DC Current

ELECTRIC CURRENT
A flow of charge from one place to another constitutes an electric current. An electric circuit is a closed path
in which an electric current carries energy from a source (such as a battery or generator) to a load (such as a
motor or a lamp). In such a circuit (see Fig. 1), electric current is assumed to go from the positive terminal of the
battery (or generator) through the circuit and back to the negative terminal of the battery. The direction of a
current is conventionally considered to be that in which positive charge would have to move to produce the same
effects as the actual current. Thus a current is always supposed to go from the positive terminal of a battery or
generator to its negative terminal.

Fig. 1

A conductor is a substance through which charge can flow easily, and an insulator is one through which charge
can flow only with great difficulty. Metals, many liquids, and plasmas (gases whose molecules are charged) are
conductors; nonmetallic solids, certain liquids, and gases whose molecules are electrically neutral are insulators.
A number of substances, called semiconductors, are intermediate in their ability to conduct charge.
Electric currents in metal wires always consist of flows of electrons; such currents are assumed to occur in
the direction opposite to that in which the electrons move. Since a positive charge going one way is for most
purposes equivalent to a negative charge going the other way, this assumption makes no practical difference.
Both positive and negative charges move when a current is present in a liquid or gaseous conductor.
If an amount of charge q passes a given point in a conductor in the time interval t, the current in the
conductor is
q
I =
t
charge
Electric current =
time interval

1
The unit of electric current is the ampere (A), where
coulomb
1 ampere = 1
second

OHM’S LAW
For a current to exist in a conductor, there must be a potential difference between its ends, just as a difference in
height between source and outlet is necessary for a river current to exist. In the case of a metallic conductor, the
current is proportional to the applied potential difference: Doubling V causes I to double, tripling V causes I to
triple, and so forth. This relationship is known as Ohm’s law and is expressed in the form
V
I =
R
potential difference
Electric current =
resistance
The quantity R is a constant for a given conductor and is called its resistance. The unit of resistance is the ohm
(Ω), where
volt
1 ohm = 1
ampere
The greater the resistance of a conductor, the less the current that flows in it when a certain potential difference
is applied.
Ohm’s law is not a physical principle but is an experimental relationship that most metals obey over a wide
range of values of V and I.

SOLVED PROBLEM 1
Since electric current is a flow of charge, why are two wires rather than a single one used to carry current?
If a single wire were used, charge of one sign or the other (depending on the situation) would be permanently
transferred from the source of current to the appliance at the far end of the wire. In a short time so much charge
would have been transferred that the source would be unable to shift further charge against the repulsive force of
the charge piled up at the appliance. Thus a single wire cannot carry a current continuously. The use of two wires,
however, enables charge to be circulated from source to appliance and back, so that a continuous one-way flow of
energy can take place.

SOLVED PROBLEM 2
Which solids are good electric conductors and which are good insulators? How well do these substances
conduct heat?
All metals are good electric conductors. All nonmetallic solids are good insulators, for instance, glass, wood,
plastics, rubber. In general, solids that are good conductors of electricity are also good conductors of heat, and solids
that are good electric insulators are poor conductors of heat. Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity because
both are transferred through a metal by the freely moving electrons that are a characteristic feature of its structure.

SOLVED PROBLEM 3
A wire carries a current of 1 A. How many electrons pass any point in the wire each second?
The electron charge is of magnitude e = 1.6 × 10−19 C, and so a current of 1 A = 1 C/s corresponds to a flow of
1 C/s
= 6.3 × 1018 electrons/
1.6 × 10−19 C/electron

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SOLVED PROBLEM 4
A 120-V toaster has a resistance of 12 Ω. What must be the minimum rating of the fuse in the electric
circuit to which the toaster is connected?
The current in the toaster is
V 120 V
I = = = 10 A
R 12 Ω
so this must be the minimum rating of the fuse.

SOLVED PROBLEM 5
A 120-V electric heater draws a current of 25 A. What is its resistance?
V 120 V
R= = = 4.8 Ω
I 25 A

SOLVED PROBLEM 6
What potential difference must be applied across a 1200-Ω resistor to produce a current of 0.05 A?

V = I R = (0.05 A)(1200 Ω) = 60 V

RESISTIVITY
The resistance of a conductor that obeys Ohm’s law is given by
L
R=ρ
A
where L is the length of the conductor, A is its cross-sectional area, and ρ (Greek letter rho), is the resistivity of
the material of the conductor. In SI, the unit of resistivity is the ohm-meter.
The resistivities of most materials vary with temperature. If R is the resistance of a conductor at a particular
temperature, then the change in its resistance ∆R when the temperature changes by ∆T is approximately
proportional to both R and ∆T so that

∆R = α R ∆T

The quantity α is the temperature coefficient of resistance of the material.

SOLVED PROBLEM 24.7

A 20-m length of a certain wire has a resistance of 15 Ω. What length of this wire would have a resistance
of 8 Ω?
The resistance R of a wire is directly proportional to its length L. This means that the ratio between the
resistances R1 and R2 of two wires of the same kind and the same cross-sectional area equals the ratio between their
lengths L1 and L2:
R1 L1
= L
R2 2

Here we solve this equation for L2 and find that

R2 8Ω
L2 = L1 = (20 m) = 10.7 m
R1 15 Ω

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SOLVED PROBLEM 8
What is the resistance of a copper wire 0.5 mm in diameter and 20 m long? The resistivity of copper is
1.7 × 10−8Ω·m.
The wire’s cross-sectional area is πr 2, where r = 0.25 mm = 2.5 × 10−4. Hence
L (1.7 × 10−8 Ω·m)(20 m)
R=ρ = = 1.73 Ω
A (π)(2.5 × 10−4 m)2

SOLVED PROBLEM 9
A platinum wire 80 cm long is to have a resistance of 0.1 Ω. What should its diameter be? The resistivity
of platinum is 1.1 × 10−7 Ω·m.
Since R = ρ L/A = ρ L/πr 2,
, ,
ρL (1.1 × 10−7 Ω·m)(0.8 m)
r= = = 5.3 × 10−4 m = 0.53 mm
πR (π)(0.1 Ω)
The wire’s diameter should therefore be 2r = 1.06 mm.

SOLVED PROBLEM 10
An electric motor draws a current of 20 A from a 240-V power source 15 m away. What is the minimum
cross-sectional area of the wire that can be used if the voltage at the motor is not to be lower than 230 V?
The permissible voltage drop is 10 V, and the resistance that would give rise to this drop when the current is
20 A is
V 10 V
R=
= = 0.5 Ω
I 20 A
The total length of wire involved is twice the distance between the source and the motor, so L = (2)(15 m) = 30 m.
Since R = ρ L/A,
ρL (1.7 × 10−8 Ω·m)(30 m)
A= = = 1.02 × 10−6 m2 = 1.02 mm2
R 0.5 Ω

SOLVED PROBLEM 11
A copper wire has a resistance of 10.0 Ω at 20◦C. (a) What will its resistance be at 80◦C? (b) At 0◦C?
The temperature coefficient of resistance of copper is 0.004/◦C.
(a) Here R = 10.0 Ω and ∆T = 60◦C. Hence the wire’s change in resistance is

∆R = α R ∆T = (0.004/◦C)(10.0 Ω)(60◦C) = 2.4 Ω

and the resistance at 80◦C will be R + ∆R = 12.4 Ω.

(b) Here ∆T = 20◦C, and so

∆R = α R ∆T = (0.004/◦C)(10.0 Ω)(−20◦C) = −0.8 Ω

The resistance at 0◦C will be R + ∆R = 9.2 Ω.

SOLVED PROBLEM 12
A resistance thermometer makes use of the variation of the resistance of a conductor with temperature. If
the resistance of such a thermometer with a platinum element is 5 Ω at 20◦C and 9 Ω when it is inserted
in a furnace, find the temperature of the furnace. The value of α for platinum is 0.0036/◦C.

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 Here R = 5 Ω and ∆R = 9 Ω − 5 Ω = 4 Ω. Since ∆R = α R ∆T ,
∆R 4Ω
∆T = = = 222◦C
αR (0.0036/◦C)(5 Ω)
The temperature of the furnace is T + ∆T = 20◦C + 222◦C = 242◦C.

CIRCULAR MIL
In engineering practice the unit of area of a round conductor is often the circular mil, or cmil. The mil is a unit
1
of length equal to 0.001 in., which is 1000 in. A circular mil is a unit of area equal to the area of a circle whose
diameter is 1 mil, as in Fig. 24-2. The area Acm in circular mils of a circle whose diameter in mils is Dm is equal
to D2m:

Acm = Dm
2

The advantage of using the circular mil as a unit of area is that it avoids multiplication and division by π. When
the length of a conductor is given in feet and its area in circular mils, the unit of resistivity is the ohm-cmil per
foot.

Fig. 2

SOLVED PROBLEM 13
The specific resistance of the copper used in electric wires is 10.4 Ω·cmil/ft. Find the resistance of 1500 ft
of copper wire whose diameter is 0.080 in.
Since 0.080 in. = 80 mils,

Acm = Dm2 = (80)2 cmil = 6400 cmil

and
ρl (10.4 Ω·cmil/ft)(1500 ft)
R= = = 2.44 Ω
A 6400 cmil

SOLVED PROBLEM 14
The specific resistance of Nichrome is 600 Ω·cmil/ft. How long should a Nichrome wire 20 mils in
diameter be for it to have a resistance of 5 Ω?
The cross-sectional area of the wire is

Acm = Dm2 = (20)2 cmil = 400 cmil

Next we solve for l and substitute ρ = 600 Ω·cmil/ft, R = 5 Ω, and A = 400 cmil to find the value of the length l:
RA (5 Ω)(400 cmil)
l= = = 3.33 ft
ρ 600 Ω·cmil/ft

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 Table -1

Known Quantities
Unknown
Quantity V, I I, R V, R P, I P, V P, R
√
V = IR P/I PR
I = V/R P/V √
P/R
R = V/I P/I 2 V 2/P
P = VI I2R V 2/R

ELECTRIC POWER
The rate at which work is done to maintain an electric current is given by the product of the current I and the
potential difference V :
P = IV

Power = (current)(potential difference)

When I is in amperes and V is in volts, P will be in watts.

If the conductor or device through which a current passes obeys Ohm’s law, the power consumed may be
expressed in the alternative forms
V2
P = IV = I R =
2

R
Table 24.1 is a summary of the various formulas for potential difference V, current I, resistance R, and
power P that follow from Ohm’s law I = V/R and from the power formula P = V I.

SOLVED PROBLEM 15
The current through a 50-Ω resistance is 2 A. How much power is dissipated as heat?

P = I 2 R = (2 A)2(50 Ω) = 200 W

SOLVED PROBLEM 24.16

A 2-kW water heater is to be connected to a 240-V power line whose circuit breaker is rated at 10 A.
Will the breaker open when the heater is switched on?
The heater draws a current of
P 2000 W
I = = = 81 A
3
V 240 V
Since this current is less than 10 A, the breaker will not open.

SOLVED PROBLEM 17
A generator driven by a diesel engine that develops 12 hp delivers 30 A at 240 V. What is the efficiency
of the generator?
Since 1 hp = 746 W and P = I V ,

Input power = (12 hp)(746 W/hp) = 8952 W

Output power = (30 A)(240 V) = 7200 W

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 The efficiency of the generator is therefore

output 7200 W
Eff = = = 0.80 = 80%
input 8952 W

SOLVED PROBLEM 18
A 12-V storage battery is charged by a current of 20 A for 1 h. (a) How much power is required to charge
the battery at this rate? (b) How much energy has been provided during the process?
(a) P = I V = (20 A)(12 V) = 240 W
(b) W = Pt = (240 W)(3600 s) = 8.64 × 105 J

SOLVED PROBLEM 19
The kilowatthour (kWh) is an energy unit equal to the energy delivered by a source whose power is 1 kW
in 1 h of operation. How much energy in kilowatthours does a 240-V clothes dryer that draws 15 A use
in 45 min of operation?
The power of the dryer is

P = I V = (15 A)(240 V) = 3600 W = 3.6 kW

and the time interval is

45 min
t= = 0.75 h
60 min/h

Hence

W = Pt = (3.6 kW)(0.75 h) = 2.7 kWh

SOLVED PROBLEM 20
The 12-V battery of a certain car has a capacity of 80 Ah, which means that it can furnish a current of
80 A for 1 h, a current of 40 A for 2 h, and so forth. (a) How much energy is stored in the battery? (b) If
the car’s lights require 60 W of Power, how long can the battery keep them lighted when the engine (and
hence its generator) is not running?
(a) The 80-Ah capacity of the battery is a way to express the amount of charge it can transfer from one of its
terminals to the other. Here the amount of charge is

q = (80 Ah)(3600 s/h) = 2.88 × 105 A·s = 2.88 × 105 C

and so the energy the battery can provide is

W = q V = (2.88 × 105 C)(12 V) = 3.46 × 106 J

(b) Since P = W/t,

W 3.46 × 106 J 4
t= = = 5.8 × 10 s = 16 h
P 60 W