Philippine Normal University - Visayas

The National Center for Teacher Education

Center for Environment and Green Technology Education
Cadiz City, Negros Occidental

Lesson 2: The Beginning

- Universe - 10B yrs. old; Solar System -4.6 B yrs. old; Earth -4.5 B yrs. old; Life on Earth – 3.5 B yrs. old
The beginning of the Earth is a remarkable narrative that unfolds over 4.5 billion years, highlighting the
dynamic processes that transformed a lifeless mass of gas and dust into the vibrant planet we inhabit today.
Around 3.5 billion years ago, life began to emerge in the oceans. Simple microorganisms, like bacteria, were among
the first life forms. Through a process called photosynthesis, some of these organisms started to produce oxygen,
which gradually transformed the atmosphere. This event, known as the Great Oxygenation Event, paved the way
for more complex life forms to evolve.

A. Theories on the origin of the Earth and the Solar System

❖ Scientific Theories
➢ Two (2) Kinds of Scientific Theory:
1. Natural/ Evolutionary View - explanations emphasize gradual processes over time, much like
the principles of biological evolution. These theories draw from astronomy, physics, and geology
to describe how celestial bodies formed and evolved.
✓ The Nebular Hypothesis - suggests that the Solar System formed from a rotating cloud of
gas and dust, leading to the birth of the Sun and its surrounding planets. Immanuel Kant:
Proposed the initial idea of a nebular origin for the Solar System in 1755. Pierre-Simon
Laplace: Expanded on Kant's ideas in the late 18th century, providing a more
comprehensive model of the nebular formation.
o Formation of a Solar Nebula: The Solar System originated from a solar nebula,
a large mass of gas and dust.
o Gravitational Collapse: The nebula underwent gravitational collapse due to
instabilities, leading to increased temperature and density.
o Formation of Protoplanets: As the material clumped together, it formed
smaller bodies known as planetesimals, which eventually coalesced into
protoplanets like Earth.
✓ The Solar Nebula Theory -Building upon the Nebular Hypothesis, the Solar Nebula
Theory incorporates modern astrophysical insights to explain the formation of the Solar
System. Carl Sagan: His work in the 1970s and 80s helped popularize the Solar Nebula
Theory and provided observational support for its tenets.
o Angular Momentum: As the nebula collapsed, it spun faster, forming a rotating
disk around the Sun.
o Temperature Gradient: The disk's temperature gradient led to the
differentiation of materials, allowing rocky planets to form closer to the Sun and
gas giants to form further away.
o Planetary Migration: This theory accounts for the movement of planets from
their original orbits due to gravitational interactions.
✓ The Accretion Theory - It focuses on the gradual accumulation of dust and gas in the
early Solar System, leading to the formation of planets through a process of accretion.
The concept of accretion has been developed by numerous astronomers and planetary
scientists over the years, including notable contributions from the field of astrophysics.
o Gradual Accumulation: Small particles collided and stuck together, gradually
building larger bodies over time.
o Formation of Planets: As these bodies grew, they attracted more material via
their gravitational pull, leading to the formation of planets, moons, and other
celestial objects.
o Role of Gravity: The process emphasizes the role of gravity in pulling together
material from the protoplanetary disk.

2. Catastrophic View - the origin of the Earth and the Solar System posits that significant, often sudden events
have played crucial roles in shaping celestial bodies and their features. These theories emphasize dramatic
changes, such as cosmic collisions and other large-scale events, which contrast with the gradual processes
highlighted in evolutionary theories.
✓ The Giant Impact Hypothesis - one of the most prominent theories describing the formation of the Earth-
Moon system, suggesting that the Moon was created from debris resulting from a colossal collision
between the early Earth and a Mars-sized body known as Theia. William K. Hartmann and Donald R.
Davis: These scientists proposed this hypothesis in the 1970s, offering a compelling explanation for the
Moon's origin and its relationship with Earth.
Course: 2S SOC O3 (WORLD HISTORY)
Instructor: Gerly May M. Garde
 o Cataclysmic Collision: A significant impact event ejected vast amounts of material into orbit
around the Earth.
o Formation of the Moon: The ejected debris eventually coalesced to form the Moon, which shares
similarities in composition with Earth.
o Geological Effects: The impact is believed to have caused substantial geological changes,
including alterations in Earth’s rotation and axial tilt.
✓ The Catastrophic Model of Planetary Formation - This theory suggests that planets may form through
a series of catastrophic events, including significant collisions and gravitational interactions among
celestial bodies in the early Solar System. While there is no single proponent of this theory, various
researchers and astrophysicists have contributed to the understanding of catastrophic effects in planetary
formation, drawing from observational data and computational models.
o Dramatic Interactions: The model emphasizes that planets, including Earth, formed rapidly
through violent collisions rather than gradual accumulation of material.
o Role of Cosmic Events: It considers how events such as supernovae and the gravitational
influence of nearby stars could lead to destabilization of orbits and the collision of planets and
planetoids.
o Influence on Planetary Characteristics: The catastrophic events during formation may explain
certain geological features and compositions of planets.
✓ The Tidal Theory - suggests that the formation of bodies in the Solar System could result from the
gravitational effects of a large body passing near the Sun, leading to tidal forces that cause material to be
pulled away and form planets. Pierre-Simon Laplace (1796): Although not exclusively a proponent of
the Tidal Theory, Laplace’s work on gravitational interactions laid foundational ideas for understanding
how such encounters could lead to planetary formation.
o Gravitational Disturbances: This theory emphasizes how close encounters with massive
celestial bodies can lead to the ejection of material from the Sun's vicinity.
o Formation of Planets from Tidal Debris: The debris generated by these encounters could
coalesce to form planets, moons, and other celestial structures.
o Dynamic Interactions: It highlights the importance of dynamic interactions in shaping the early
Solar System

❖ Biblical/Religious Views - a topic of profound interest and interpretation within various religious
traditions, particularly in Judeo-Christian contexts. These interpretations often emphasize divine creation,
moral teachings, and the significance of humanity within the cosmos
✓ Creationism - is the belief that the universe, Earth, and all forms of life were created by a divine being,
specifically as described in the Bible. This view is particularly prominent among certain Christian groups.
Young Earth Creationists (YEC): Individuals and groups advocating for a literal interpretation of the
Bible, such as those affiliated with the Institute for Creation Research (ICR) and Answers in Genesis (AiG).
Henry Morris, a founder of the modern Creation Science movement, is a prominent advocate of Young
Earth Creationism.
o Divine Creation: Creationism asserts that God created the Earth and all living beings
intentionally and purposefully.
o Six-Day Creation: Many adherents refer to the Genesis account (Genesis 1:1-31), which
describes the creation of the world in six days, concluding with the creation of humans.
o Literal Interpretation: Some creationists interpret the Biblical texts literally, suggesting that the
Earth is approximately 6,000 to 10,000 years old, based on genealogies found in the Bible
✓ Theistic Evolution - is a viewpoint that reconciles religious beliefs with scientific theories of evolution,
positing that God used evolutionary processes to create life on Earth. Biologos: Founded by Francis
Collins, this organization promotes theistic evolution and encourages dialogue between science and faith.
Scientists and theologians such as C.S. Lewis and John Polkinghorne have expressed views that align with
theistic evolution.
o Divine Guidance: Theistic evolutionists believe that while evolutionary biology explains the
development of life, God actively guided this process.
o Compatibility with Science: This perspective asserts that evolutionary theory and the Biblical
creation narrative can coexist, viewing the Genesis account as non-literal or metaphorical.
o Focus on God’s Role: This view emphasizes that God is the ultimate cause of all creation, using
natural processes to bring about life.
✓ Gap Theory (Ruin-Restoration Theory) - posits a significant time gap between the first two verses of
Genesis, suggesting that the Earth is much older than a literal reading of the text might imply. The Gap
Theory gained traction in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the works of theologians like
Thomas Chalmers and later advocates such as Arthur Custance.
o Time Gap: Proponents argue that the phrase "the earth was without form and void" (Genesis 1:2)
indicates a chaotic state that could accommodate a long period of pre-creation events.
o Restoration Process: The theory suggests that God restored the Earth during the six days of
creation described in Genesis, allowing for an ancient Earth while maintaining the theological
narrative of creation.
o Incorporation of Scientific Findings: This view attempts to reconcile the Biblical account with
geological and paleontological evidence supporting an ancient Earth.

Course: 2S SOC O3 (WORLD HISTORY)

Instructor: Gerly May M. Garde
3. Mythological Views - Various cultures have developed mythological narratives that attempt to explain how the
Earth came into being and how it fits into the broader cosmos. These narratives not only reflect the values and
beliefs of the cultures from which they originate but also provide insights into humanity's relationship with nature
and the universe. Scholars and proponents of these mythologies continue to study these narratives, revealing their
relevance in contemporary discussions about identity, environment, and cosmology.

❖ Chaos-Driven Theories - assert that the universe originated from a primordial state of disorder or chaos.
Many ancient cultures viewed chaos as the foundational element from which the cosmos emerged. This
perspective is found in several mythologies, most notably in the Greek, Babylonian, and Egyptian
traditions.
o Ancient Near Eastern Myths -One of the earliest mythological accounts comes from the Ancient
Near East, particularly in Mesopotamian cultures. The Babylonian creation myth, known as
the Enuma Elish, describes a cosmic battle between the god Marduk and the primordial sea
goddess Tiamat. According to this myth, the world was created from Tiamat's body after Marduk
defeated her. The heavens and the earth were separated, with Marduk creating the sky from
Tiamat's upper half and the land from her lower half. This narrative highlight’s themes of chaos
and order, emphasizing the need for a powerful deity to impose structure on the primordial chaos.
The Enuma Elish serves multiple functions: it legitimizes Marduk's supremacy among the gods
and reflects the societal values of a civilization that rose to power through conquest and warfare.
Scholars such as Thorkild Jacobsen have studied these texts to understand their implications on
early human societies and their views on the cosmos
o Greek Mythology - The Greek poet Hesiod, in his work Theogony, outlines a genealogy of the gods
and describes the creation of the world. According to this account, the universe began with Chaos,
a void or abyss. From Chaos emerged Gaia (the Earth), Tartarus (the underworld), and Eros
(love), who facilitated creation. Gaia then gave birth to Uranus (the sky), and together, they
produced the Titans, the primordial gods who shaped the world. Hesiod’s narrative emphasizes
the importance of familial relationships among the gods and the cyclical nature of life and death.
The Greeks viewed their gods as powerful yet flawed beings, which influenced their
understanding of humanity’s place within the cosmos. Proponents of this interpretation, such as
Robert Graves, have analyzed these myths to explore their deeper meanings and implications for
human existence
o Egyptian Mythology - In Egyptian mythology, the concept of chaos is represented by the watery
abyss known as Nun. According to the Heliopolitan creation myth, the sun god Ra emerged from
Nun, bringing light and order. This myth highlights the transition from formlessness to the
structured cosmos, with Ra creating the world and the gods from his own essence. The underlying
theme of chaos transforming into order is a recurring motif in many mythological accounts.

❖ Ex Nihilo Theories - propose that the universe was created from nothing, often through divine
intervention. This viewpoint is prevalent in several religious and cultural traditions, emphasizing the role
of a creator deity.
o Hindu Cosmology - In Hindu mythology, the concept of creation is articulated through various
texts, including the Rigveda and the Puranas. One prominent creation myth involves the god
Vishnu, who lives on the cosmic ocean, symbolizing the infinite. From Vishnu's navel, a lotus
emerges, which gives rise to Brahma, the creator god. Brahma then creates the world and all living
beings. Hindu cosmology is characterized by its cyclical view of time, where the universe
undergoes repeated cycles of creation, preservation, and destruction. This belief in cycles is
reflected in the concept of kalpas, vast periods of time during which the universe exists before
being dissolved and recreated. Scholars such as David Kinsley have explored the implications of
these cyclical narratives on Hindu culture and their understanding of existence.
o Native American Cosmology - Different Native American tribes have their own unique creation
stories that reflect their cultural values and beliefs. For example, the Navajo creation story
describes the emergence of the Earth from a series of underworlds. The first beings, known as the
Holy People, emerged from the darkness to create the world. They shaped the land, established
natural features, and populated it with plants and animals. These narratives often emphasize the
interconnectedness of all living beings and the importance of harmony with nature. Proponents
of Native American mythology, such as Vine Deloria Jr., have highlighted the significance of these
creation stories in fostering environmental stewardship and a sustainable relationship with the
Earth.
o Judeo-Christian Perspective - It describes God creating the universe through mere command:
"Let there be light," and thus, light was created. This act of creation from nothing underscores the
omnipotence of God, who shapes the cosmos without pre-existing materials. The orderly
progression of creation—light, sky, land, vegetation, celestial bodies, and living beings—reflects
a structured approach to the formation of the world
o Islamic Perspective - The Quran states that Allah created the heavens and the earth from
nothing, emphasizing His power and wisdom. In Surah Al-Anbya, it is mentioned, "Do not those
who disbelieve see that the heavens and the earth were a closed-up mass, then We opened them
out?" This verse highlights the idea of creation as a deliberate act by a divine will, where the
universe emerges from a state of non-existence.

Course: 2S SOC O3 (WORLD HISTORY)

Instructor: Gerly May M. Garde
 B. Formation of Continents
The formation of continents is a complex and dynamic process shaped by various geological
theories. The understanding of the ever-changing landscape of Earth. These theories illustrate that
continents are not static but rather active participants in Earth's geological history, continuously evolving
over millions of years. Understanding these processes is crucial for geologists and environmental
scientists as they study Earth's past and predict its future.

➢ Continental Drift Theory - Proposed by Alfred Wegener in the early 20th century, the Continental Drift
Theory posits that continents were once part of a single supercontinent known as Pangaea. According to
Wegener, Pangaea began to break apart around 200 million years ago, leading to the gradual movement
of continents to their current positions.
o Fossil Evidence: Similar fossilized plants and animals have been found on continents now
separated by vast oceans. For example, fossils of the Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile, have been
discovered in both South America and Africa, suggesting that these continents were once
connected.
o Geological Similarities: Wegener noted that mountain ranges and rock formations in different
continents share striking similarities. The Appalachian Mountains in North America and the
Caledonian Mountains in Scotland exhibit similar geological structures, indicating that they were
once part of the same mountain range.
o Fit of Continents: The coastlines of continents like South America and Africa appear to fit
together like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. This observation led Wegener to hypothesize that the
continents were once joined before drifting apart.
Note: While the Continental Drift Theory was groundbreaking, it faced criticism due to the lack of a
mechanism explaining how continents could move. It was not until the development of the Plate Tectonics
Theory in the 1960s that Wegener's ideas gained wider acceptance. Plate tectonics provided a scientific basis
for continental movement, attributing it to the movement of tectonic plates floating on the semi-fluid
asthenosphere beneath Earth's crust.

➢ Land Bridge Theory - also known as the Land Bridge Hypothesis, suggests that landmasses were once
connected by land bridges that facilitated the movement of species between continents. This theory is
particularly significant in explaining the distribution of flora and fauna, especially during periods of
glaciation when sea levels were lower.
o Bering Land Bridge: One of the most well-known examples is the Bering Land Bridge, which
connected Asia and North America during the last Ice Age. This land bridge allowed early humans
and various animal species, such as mammoths and bison, to migrate between the continents.
o Other Land Bridges: Similar land bridges may have existed between continents such as Africa
and Europe or South America and North America. These connections would have enabled the
exchange of species and contributed to the biodiversity we observe today.
o Impact of Climate Change: The theory emphasizes how climate change has played a crucial role
in the formation and disappearance of land bridges. As climate conditions shifted, land bridges
emerged and submerged, influencing migration patterns and species distribution.

➢ Other Theories of Continental Formation

In addition to the Continental Drift and Land Bridge theories, several other theories contribute to the
understanding of continental formation:
o Plate Tectonics Theory: As previously mentioned, this theory builds upon the ideas of
continental drift. It posits that Earth's lithosphere is divided into tectonic plates that float on the
semi-fluid asthenosphere. The interaction of these plates leads to the formation of continents,
earthquakes, and volcanic activity.
o Isostasy: This theory explains how the Earth's crust maintains equilibrium. When large masses,
such as glaciers, melt, the crust can rebound, leading to the uplift of land and the formation of new
landforms. Isostasy helps to understand the vertical movement of continents and their geological
features.
o Seafloor Spreading: Proposed by Harry Hess in the 1960s, this theory suggests that new oceanic
crust forms at mid-ocean ridges as tectonic plates move apart. This process contributes to the
movement of continents away from each other, further explaining the dynamic nature of Earth's
surface.
o Wilson Cycle: This theory describes the cyclical process of continental rifting, ocean formation,
and subsequent closure. It illustrates how continents can break apart and reform over geological
time, emphasizing the ongoing nature of continental formation.

C. The Origin of Man

Various theories have emerged of the origin of man which had fascinated scholars, scientists, and
philosophers, each offering different perspectives and insights into the complex processes that shaped
how humanity came to be. The theories on the origin of man reflect a rich tapestry of scientific inquiry and
human curiosity.

➢ Theory of Evolution - One of the most influential theories regarding the origin of man is the Theory of
Evolution, primarily associated with Charles Darwin. Introduced in the 19th century, Darwin's theory
Course: 2S SOC O3 (WORLD HISTORY)
Instructor: Gerly May M. Garde
 posits that all species, including humans, have evolved over time through a process known as natural
selection. According to this theory, individuals with traits advantageous for survival are more likely to
reproduce, passing these favorable traits to the next generation. The Theory of Evolution is supported by
extensive fossil records and genetic evidence, demonstrating a shared ancestry among species. For
example, hominids, the group that includes modern humans and our ancestors, show a clear evolutionary
pathway through various species such as Australopithecus, Homo habilis, and Homo erectus. Each of these
species exhibits characteristics that reflect adaptations to their environments, providing insights into the
gradual changes that led to modern humans.

➢ Out of Africa Theory - The Out of Africa Theory is another significant perspective on human origins. This
theory suggests that modern humans (Homo sapiens) originated in Africa and subsequently migrated to
other parts of the world. Genetic evidence supports this theory, indicating that the genetic diversity of
human populations is greatest in Africa, suggesting that all non-African populations are descended from
a relatively small group that left the continent around 60,000 to 80,000 years ago. Proponents of the Out
of Africa Theory point to archaeological findings, including tools and fossil remains, that indicate early
human migration routes. This theory emphasizes the importance of Africa as the cradle of humanity,
highlighting the continent's role in shaping our species. It also addresses the interactions between
migrating groups and local populations, leading to the rich tapestry of human cultures we see today.

➢ East Asia River System Theory - The East Asia River System Theory presents a different perspective on
human origins, focusing on the role of geography in shaping human settlement and migration patterns.
This theory posits that the major river systems in East Asia, such as the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers,
provided fertile land and abundant resources that attracted early human populations. The theory suggests
that these river systems enabled the development of agriculture and settled communities, which in turn
led to population growth and increased complexity in social structures. Proponents argue that the
abundance of natural resources along these rivers facilitated the emergence of early civilizations,
influencing the paths of migration and human development in East Asia. This perspective highlights the
interplay between environmental factors and human evolution, suggesting that geography has played a
crucial role in shaping human history.

➢ Migration Wave Theory - The Migration Wave Theory builds upon the idea of human migration but
emphasizes the patterns and waves of migration throughout history. This theory posits that human
populations have not only migrated out of Africa but have done so in various waves, influenced by factors
such as climate change, resource availability, and social dynamics. Each wave of migration is characterized
by distinct movements of people, often leading to the spread of cultures, technologies, and languages. For
example, significant migrations occurred during the last Ice Age when changing climates prompted groups
to seek new habitats. This theory highlights the dynamic nature of human populations and their ability to
adapt to changing circumstances, shaping the diverse cultures and societies we see today.

➢ Other Theories on the Origin of Man - In addition to the aforementioned theories, several other
hypotheses contribute to the understanding of human origins. These include the:
o Multiregional Hypothesis, which suggests that modern humans evolved simultaneously in
different parts of the world. The Multiregional Hypothesis posits that early human populations
in Africa, Europe, and Asia developed concurrently, interbreeding and sharing genetic material.
This theory contrasts with the Out of Africa Theory and emphasizes the complexity of human
evolution as a global process
o Cultural Evolution Theory, which emphasizes the role of culture in human development. The
Cultural Evolution Theory focuses on how cultural practices, innovations, and social structures
have influenced human behavior and development, shaping the trajectory of our species.

D. Man, and His Physical World

The salient features of man and his physical environment highlight the intricate relationship that
has developed recognizing the interconnectedness of human activities and the natural world to
understand how societies develop, adapt, and interact with the world around them.

Changes that took place prior to the Development of Life on Earth - Geologists have made
chronological arrangement of sediments by using the law of superposition.
Law of Superposition - used by geologist in arranging chronologically the sediments.
Fossils- serve as index to time.
Fossils located in the lowest potion of the earth is much older than fossils located in the surface.
A. Revolution - characterized by the lifting and sinking of the areas of the earth. This takes
place for millions of years.
B. Major Earthquake and Volcanic Eruption - changes result to: climatic condition, shape
of the continent, produce new mountains
C. Quiet - characterized by erosion and disposition. Sediments accumulated in basins and
geocyclines near mountains

Course: 2S SOC O3 (WORLD HISTORY)

Instructor: Gerly May M. Garde
Early humans had a profound relationship with their environment and this relationship shaped man’s
survival, social structures, and cultural development. Understanding this relationship provides valuable
insights into the development of human societies and their ongoing interaction with the natural world. As early
humans navigated their environments, they laid the foundations for future civilizations, highlighting the
importance of human practices and others to survive on Earth.
➢ Dependency on Natural Resources
o Food Sources: Early humans were primarily hunter-gatherers, relying on the natural
availability of animals, fish, and edible plants for sustenance. This dependency necessitated
knowledge of seasonal patterns and local ecosystems.
o Water Supply: Access to freshwater from rivers, lakes, and springs was crucial for drinking,
cooking, and sanitation. Proximity to water sources influenced settlement patterns.
o Materials for Shelter: Early humans used available materials such as wood, stone, and animal
hides to construct shelters, reflecting their immediate environment's resources.
➢ Adaptation to Environmental Conditions
o Climatic Adaptations: As climates changed, early humans adapted their lifestyles. For example,
during the Ice Age, they developed strategies for hunting large mammals and creating warm
clothing from animal skins.
o Migration Patterns: Changes in climate and resource availability prompted early humans to
migrate. This movement led to the exploration of new territories and the development of
diverse cultures.
o Seasonal Living: Early man often lived a nomadic lifestyle, moving seasonally to follow animal
migrations and seasonal plant growth, demonstrating a deep understanding of their
environment.
➢ Influence on the Environment
o Hunting Practices: The hunting of large game animals, such as mammoths and bison, had
significant impacts on animal populations and ecosystems. Overhunting could lead to the
decline of certain species, altering local biodiversity.
o Fire Usage: Early humans learned to use fire for cooking, warmth, and protection. This not only
influenced their diet and social practices but also affected the environment by altering
landscapes through controlled burns.
o Foraging and Gathering: The gathering of wild plants and nuts led to the modification of local
flora. Early humans often favored certain plants, which may have resulted in changes in plant
distribution.
➢ Cultural and Spiritual Connections
o Mythology and Beliefs: Early humans often viewed nature as sacred, attributing spiritual
significance to natural elements such as rivers, mountains, and animals. This connection
influenced their rituals and social structures.
o Artistic Expression: Cave paintings and carvings reflect early humans’ interaction with their
environment, depicting animals they hunted and the landscapes they inhabited, indicating their
deep connection to nature.
o Community and Cooperation: Survival often depended on cooperative hunting and gathering.
This reliance on the environment fostered social bonds and communal living.
5. Technological Innovations
• Tool Development: Early humans created tools from stone, bone, and wood to enhance their ability
to hunt, gather, and process food. The development of tools was directly influenced by
environmental needs.
• Agricultural Practices: The transition from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to agriculture marked a
significant change in the relationship with the environment. Early agricultural practices involved
selecting and cultivating specific plants, leading to more permanent settlements.
• Domestication of Animals: Early humans began domesticating animals for food, labor, and
companionship, which further transformed their environment and lifestyle.
6.Social Structures and Community Organization
o Tribal Societies: Early humans often lived in small groups or tribes, sharing resources and
responsibilities. Their social structures were closely linked to their environment, as resource
availability influenced group size and organization.
o Conflict and Cooperation: Competition for resources could lead to conflict between groups,
while shared environmental challenges often fostered cooperation and alliances.
o Knowledge and Traditions: Knowledge about the environment, including foraging techniques
and hunting strategies, was passed down through generations, forming the basis of cultural
identity and community resilience.
7.Environmental Challenges and Adaptations
o Natural Disasters: Early humans faced challenges such as droughts, floods, and volcanic
eruptions. Their ability to adapt to these challenges was crucial for survival and often led to the
development of new strategies.
o Resource Scarcity: As populations grew or resources became scarce, early humans had to
innovate and adapt their practices, leading to changes in settlement patterns and subsistence
strategies.

Course: 2S SOC O3 (WORLD HISTORY)

Instructor: Gerly May M. Garde
 E. The Races of Man
The classification of human populations into distinct races has been a topic of considerable debate
and discussion throughout history. While contemporary science emphasizes the concept of race as a social
construct rather than a strictly biological one, historical classifications have often categorized humanity
into broad groups based on physical characteristics and geographic origins.
The classifications of the races of man provided early frameworks for understanding human
diversity, contemporary science recognizes the limitations and inaccuracies of these racial
categorizations. Modern genetics has demonstrated that human populations share more genetic
similarities than differences, and the concept of race is increasingly viewed as a social construct shaped
by historical, cultural, and environmental factors.

➢ Caucasoid - The term "Caucasoid" refers to a racial classification that encompasses a variety of
populations primarily from Europe, the Middle East, and parts of North Africa and South Asia. Salient
characteristics associated with Caucasoids include:
o Skin Color: Generally lighter skin tones, though there is a wide range due to geographic and
environmental variations.
o Facial Features: Typically characterized by a narrow nose, high cheekbones, and a prominent
forehead.
o Hair Type: Hair is generally straight or wavy, with a variety of colors ranging from blonde to dark
brown or black.
o Cranial Features: A longer and narrower skull shape compared to other racial classifications.
The classification of Caucasoids was popularized in the 18th and 19th centuries by
anthropologists such as Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, who categorized humans into five races based
on skull shape and other physical traits. Blumenbach's work laid the groundwork for later racial
classifications, and the term "Caucasian" became widely used in both scientific and social contexts.

➢ Mongoloid - The "Mongoloid" classification includes populations primarily from East Asia, Southeast Asia,
and the Arctic regions. Key characteristics associated with Mongoloids include:
o Skin Color: Typically light to medium skin tones, often with a yellowish undertone.
o Facial Features: Notable for epicanthic folds (a skin fold of the upper eyelid), flatter facial
profiles, and broad, rounded skull shapes.
o Hair Type: Straight, dark hair that is often thick and coarse.
o Body Structure: Generally characterized by a shorter stature and stockier build compared to
Caucasoids.
The Mongoloid classification gained prominence in the 19th century, particularly through the
works of anthropologists like Samuel George Morton and Carleton S. Coon. These scholars contributed
to the understanding of human diversity through cranial measurements and other physical traits.
➢ Negroid - The "Negroid" classification traditionally encompasses populations from Sub-Saharan Africa
and parts of the Caribbean. Salient characteristics associated with Negroids include:
o Skin Color: Typically, darker skin tones, varying from light brown to very dark.
o Facial Features: Broader noses, full lips, and a pronounced prognathism (forward-jutting jaw).
o Hair Type: Curly or coiled hair, which can vary in texture but is generally coarse.
o Body Structure: Often characterized by a muscular build and a variety of body shapes, influenced
by environmental adaptations.
The classification of Negroid populations was commonly used in the 19th century by
anthropologists such as Paul Broca and others who sought to categorize humans based on both
physical and cultural traits. While now considered outdated and scientifically inaccurate, these
classifications were influential in shaping perceptions of race during their time.

➢ Australoid - The "Australoid" classification includes Indigenous peoples from Australia, New Guinea, and
some parts of Southeast Asia. Salient characteristics associated with Australoids include:
o Skin Color: Generally dark skin tones, similar to Negroids, but with variations depending on
geographic location.
o Facial Features: Broad and flat noses, wide lips, and prominent brow ridges.
o Hair Type: Typically, curly or wavy hair that is often coarse in texture.
o Body Structure: Generally characterized by a robust build and varying heights
The concept of the Australoid race was developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by
anthropologists such as Coon and others who studied the physical characteristics of Indigenous
populations in Australia and nearby regions. This classification aimed to highlight the distinctiveness
of these groups in relation to other racial classifications.

Course: 2S SOC O3 (WORLD HISTORY)

Instructor: Gerly May M. Garde