass?
A point mass is a hypothetical point particle which has non-zero mass and no size or shape.
3. Define centre of mass.
The centre of mass of a body is defined as a point where the entire mass of the body appears to be
concentrated.
4. Define moment of a force (or) torque.
The ability of the force to produce rotational motion in a body is called torque or moment of force.
Torque is defined as the moment of the external applied force about a point or axis of rotation.
⃗⃗. Its unit is N m.
The expression for torque is, 𝜏⃗ = r⃗ × F
where, r⃗ → radius vector
⃗F⃗ → Force vector

5. Define angular momentum.

Angular momentum of a point mass is defined as the moment of its linear momentum.

It is given by ⃗L⃗ = r⃗ × p
⃗⃗. Its unit is kg m2 s −1 .
where, r⃗ → radius vector
⃗⃗ → linear momentum vector
p
6. What is the condition for mechanical equilibrium of a rigid body?
A rigid body is said to be in mechanical equilibrium when both its linear momentum and angular
momentum remain constant.
⃗⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0 and 𝜏⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0.
Here, F
7. What is a couple?
A pair of forces which are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction and separated by a
perpendicular distance so that their lines of action do not coincide that causes a turning effect is
called a couple.
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8. State the Principle of Moments.

The algebraic sum of the anticlockwise moments is equal to the algebraic sum of the
clockwise moments.

F1 d1 = F2 d2
where, F1 d1 → anticlockwise moment (positive)
and F2 d2 → clockwise moments (negative)
9. Define Centre of Gravity.
The centre of gravity of a body is the point at which the entire weight of the body acts irrespective
of the position and orientation of the body.
10. Define moment of inertia of a rigid body.
It is the opposition to the rotational motion of a body.
It is numerically equal to the algebraic sum of the products of the masses of the particles and the
square of their distances from the axis of rotation.
It is given by I = ∑𝑖=𝑛 2 2
𝑖=1 mi ri . It is a scalar quantity. Its unit is kg m .

11. Define radius of gyration.

The radius of gyration is equal to the root mean square distances of the particles from the axis of
rotation of the body.
The radius of gyration can also be defined as the perpendicular distance between the axis of
rotation and the point where the whole weight of the body is to be concentrated.

[𝐫𝟏 𝟐 + 𝐫𝟐 𝟐 + ……….+ 𝐫𝒏 𝟐 ]
It is given by K=√ . Its unit is metre.
𝒏

12. State Parallel axis theorem.

It states that the moment of inertia of a body about any axis is equal to the sum of its moment of
inertia about a parallel axis through its centre of mass and the product of the mass of the body and
the square of the perpendicular distance between the two axes.
I = Ic + M d2
13. State Perpendicular axis theorem.
It states that the moment of inertia of a plane laminar body about an axis perpendicular to its plane
is equal to the sum of moments of inertia about two perpendicular axes lying in the plane of the
body such that all the three axes are mutually perpendicular and have a common point.
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14. State Conservation of Angular Momentum.

It states that, when no external torque acts on the body, the net angular momentum of a rotating
rigid body remains constant.
If 𝜏 = 0, I 𝜔 = constant.
15. What are the rotational equivalents for the physical quantities, (i) mass and (ii) force?
Mass → Moment of inertia
Force → Torque

II. Short Answer Questions. ( 3 Marks each )

16. Write the expressions for the Centre of mass of two point masses in the following cases.
(i) When the masses are on positive X-axis:

m1 x1 + m2 x2
xCM =
m1 + m2

(ii) When the origin coincides with any one of the masses:

m1 (0) + m2 x2 m2 x2
xCM = =
m1 + m2 m1 + m2

(iii) When the origin coincides with the centre of mass itself:

Here, xCM = 0
m1 ( −x1 ) + m2 x2
∴ 0=
m1 + m2
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(or) − m1 x1 + m2 x2 = 0
(or) m1 x1 = m2 x2
The equation given above is known as principle of moments.

17. Derive the relation between torque and angular acceleration.

Consider a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis. A point mass m in the body will execute a
circular motion about a fixed axis as shown below.

⃗⃗ acting on the point mass produces the necessary torque for this rotation.
A tangential force F
⃗⃗ is perpendicular to the position vector r⃗ of the point mass.
This force F
The torque produced by the force on the point mass m about the axis can be written as,
τ = r F sin90° = r F ( ∵ sin90° = 1 ) (1)
But, F= ma
∴ τ=rma (2)
= r m ( r 𝛼 ) [∵ 𝑎 = r 𝛼 ]
∴ τ = m r2 𝛼 (3)
In vector notation,
τ⃗⃗ = (m r 2 ) 𝛼⃗ (4)
The term (m r 2 ) in equation (4) is called moment of inertia (I) of the point mass.
For the entire rigid body, the moment of inertia is
I = ∑ m r2

∴ τ⃗⃗ = I 𝛼⃗ (5)

18. Derive an expression for the angular momentum of a body rotating about an axis .
Consider a point mass m moving in the XY plane with a velocity v and linear momentum
⃗⃗ = m v
p ⃗⃗ at a distance r from the origin.
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Angular momentum of the point mass is defined as the moment of its linear momentum.

ie, ⃗⃗ = r⃗ × p
L ⃗⃗ (1)
The magnitude of angular momentum is
L = r p sin 90°
(or) L=rp (2)
But, linear momentum p=mv
∴ L = r ( mv ) (3)
(or) L = r m ( r 𝜔 ) [𝑠ince v = r ω]
(or) L = ( m r2 ) 𝜔
where ( m r 2 ) = I → moment of inertia of the point mass, about an axis.
𝜔 → angular velocity of the particle.
The moment of inertia of a rigid body is the sum of moments of inertia of all such individual point
masses that constitute the body

∴ I = ∑ m r2

Hence, L=I𝜔 (4)

In vector form, ⃗⃗ = I 𝜔
L ⃗⃗ (5)

19. Derive the relation between torque and angular momentum.

The expression for magnitude of torque on a rigid body is,
𝜏=I𝛼 (1)
dω
where , angular acceleration 𝛼=
dt
dω
∴ 𝜏=I (2)
dt
d
(or) 𝜏= (I𝜔)
dt
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But, I 𝜔 = L = angular momentum

dL
∴ 𝜏= (3)
dt

Hence, torque = rate of change of angular momentum.

20. State and explain the law of conservation of angular momentum.

The angular momentum of a rotating rigid body is,
L=Iω (1)
The torque acting on a rigid body is,
dL
𝜏= (2)
dt
d
(or) 𝜏= (I ω )
dt
When no external torque acts on the system,
𝜏=0
dL
(or) =0 (3)
dt
d
(or) (I ω ) = 0
dt

(or) I ω = constant (4)

∴ Total angular momentum of the body = constant (i.e.) when no external torque acts on the
body, the net angular momentum of a rotating rigid body remains constant.
This is known as law of conservation of angular momentum.
1
Since ω ∝ , the angular velocity of rotation is decreases with increase in the moment of inertia
I
of the system and vice versa.
Example: The angular velocity of a planet in its orbit round the sun increases when it is nearer to
the Sun, as the moment of inertia of the planet about the Sun decreases.

21. Explain the Principle of Moments.

Statement: The algebraic sum of the anticlockwise moments is equal to the algebraic sum of the
clockwise moments.
Consider a light rod of negligible mass which is pivoted at a point along its length. Let two
parallel forces F1 and F2 act at the two ends at distances d1 and d2 from the point of pivot.
N → the normal reaction force at the point of pivot as shown below.
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For translational equilibrium, net force has to be zero.

⃗⃗net = 0
F
N − F1 − F2 = 0

(or) N = F1 + F2 (1)

For rotational equilibrium, net torque has to be zero.

τ⃗⃗net = 0
F1 d1 − F2 d2 = 0

(or) F1 d1 = F2 d2 (2)

where, F1 d1 → anticlockwise moment (positive)

and F2 d2 → clockwise moments (negative)
The above equation (2) represents the principle of moments. This forms the principle for beam
balance used for weighing goods with the condition d1 = d2 and F1 = F2 .
Equation (2) can also be written as

F1 d2
= (3)
F2 d1

d2
The ratio is called mechanical advantage of the simple lever. The pivoted point is called fulcrum.
d1

22. Derive an expression for the Work done by Torque.

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Consider a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis. Let a tangential force F be applied at a point
mass P on the body.
It produces a small displacement ds on the body. The work done (dw) by the force is,
dw = F ds (1)
As the distance ds, the angle of rotation dθ and radius r are related by the expression,
ds = r dθ (2)
Substituting (2) in equation (1),
dw = F r dθ (3)
But, F r = 𝜏 = torque
∴ dw = 𝜏 dθ (4)
This expression gives the work done by the external torque τ, which acts on the body rotating
about a fixed axis through an angle dθ.
The corresponding expression for work done in translational motion is, dw = F ds.

23. Derive an expression for the Power delivered by torque.

Power delivered is the work done per unit time.
dw
P=
dt
But, dw = τ dθ is the work done by the torque.
τ dθ
∴ P=
dt
dθ
But, = ω = angular velocity
dt

∴ P=τω

This expression is similar to P = ⃗F⃗ . v

⃗⃗ in translational motion.

III. Essay Type Questions. ( 5 Marks each )

24. Explain the different types of equilibrium and their conditions.

Type of equilibrium Condition

Translational equilibrium Linear momentum is constant.

Net force is zero.

Rotational equilibrium Angular momentum is constant.

Net torque is zero.
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Static equilibrium Linear momentum and angular momentum are zero. „ Net force
and net torque are zero.

Dynamic equilibrium Linear momentum and angular momentum are constant. „ Net
force and net torque are zero.

Stable equilibrium Linear momentum and angular momentum are zero.

The body tries to come back to equilibrium if slightly disturbed and
released.
The centre of mass of the body shifts slightly higher if disturbed
from equilibrium.
Potential energy of the body is minimum and it increases if
disturbed.

Unstable equilibrium Linear momentum and angular momentum are zero.

The body cannot come back to equilibrium if slightly disturbed and
released.
The centre of mass of the body shifts slightly lower if disturbed
from equilibrium.
Potential energy of the body is not minimum and it decreases if
disturbed.

Neutral equilibrium Linear momentum and angular momentum are zero.

The body remains at the same equilibrium if slightly disturbed and
released.
The centre of mass of the body does not shift higher or lower if
disturbed from equilibrium.
Potential energy remains same even if disturbed.

25. Explain the bending of a cyclist while negotiating a curve road. Arrive at the expression for
angle of bending for a given velocity.
Let us consider a cyclist negotiating a circular level road of radius r with a speed v.
The cycle and the cyclist are considered as one system with mass m.
Let us choose the line OC as X-axis and the vertical line through O as Z-axis as shown in Figure.
Let the system rotate about the z-axis.
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( Not for exam )

The various forces acting on the system are,

(i) Gravitational force (mg),
(ii) Normal force (N),
(iii) Frictional force (f) and
m v2
(iv) Centrifugal force ( r )

As the system is in equilibrium in the rotational frame of reference, the net external force and net
external torque must be zero.
For rotational equilibrium, τ⃗⃗net = 0
The torque due to the gravitational force about point A = ( mg ) AB
Since it is clockwise moment, it is taken as negative.
m v2
The torque due to the centrifugal force is ( ) BC
r

Since it is anti-clockwise moment, it is taken as positive.

For rotational equilibrium, τ⃗⃗net = 0
m v2
− ( mg ) AB + ( ) BC = 0
r
m v2
(or) ( mg ) AB = ( ) BC (1)
r
AB v2
= (2)
BC rg

In ∆ ABC, AB = AC sin θ
BC = AC cos θ
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Hence, equation (2) becomes

AC sin θ v2
=
AC cos θ rg

v2
tan θ = (3)
rg

v2
(or) θ = tan −1 (r g) (4)

where, θ is the angle of bending of the cyclist with the vertical, for a given speed v.

26. Determine the Moment of Inertia of a Uniform Rod about an axis passing through its centre
of mass.
Consider a uniform rod of mass (M) and length (l).
Let the axis pass through the centre of mass and perpendicular to its length.

Let the origin coincide with the centre of mass of the rod. The rod is kept along the x axis.
Consider an infinitesimally small mass (dm) at a distance (x) from the origin.
The moment of inertia (dI) of this mass (dm) about the axis is,
dI = ( dm ) x 2 (1)
As the mass is uniformly distributed, the mass per unit length (λ) of the rod is constant.
M dm
λ= =
𝑙 dx
M
(or) dm = ( 𝑙 ) dx (2)

where, dm → mass of the infinitesimal element

dx → length of the infinitesimal element
Substituting (2) in equation (1),
M
dI = [( 𝑙 ) dx] x 2
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M
(or) dI = ( 𝑙 ) x 2 dx (3)

Hence, the moment of inertia (I) of the entire rod is

M
I = ∫ ( 𝑙 ) x 2 dx
𝑙
M
(or) I=
𝑙
∫ 𝑙 x2 dx
2
(4)
−
2
𝑙
M x3 2
= [ ]
𝑙 3 −𝑙
2

M 𝑙 3 −𝑙 3
=
3𝑙
[(2) − ( 2 ) ]

M 𝑙3 𝑙3
= [ + ]
3𝑙 8 8
M 2 𝑙3
= [ ]
3𝑙 8

𝑀 𝑙2
(or) I= (5)
12

27. Determine the Moment of Inertia of a Uniform Ring about an axis passing through its centre.
Consider a uniform ring of mass M and radius R. Let the axis of rotation pass through its centre and
perpendicular to its plane.
Consider an infinitesimally small mass (dm) of length (dx) of the ring. This (dm) is located at a distance
R, which is the radius of the ring from the axis as shown below.

The moment of inertia (dI) of this small mass (dm) is,

dI = ( dm ) R2 (1)
The length of the ring is its circumference 2𝜋R . As the mass is uniformly distributed, the mass per
M dm
unit length (λ) is, λ= =
2𝜋R dx
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M
(or) dm = (2𝜋R) dx (2)

where, dm → mass of the infinitesimal element

dx → length of the infinitesimal element
Substituting (2) in equation (1),
M
dI = [(2𝜋R) dx] R2
M
(or) dI = (2𝜋R) R2 dx (3)

Hence, the moment of inertia (I) of the entire ring is,

2𝜋R M
I = ∫0 (2𝜋R) R2 dx
MR 2𝜋R
= ∫0 dx (4)
2𝜋
MR
= [x]2𝜋R
0
2𝜋
MR
= (2𝜋R − 0)
2𝜋

(or) I = M R2 (5)

28. Determine the Moment of Inertia of a Uniform disc about an axis passing through its centre
and perpendicular to its plane.
Consider a disc of mass M and radius R. This disc is made up of many infinitesimally small rings as
shown below.

Consider one ring of mass (dm) and thickness (dr) and radius (r).
The moment of inertia (dI) of this small ring is,
dI = ( dm ) r 2 (1)
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As the mass is uniformly distributed, the mass per unit area (𝜎) is,
M dm
𝜎= =
𝜋R2 2𝜋r dr
M
(or) dm = ( ) 2𝜋r dr (2)
𝜋R2
where, dm → mass of the infinitesimal ring
2𝜋R dr → length of the infinitesimal ring
Substituting (2) in equation (1),
M
dI = [( 2) 2𝜋r dr] r 2
𝜋R
2M
(or) dI = ( ) r 3 dr (3)
R2
Hence, the moment of inertia (I) of the entire disc is,
𝑅 2M
I = ∫0 ( ) r 3 dr (4)
R2
2M 𝑅
(or) I= ∫0 r 3 dr
R2
R
2M r4
= [ ]
R2 4 0

M R2
=
2

1
∴ I= M R2 (5)
2

29. State and prove the Parallel axis theorem.

Statement: It states that the moment of inertia of a body about any axis is equal to the sum of its
moment of inertia about a parallel axis through its centre of mass and the product of the mass of
the body and the square of the perpendicular distance between the two axes.
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If Ic → moment of inertia of the body about an axis AB passing through the centre of mass,
I → moment of inertia of the body about a parallel axis DE,
d → perpendicular distance between the two parallel axes,
M → mass of the body,

then, I = Ic + M d2

Proof: Consider a rigid body of mass M. Let us consider a point mass m on the body at position x
from its centre of mass.
The moment of inertia of the point mass about the axis DE = m (x + d)2
∴ The moment of inertia I of the whole body about the axis DE is
I = ∑ m (x + d)2 (1)
= ∑ m (x 2 + d2 + 2xd)
= ∑ (m x 2 + m d2 + 2dmx)
= ∑ mx 2 + ∑ md2 + 2d ∑ mx (2)
Here, ∑ mx 2 = Ic
∑ mx = 0 ( Since x can take positive as well as negative values from the axis AB)
∴ I = Ic + ∑ md2
= Ic + (∑ m) d2 (3)
But, ∑ m = M = total mass of the body.

∴ I = Ic + M d2 (4)

30. State and prove the Perpendicular axis theorem. ( Only for plane laminar bodies )
Statement: It states that the moment of inertia of a plane laminar body about an axis perpendicular
to its plane is equal to the sum of moments of inertia about two perpendicular axes lying in the
plane of the body such that all the three axes are mutually perpendicular and have a common point.
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Let the X and Y-axes lie in the plane and Z-axis perpendicular to the plane of the laminar object.
If IX → moment of inertia of the lamina about the X-axis,
IY → moment of inertia of the lamina about the Y-axis,
IZ → moment of inertia of the lamina about the Z-axis,

then, IZ = IX + IY

Proof: Consider a plane laminar object of negligible thickness on which lies the origin (O).
The X and Y-axes lie on the plane and Z-axis is perpendicular to it.
The lamina is considered to be made up of a large number of particles of mass m.
Let us choose one such particle at a point P which has coordinates (x, y) at a distance r from O.
The moment of inertia of the particle about Z-axis is mr 2 .
The moment of inertia of the entire lamina about Z-axis is
IZ = ∑ mr 2 (1)
But, r2 = x2 + y2 (2)
∴ IZ = ∑ 𝑚 (x 2 + y 2 )
(or) IZ = ∑ mx 2 + ∑ my 2 (3)
∑ mx 2 = IY = moment of inertia of the lamina about the Y-axis
∑ my 2 = IX = moment of inertia of the lamina about the X-axis
Hence, equation (3) becomes

IZ = IX + IY (4)

31. Obtain the expression for the rotational kinetic energy of a body, rotating about an axis.
Hence derive the relationship between rotational kinetic energy and angular momentum.
Consider a rigid body rotating with angular velocity ω about an axis as shown below.
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Every particle of the body will have the same angular velocity ω and different tangential velocities v.
Consider a particle of mass mi situated at distance ri from the axis of rotation.
But, vi = ri ω
Hence, the kinetic energy of the particle is
1
KEi = 2 mi vi 2 (1)
1
= 2 mi (ri ω )2
1
(or) KEi = 2 mi ri 2 ω2
1
(or) KEi = (mi ri 2 ) ω2 (2)
2

Hence, the kinetic energy of the whole body is

1
KE = 2 ∑(mi ri 2 ) ω2

But, ∑(mi ri 2 ) = I = moment of inertia of the body about the given axis.
1
∴ KE = 2 I ω2 (3)

Equation (3) is analogous to the expression for kinetic energy in translational motion.
1
KE = 2 m v 2

Relation between rotational kinetic energy and angular momentum:

Let a rigid body of moment of inertia I rotate with angular velocity ω.
The angular momentum of a rigid body is,
L=Iω (4)
The rotational kinetic energy of the rigid body is,
1
KE = 2 I ω2 (5)

Multiplying and dividing equation (5) by I,

2 2
1I ω
KE =
2 I
2
1L
(or) KE = 2 [∵ I ω = L ]
I

L2
∴ KE = (6)
2I

This equation (6) is the relation between rotational kinetic energy and angular momentum.
p2
It is analogous to KE = in translational motion.
2m
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32. Tabulate the comparison of Translational and Rotational Quantities.

S. No Translational Motion Rotational Motion

1 Linear Displacement, x Angular displacement, θ

2 Time, t Time, t

3 ds dθ
Linear Velocity, v = dt Angular Velocity, 𝜔 = dt

4 dv 𝑑2 s dω 𝑑2 θ
Linear acceleration a = = Angular acceleration 𝛼 = =
dt d𝑡 2 dt d𝑡 2

5 Mass, m Moment of inertia, I

6 Force, F = ma Torque, τ = I α

7 Linear momentum, p = m v Angular momentum, L = I ω

8 Impulse, F ∆t = ∆p Angular impulse, τ∆t = ∆L

9 Work done by a force , w = F s Work done by a torque, w = τ θ

10 1 1
Translational Kinetic energy, KE = m v 2 Rotational Kinetic energy KE = I ω2
2 2

11 Power, P = F v Power, P = τ ω

33. Obtain the expression for the kinetic energy of a body in Pure Rolling motion.
Pure rolling is the combination of translational and rotational motion.
The total kinetic energy (KE) is the sum of kinetic energy due to translational motion (KETrans )
and kinetic energy due to rotational motion (KERot ).
KE = KETrans + KERot (1)
If M → the mass of the rolling object ,
vCM → the velocity of centre of mass is,
ICM → its moment of inertia about centre of mass and
𝜔 → its angular velocity, then
1 1
∴ KE = 2 M v 2 CM + 2 I ω2 (2)

I. With centre of mass as reference:

The moment of inertia of a rolling object about the centre of mass is (ICM ). It is given by
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ICM = M K 2
Since vCM = R 𝜔,
vCM
𝜔= R

Substituting in equation (2),

1 1
KE = 2 M v 2 CM + 2 ICM ω2

1 1 v2 CM
= 2 M v 2 CM + 2 (M K 2 ) ( )
R2

1 1 K2
= 2 M v 2 CM + 2 M v 2 CM ( )
R2

1 K2
(or) KE = 2 M v 2 CM (1 + ) (3)
R2

II. With point of contact as reference:

Here, KETrans = 0
1
and KERot = 2 I0 ω2
1
∴ KE = 0 + 2 I0 ω2
1
(or) KE = 2 I0 ω2 (4)

where, I0 → the moment of inertia of the object about the point of contact.
By parallel axis theorem,
I0 = ICM + M R2
= M K 2 + M R2
(or) I0 = M (K 2 + R2 ) (5)
Substituting (5) in equation (4),
1 v2 CM
KE = 2 M (K 2 + R2 ) ( )
R2

1 K2 + R 2
= 2 M v 2 CM ( )
R2

1 K2
(or) KE = 2 M v 2 CM (1 + ) (6)
R2

Since equations (3) and (6) are equal, pure rolling problems could be solved by considering the motion
as any one of the following two cases.
(i) The combination of translational motion and rotational motion about the centre of mass. (or)
(ii) The momentary rotational motion about the point of contact.
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34. Discuss rolling on inclined plane and arrive at the expression for the acceleration.
Consider a round object of mass m and radius R is rolling down an inclined plane without slipping
as shown below.

The two forces acting on the object along the inclined plane are:
(i) the component of gravitational force (mg sin θ)
(ii) the static frictional force (f).
The other component of gravitation force (mg cos θ) is cancelled by the normal force (N) exerted
by the plane.
For translational motion, mg sin θ is the supporting force and f is the opposing force.
∴ mg sin θ – f = m a (1)
For rotational motion, let us take the torque with respect to the centre of the object.
Then mg sin θ cannot cause torque as it passes through it but the frictional force.
But, f can set torque of Rf.
∴ Rf = I 𝛼 (2)
The relation between linear and angular acceleration is
a=R𝛼
a
(or) 𝛼=
R
Also, I = m K2
Hence, equation (2) becomes
a
R f = m K2 ( )
R
a
f = m K2 ( )
R2
K2
(or) f=ma( ) (3)
R2

Substituting (3) in equation (1)

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K2
mg sin θ – m a ( )=ma
R2
K2
mg sin θ = m a + m a ( )
R2

K2
(or) mg sin θ = m a (1 + )
R2

K2
(or) g sin θ = a (1 + )
R2

g sin θ
(or) a= K2
(4)
(1+ 2 )
R

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