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Edexcel IGCSE Maths A: Higher Your notes

Functions
Contents
Introduction to Functions
Domain & Range
Composite Functions
Inverse Functions

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Introduction to Functions
Your notes
Introduction to Functions
What is a function?
A function is a combination of one or more mathematical operations that takes a set of numbers and
changes them into another set of numbers
The numbers being put into the function are often called the inputs
The numbers coming out of the function are often called the outputs
A function may be thought of as a mathematical “machine”
For example, for the function “double the number and add 1”, the two mathematical operations are
"multiply by 2 (×2)" and "add 1 (+1)"
Putting 3 in to the function would give 2 × 3 + 1 = 7
Putting -4 in would give 2 × (-4) + 1 = -7

Putting x in would give 2x + 1

What is function notation?

A function, f, with input x can be written as f (x ) = . . . or f: x → . . .

These two different types of notation mean exactly the same thing
Letters other than f can be used
The letters g, h and j are common but any letter can be used
Typically, a new letter will be used to define a new function in a question
For example, the function with the rule “triple the number and subtract 4” would be written

f (x ) = 3x – 4
In such cases, "x " is the input and "f (x ) " is the output

Sometimes functions don’t have names like f and are just written as y = …

E.g. y = 3x – 4

How does a function work?

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A function has an input x and an output f (x )

If the input is 2, then the output is f (2) Your notes

If the input is m , then the output is f ( m )

If the input is t + 5 , then the output is f (t + 5)

You cannot simplify this output any further

If the function is known, the output can be calculated

For example, given the function f (x ) = 2x + 1

f (3) = 2 × 3 + 1 = 7
f ( − 4) = 2 × ( − 4) + 1 = − 7
f (a) = 2a + 1
If the output is known, an equation can be formed and solved to find the input

For example, given the function f (x ) = 2x + 1

If f (x ) = 15, then form an equation by replacing f (x ) with 2x + 1

2x + 1 = 15
Solving this equation gives an input of 7

Note that f (x ) = 15 and f ( 15) are very different things:

f (x ) = 15 means an input of x gives an output of 15

f ( 15) means substitute the input 15 into the function

What is a mapping diagram?

A mapping diagram shows a set of different inputs going into the function to become a set of
different outputs
Transforming inputs into outputs is called mapping

For example, a mapping diagram for the function f (x ) = x + 3 where x ≥ 3 could be shown as:

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Your notes

Worked Example
A function is defined as f (x ) = 3x 2 − 2x + 1 .

(a) Find f (7) .

The input is x = 7 , so substitute 7 into the expression everywhere you see an x

f (7) = 3(7) 2 − 2(7) + 1

Calculate

f (7) = 3( 49) − 14 + 1
= 147 − 14 + 1

f 7 = 134
( )

(b) Find f (x + 3) , giving your answer in the form ax 2 + bx + c where a , b and c are integers to
be found.

The input is (x + 3) so substitute (x + 3) into the expression everywhere you see an x

This is like replacing x with (x + 3)

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f (x + 3) = 3(x + 3) 2 − 2(x + 3) + 1
Expand the brackets and simplify Your notes
Use that (x + 3) 2 = (x + 3) (x + 3)
Be careful with negative signs

f (x + 3) = 3(x 2 + 6x + 9) − 2(x + 3) + 1
= 3x 2 + 18x + 27 − 2x − 6 + 1
= 3x 2 + 16x + 22

f x + 3 = 3 x 2 + 16 x + 22
( )

(a = 3, b = 16, c = 22)

A second function is defined by g: x → 3x – 4 .

(c) Find the value of x for which g: x → − 16.

This notation is not saying substitute 16 into the function (that would be g :16 )
It says that an input x is substituted into g giving the output -16 (i.e. g (x ) = − 16)
To find the input, form an equation by replacing g: x with 3x − 4

3x − 4 = − 16
Solve the equation (for example, by adding 4 to both sides, then dividing by 3)

3x − 4 = − 16
3x = − 12
12
x=−
3
x = −4

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Domain & Range

Your notes
Domain & Range
How are functions related to graphs?
Functions can be represented as graphs on x and y axes
The x-axis values are the inputs
The y-axis values are the outputs

To see what graph to plot, replace f (x ) = . . . with y = . . .

What is the domain?

The domain of a function is the set of all inputs that the function is allowed to take

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Domains can be described in words

Domains must refer to x Your notes
not y or f(x)
You can use "not equal to" ≠ if needed
You can use inequality signs if needed
What are examples of domains?
Examples of domains are below:

1
f (x ) = takes any x value except 0 (you cannot divide by 0)
x
The domain is "all values of x except 0", or simply "x ≠ 0"

f (x ) = x takes any x value that is not negative (you cannot take the square root of a negative)
The domain is "x ≥ 0"

f (x ) = x 2 takes any x value (negative x values are fine as inputs)

The domain is "all values of x"

f (x ) = 3x + 2 takes any x value

The domain is "all values of x"

What are restricted domains and values excluded from

domains?
Some domains are restricted by choice

f (x ) = 3x + 2 with the domain 0 < x < 5

This question wants to concentrate on that domain only (even though bigger domains exist)
Some domains must exclude certain values (or sets of values)

1
f (x ) = must exclude x = 1 and x = -7 from any domain
(x − 1) (x + 7)
These two inputs make the function undefined (dividing by zero)

f (x ) = x − 3 must exclude x < 3 from any domain

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Any input in x < 3 leads to square-rooting a negative

Your notes

What is the range?

The range of a function is the set of all outputs that the function gives out
Ranges can be described in words
Ranges must refer to f(x)
not x or y
You can use "not equal to" ≠ if needed
You can use inequality signs if needed
Ranges depend on domains
Examples of ranges are below:

f (x ) = 3x + 2 with the domain x > 0

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If x = 0 then f(0) = 3(0) + 2 = 2

The range is "f(x) > 2" Your notes
This is because if all inputs are greater than 0, all outputs will be greater than 2
This could be seen from a sketch or by substituting inputs of x > 0 into f(x)
f (x ) = x 2 with domain "all values of x"
The range is f(x) ≥ 0
This is because all values of x get squared (so no negative outputs are created)
Any negative value that goes in comes out positive
(0 goes in and comes out as 02 = 0)
How can I use graphs to find ranges?
Ranges are easier if you know the shapes of different types of graphs

1
For example, the shapes of y = , y = x 2 , y = x 3 , trig graphs, etc
x
They may also involve graph transformations

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Your notes

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Your notes

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Sketching a function in an exam can help to "see" both the domain and range of that function

Worked Example
Two functions are given by

1
f (x ) = 10 − x g(x ) =
2x − 1
(a) If the domain of the function f is 2 < x ≤ 4 , find the range.

The domain is the set of inputs

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Substitute x = 2 into f(x) to find its output

f (2) = 10 − 2 Your notes

=8
Substitute x = 4 into f(x) to find its output

f (4) = 10 − 4
=6
Think of f(x) = 10 - x as a graph

the graph of y = 10 − x

This straight-line graph has a negative gradient

Between x = 2 and x = 4 the graph decreases from a height of 8 to a height of 6
Relate this to outputs
all outputs are between 6 and 8
Write down the range using f(x)
Remember that the inequality is "equal to" at x = 4, f(x) = 6
(this is the opposite order of "equal to" in the domain)

The range is 6≤f x < 8

( )

(b) Write down the value of x that must be excluded from the domain of function g .

An input cannot cause the function to divide by zero

Find out when "dividing by zero" would happen

2x − 1 = 0
Solve to find this value of x (the one that must be excluded)

2x = 1
1
x=
2

x = 12 must be excluded from the domain

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Composite Functions
Your notes
Composite Functions
What is a composite function?
A composite function is a function applied to the output of another function
Composite functions may also referred to as compound functions

What notation is used for composite functions?

If f (x ) and g(x ) are two functions, then

g( f (x ) ) is a composite function
Also written gf: x

It means the input x goes through function f first

This gives the output f (x )

Then this output, f (x ) , becomes the input of function g , giving g( f (x ) )

gf(x ) is the shorthand notation used for g( f (x ) )

It means do f first, then g

The order of applying the functions goes from right to left

(the letter nearest the bracket goes first)
This is often the opposite of what people expect!

fg(x ) means do g(x ) first then f (x ) second

ff(x ) means apply f (x ) twice!
This can be written f 2 (x )

This does not mean the same as ⎢⎣ f (x ) ⎥⎦ 2

⎡ ⎤

Examiner Tips and Tricks

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A good trick in the exam is to write brackets around gf(x ) to make it g( f (x ) ) , to see that it is "g" of
"f(x)".
Your notes
How do I substitute numbers into composite functions?
If you are putting a number into a composite function
put the number into the function closest to (x)
then make the output of the first function the input of the second function

1
For example, if f (x ) = 2x + 1 and g(x ) =
x
to find gf(2) :

Put the 2 in as the input of f first

f (2) = 2(2) + 1 = 5
Then put 5 in as the input of g

1
So gf(2) = g( f (2) ) = g(5) =
5
to find fg(2) :

Put the 2 in as the input of g first

1
g(2) =
2
1
Then put in as the input of f
2
⎛1 ⎞⎟ ⎛1 ⎞⎟
So fg(2) = f (g(2) ) = f ⎜⎜ ⎟ = 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟+1=2
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
to find ff(2) :

f (2) = 2 × 2 + 1 = 5
f (5) = 2 × 5 + 1 = 11

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so ff(2) = 11
How do I find composite functions algebraically? Your notes
If you are using algebra, substitute the whole algebraic expression as your input

1
For example, if f (x ) = 2x + 1 and g(x ) =
x
⎛1 ⎞⎟ ⎛1 ⎞⎟ 2
fg(x ) = f (g(x ) ) = f ⎜⎜ ⎟ = 2 × ⎜⎜ ⎟+1= +1
⎝x ⎠ ⎝x ⎠ x
1
gf(x ) = g( f (x ) ) = g(2x + 1) =
2x + 1
ff(x ) = f ( f (x ) ) = f (2x + 1) = 2(2x + 1) + 1 which simplifies to ff(x ) = 4x + 3

Worked Example
In this question, f (x ) = 2x − 1 and g: x → (x + 2) 2 .

(a) Find fg(4) .

"g" is on the inside of the composite function, so apply g first

g(4) = (4 + 2) 2 = 62 = 36
Now apply the function "f" to 36

f ( 36) = 2( 36) − 1
= 72 − 1

fg 4 = 71
( )

(b) Find gf(x ) .

"f" is on the inside of the composite function so substitute the function f(x) into g(x)
It can help to write gf(x ) = g( f (x ) )

gf(x ) = g( f (x ) ) = g(2x − 1) = ( (2x − 1) + 2) 2

Simplify inside the bracket

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gf(x ) = (2x − 1 + 2) 2
gf x = 2 x + 1 2
( ) ( )
Your notes

You do not need to expand the answer

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Inverse Functions
Your notes
Inverse Functions
What is an inverse function?
An inverse function does the opposite (reverse) operation of the function it came from
E.g. If a function “doubles the number then adds 1”
Then its inverse function “subtracts 1, then halves the result”
The same inverse operations are used when solving an equation or rearranging a formula
An inverse function performs the inverse operations in the reverse order

What notation is used for inverse functions?

The inverse function of f (x ) is written as f −1 (x ) = … or f −1: x ↦…
For example, if f (x ) = 2x + 1

x −1 x −1
The inverse function is f −1 (x ) = or f −1: x ↦
2 2
If f ( a ) = b then f −1 (b ) = a

For example

f (3) = 2 × 3 + 1 = 7 (inputting 3 into f gives 7)

7−1
f −1 (7) = = 3 (inputting 7 into f −1 gives back 3)
2

How do I find an inverse function algebraically?

The process for finding an inverse function is as follows:

Write the function as y = ...

E.g. The function f (x ) = 2x + 1 becomes y = 2x + 1

Swap the x s and y s to get x = …

E.g. x = 2y + 1

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The letters change but no terms move

y
Rearrange the expression to make the subject again
Your notes
x −1
E.g. x = 2y + 1 becomes x − 1 = 2y so y =
2
Replace y with f −1 (x ) = … (or f −1: x ↦ …)
x −1
E.g. f −1 (x ) =
2
This is the inverse function

y should not appear in the final answer

How are inverse functions and composite functions related?
The composite function of f followed by f −1 (or the other way round) cancels out

ff−1 (x ) = f −1 f (x ) = x
If you apply a function to x, then apply its inverse function, you get back x
Whatever happened to x gets undone
f and f-1 cancel each other out when applied together

For example, solve f −1 (x ) = 5 where f (x ) = 2x

Finding the inverse function f −1 (x ) algebraically in this case is tricky

(It is impossible if you haven't studied logarithms!)

Instead, you can take f of both sides of f −1 (x ) = 5 and use the fact that ff−1 cancel each other
out:

ff−1 (x ) = f (5) which cancels to x = f (5) giving x = 25 = 32

How do I find the domain and range of an inverse function?

The domain of an inverse function has exactly the same values as the range of the original function

3
E.g. If f (x ) = has a range of f (x ) > 5
x +1

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3
then its inverse function, f −1 (x ) = − 1 , has the domain x > 5
x Your notes
Remember to always write domains in terms of x
The range of an inverse function has exactly the same values as the domain of the original function

3
E.g. If f (x ) = has a domain of x < − 1
x +1
3
then its inverse function, f −1 (x ) = − 1 , has the range f −1 (x ) < − 1
x
Remember to always write ranges in terms of their function, f −1 (x )

Worked Example
A function f (x ) = 5 − 3x has the domain −2 < x ≤ 7 .

(a) Use algebra to find f −1 (x ) .

Write the function in the form y = 5 − 3x and then swap the x and y

y = 5 − 3x
x = 5 − 3y
Rearrange the expression to make y the subject again

x = 5 − 3y
x + 3y = 5
3y = 5 − x
5−x
y=
3
Rewrite the answer using inverse function notation

f −1 x = 5 −3 x
( )

(b) Find the domain of f −1 (x ) .

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The domain of the inverse function is the range of the original function

Find the range of f (x ) by first finding f (−2) and f (7) Your notes
f (−2) = 5 − 3(−2) = 5 + 6 = 11
f (7) = 5 − 3(7) = 5 − 21 = − 16
The graph of y = 5 − 3x is a straight line with a negative gradient
Between x = -2 and x = 7 the graph decreases from a height of 11 to a height of -16

The range of f (x ) is −16 ≤ f (x ) < 11

Note that the inequality is "equal to" at x = 7, f(x) = -16

(this is the opposite order of "equal to" in the domain)

The domain of f −1 (x ) takes the same values as range of f (x )

Write down the domain of f −1 (x )
(Remember that domains are always written in terms of x )

− 16 ≤ x < 11

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