CEN 341: GEOTEHCNICAL ENGINEERING-I
Course Syllabus & Reference Books
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
PORT CITY INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY
CHITTAGONG, BANGLADESH
Course Tile: Geotechnical Engineering-I
Course No- CEN 341
No. of Credit- 3.0
Course Syllabus:
Lecture 1- Introduction to geotechnical engineering: formation, type and soil identification
Lecture 2- Introduction to geotechnical engineering: formation, soil structure and fabric
Lecture 3- Basic definition and test
Lecture 4- Index properties of soil
Lecture 5- Classification of soil
Lecture 6- Compaction of soil
Lecture 7- Permeability of soil
Lecture 8- Seepage analysis
Lecture 9- Effective stress principle
Lecture 10- Stress due to applied load
Lecture 11- Consolidation of soil
Lecture 12- Shear strength
Lecture 13- Earth pressure theories
Reference books:
1. Soil mechanics & foundation engineering- Dr. K.R. Arora
2. Advanced soil mechanics- Braja M. Das
3. Soil mechanics- T. William Lambe, Robert V. Whitman
4. Soil mechanics- R.F. Craig
5. Soil mechanics in Engineering Practice- Karl Terzaghi, Ralph B. Peck, Gholamreza Mesri
CEN 341: GEOTEHCNICAL ENGINEERING-I
LECTURE 1
Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering: Formation, Type and
Identification of soils
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
PORT CITY INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY
CHITTAGONG, BANGLADESH
Geotechnical Engineering is the branch of Civil engineering concerned with the
engineering behavior of earth materials.
Geotechnical engineering uses principles of “soil mechanics” and “rock mechanics” to
investigate subsurface conditions and materials.
Soil mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the study of the physical properties
of soil and the behavior of soil mass subjected to various types of forces.
Rock Mechanics is the theoretical and applied science of the mechanical behavior of rock
and rock masses.
INTRODUCTION TO SOIL MECHANICS
Soil is the relatively loose mass of mineral and organic materials and sediments found above the bedrock, which can
be relatively easily broken down into its constituent mineral or organic particles.
Soil consists of layers of minerals The top soil contains a large quantity
constituents of variable thickness, of organic matter and is not suitable as
which differ from the parent materials a construction material or as a
in the morphological, physical, foundation for structures. The top soil
chemical and mineralogical is removed from the earth’s surface
characteristics; It is thus a natural before the construction of structures.
product of weathering of rocks and
decomposition of organic matter. It is
an accumulation of individual particles
that are bonded together by
mechanical or attractive means, the
strength of the bonds being a small
fraction of the mineral particles. The
particles may range from colloidal size
to small boulders. Soil can also be
referred to as regolith, or loose rock
material.
DEFINITION OF SOIL
The term ‘soil’ is defined as an unconsolidated material, composed of solid particles, produced by the disintegration of
rocks.
According to Karl Terzaghi (1883-1963):
“Unfortunately, soils are made by nature and not by man, and the products of nature are always complex… As soon
as we pass from steel and concrete to earth, the omnipotence of theory ceases to exist. Natural soil is never uniform.
Its properties change from point to point while our knowledge of its properties are limited to those few spots at
which the samples have been collected. In soil mechanics the accuracy of computed results never exceeds that of a
crude estimate, and the principal function of theory consists in teaching us what and how to observe in the field.”
The term "soil" can have different meanings, depending upon the field in which it is considered.
To a geologist, it is the material in the relative thin zone of the Earth's surface within which roots occur, and which are
formed as the products of past surface processes. The rest of the crust is grouped under the term "rock".
To a pedologist (it is the study of soils in their natural environment), it is the substance existing on the surface, which
supports plant life.
To an engineer, it is a material that can be:
Built on: foundations of buildings, bridges.
Built in: basements, culverts, tunnels.
Built with: embankments, roads, dams.
Supported: retaining walls.
FORMATION OF SOILS
In the Earth's surface, rocks extend up to as much as 20 km depth. The major rock types are categorized as
igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
Igneous rocks: formed from crystalline bodies of cooled magma.
Sedimentary rocks: formed from layers of cemented sediments.
Metamorphic rocks: formed by the alteration of existing rocks due to heat from igneous intrusions or
pressure due to crustal movement.
Soils are formed from materials that have resulted from the disintegration of rocks by various processes of
physical and chemical weathering. The nature and structure of a given soil depends on the processes and
conditions that formed it:
Breakdown of parent rock: weathering, decomposition, erosion.
Transportation to site of final deposition: gravity, flowing water, ice, wind.
Environment of final deposition: flood plain, river terrace, glacial moraine, lacustrine or marine.
Subsequent conditions of loading and drainage: little or no surcharge, heavy surcharge due to ice or overlying
deposits, change from saline to freshwater, leaching, contamination.
All soils originate, directly or indirectly, from different rock types.
FORMATION OF SOILS
Soils are the fundamental resource supporting agriculture and forestry, as well as contributing to the
aesthetics of a green planet. They are also a base from which minerals are extracted and to which solid
wastes are disposed. In addition, soils act as a medium and filter for collection and movement of water. By
supporting plant growth, soil becomes a major determinant of atmospheric composition and therefore
earth's climate.
Soils are formed by weathering of rocks due to mechanical disintegration or chemical decomposition. When
a rock surface gets exposed to atmosphere for an appreciable time, it disintegrates or decomposes into small
particles and thus the soils are formed.
Soils are formed either by
(A) Physical Disintegration or
(B) Chemical decomposition of rocks.
A. PHYSICAL DISINTEGRATION
Physical disintegration or mechanical weathering of rocks occurs due to the following physical processes:
1. Temperature changes
Different minerals of rocks have different coefficients of thermal expansion. Unequal expansion and contraction of these
minerals occur due to temperature changes. When the stresses induced due to such changes are repeated many times,
the particles get detached from the rocks and the soils are formed.
2. Wedging action of ice
Water in the pores and minute cracks of rocks gets frozen in very cold climates. As the volume of ice formed is more
than that of water, expansion occurs. Rocks get broken into pieces when large stresses develop in the cracks due to
wedging action of the ice formed.
3. Spreading of roots of plants
As the roots of trees and shrubs grow in the cracks and fissures of the rocks, forces act on the rocks. The segments of the
rock are forced apart and disintegration of rocks occurs.
4. Abrasion
As water, wind and glaciers move over the surface of rock, abrasion and scouring takes place. It results in the formation
of soils.
Note: In all the processes of physical disintegration, there is no change in the chemical composition. The soil formed has
the properties of the parent rock. Coarse grained soils, such as gravel and sand, are formed by the process of physical
disintegration.
B. CHEMICAL DECOMPOSITION
When chemical decomposition or chemical weathering of rocks takes place, original rock minerals are transformed into
new minerals by chemical reactions. The soils formed do not have the properties of the parent rock. The following
chemical processes generally occur in nature:
1. Hydration
In hydration, water combines with rock minerals and results in the formation of a new chemical compound. The
chemical reaction causes a change in volume and decomposition of rock into small particles.
An example of hydration reaction that is taking place in soils is the hydrolysis of SiO2
SiO2+ 2H2O -------------- Si(OH)4
2. Carbonation
It is a type of chemical decomposition in which carbon dioxide in the atmosphere combines with water to form
carbonic acid. The carbonic acid reacts chemically with rocks and causes their decomposition.
The example for this type of is, that is taking place in sedimentary rocks which contain calcium carbonate.
3. Oxidation
Oxidation occurs when oxygen ions combine with minerals in rock. Oxidation results in decomposition of rocks.
Oxidation of rocks is somewhat similar to rusting of steel.
4. Solution
Some of the rock minerals form a solution with water when they get dissolved in water. Chemical reaction takes place
in the solution and the soils are formed.
5. Hydrolysis
It is a chemical process in which water gets dissociated into H+ and OH- ions. The hydrogen cations replace the metallic
ions such as calcium, sodium and potassium in rock minerals and soils are formed with a new chemical composition.
Note: Chemical decomposition of rocks result in the formation of clay minerals. The clay minerals impart plastic
properties of soils. Clayey soils are formed by chemical decomposition.
TYPES OF SOIL
Soils as they are found in different regions can be classified into two broad categories
(depending on the method of deposition)
(1) Residual soils (2) Transported soils
Residual Soils Residual soils are found at the same location where they have been formed. Generally, the depth
of residual soils varies from 5 to 20 m.
Transported Soils Weathered rock materials can be moved from their original site to new locations by one or
more of the transportation agencies to form transported soils. Transported soils are classified based on the
mode of transportation and the final deposition environment.
(a) Soils that are carried and deposited by rivers are called alluvial deposits.
(b) Soils that are deposited by flowing water or surface runoff while entering a lake are called lacustrine.
deposits. Alternate layers are formed in different seasons depending on flow rate.
(c) If the deposits are made by rivers in sea water, they are called marine deposits. Marine deposits contain
both particulate material brought from the shore as well as organic remnants of marine life forms.
(d) Melting of a glacier causes the deposition of all the materials scoured by it leading to formation of glacial
deposits.
(e) Soil particles carried by wind and subsequently deposited are known as aeolian deposits.
Different types of soils (Based on particle size):
(1) Bentonite: It is a type of clay with varies high
percentage of clay mineral montmorillonite. It
results for decomposition of volcanic ash.
(2) Clay: It consists of microscopic and sub
microscopic particles derived from the chemical
decomposition of rock. The soil size is known as
0.002 mm.
(3) Silt: It is fine grained soil particles size 0.002
to 0.075 mm. The particles are not visible to
eyes.
(4) Sand: It is a coarse grained soil, having
particle size between 0.075 to 4.75 mm. The
particles are visible to eyes.
(5) Gravel: Course grained soil size from 4.75 to
80 mm.
(6) Cobbles and Boulders: These are large size of
particles ranging from 80 to 300 mm.