MODULE 1: TEACHING ENGLISH ACROSS CULTURES

Table of Contents

1.1 Introduction to Module 1 ........................................................................................................... 2

1.2 Optional Discussion: Getting to Know Each Other .....................................................................4
1.3 Warm-Up: Attitudes about English as an International Language .............................................6

1.4 Lecture: English as an International Language (EIL) and Levels of Culture.................................7

1.4.1 Optional Discussion: Materials Review for Teaching English in International Context ...........17
1.5 English Attitudes Survey Review ................................................................................................ 19
1.6 Reflection: Cascading New Knowledge Survey...........................................................................20
Module 1 Check.................................................................................................................................22

© 2020 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County. Module 1: Teaching English across Cultures
for the Online Professional English Network (OPEN), sponsored by the U.S. Department of State
with funding provided by the U.S. government and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed 1
under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this
license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
1.1 Introduction to Module 1

English Language.by BiljaST. is licensed under a Pixabay. License. It is free to use and share.

Welcome to Module 1: Learning-Centered Instruction,

Learning Strategies, and Critical Thinking
Video Transcript:

Welcome to the TESOL Methodology course! We are excited to have you join us.
In this course, we will look at best practices for teaching English. We will emphasize the
teaching of English in settings where English is generally not spoken as a native, or first,
language.
As you begin, it is important to set some learning goals. Think about what you hope to gain
from this course.

• Do you want to explore new teaching techniques and strategies?

• Are you looking for ideas to address specific needs, such as increasing learners’ oral
fluency or motivating students?
• Would you like to interact with English teaching colleagues from your country, your
region, and around the world?
• Do you wish to improve your academic English?

Take a minute to write or type your goals for this course. If you choose to participate in the
introduction discussion, you can also share your goals there. Please pause the video while you
write about your goals. Fantastic! We will check in at the end of the course to see whether you
have made progress on your course goals.

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As I mentioned, this course is focused on teaching English where it is typically not a native
language. Think about your own teaching context.

• Why do people learn English?

• What do they use it for?
• Who do they use it with?
• What varieties of English are used in your area?
• Is one variety preferred over others? Why?
• What variety or varieties of English do you teach in your classroom?
• How do you incorporate culture in your teaching?

In the first module, we will examine the role of English as an international language and how
that affects the choices we make as teachers and course developers. We will also explore levels
of culture in teaching languages. Finally, we will expand our access to instructional materials
through the use of open educational resources to promote equality of opportunity

Module 1 Task List:

The module should take 4-5 hours to complete.

1. Participate in the optional Getting to Know Each Other discussion (15 minutes)
2. Complete the warm-up activity about Attitudes About English as an International
Language (30 minutes)
3. Read English as an International Language (EIL) and Levels of Culture (60
minutes)
4. Participate in an optional discussion about Materials Review for Teaching English
in International Context (30 minutes)
5. Reflect on the module in the Cascading New Knowledge Survey (30 minutes)
6. Complete the English Attitudes Survey Review (15 minutes)

The Module 1 Packet includes all materials you need for the module. You can download it here

Module Requirements

• Module Requirements
• Each page of the module should be viewed and read
• All quizzes require a score of at least 70% to pass
• Discussions need to be reviewed but posting is optional
• Cascading New Knowledge Surveys should be completed at the end of each module
• Completion of the previous module is always a prerequisite for the subsequent module

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1.2 Optional Discussion: Getting to Know Each Other

“Hello Hi Foreign Background Greeting Bounjour” .by MaialisaLinks. is licensed under a Pixabay. License. It is free to use and share.

This discussion board is a great way for you to get to know some of the people taking this
course. Who knows? You might even "meet" someone from your hometown.

Take a moment to introduce yourself to your fellow participants and colleagues. Discuss the
following topics in your post:

1. Introduce yourself (where you are from, what you teach, years of experience in English
teaching or learning).
2. What is your most memorable moment in teaching or learning a language?
3. What do you like to do in your free time?

This discussion is not graded, but we encourage you to comment on other people's posts.

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Here is an example for an introduction:

Hello Everyone,

My name is Kati. I am originally from Budapest, Hungary, but I have lived in the USA for the last
20 years. I live in Baltimore, Maryland, where I teach at the University of Maryland Baltimore
County. I teach ESL classes, a freshman writing course for the English Department, and a
graduate linguistics course for the Education Department.

My most memorable teaching moments are when former students come back to my office to
thank me for helping them lay the foundation for their academic success. It is so nice to see
students succeed at the university, knowing that the fact that they attended our program
helped them achieve this.

In my free time I enjoy reading books, working out, and cooking. I am looking forward to
working with all of you in this MOOC.

Kati

Note: Submit your post online. A good discussion board post is about 150-250 words long.

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1.3 Warm-Up: Attitudes about English as an
International Language

“Untitled” by Gerd Altmann.is licensed under a Pixabay. License. It is free to use and share.

There are many opinions about language, culture, and language teaching. As we start our
course, please take a moment to consider what you already know or believe about these ideas.
Complete the following survey to get a better understanding of how you view language and
culture. This survey is not graded and there are no right or wrong answers. It is designed to help
you consider some ideas about language and culture. You can only take this survey once.

The survey must be completed online.

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1.4 Lecture: English as an International Language
(EIL) and Levels of Culture

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Read more about Sandra Lee McKay's three levels of culture.

Introduction

There are many people who speak English all over the world. One might assume that English is
the most widely spoken language in the world. However, that is not the case. Mandarin (a
language spoken by many people in China) has the most native speakers (L1--first language).
What makes English unique is the number of speakers who are non-native English speakers (L2-
-second language). With the growing number of English learners, the approach of teaching
English as an International Language has become more and more important in recent years.
This raises the question of how we should teach culture. Is it important for EIL learners to learn
about native English speakers' cultures? Whose cultures should we teach?

Culture and Language

In order to answer those questions, it is important to examine what role culture plays in
language teaching. Obviously, it is present in many words and expressions that are specific to
certain cultures. For example, the expression yellow journalism, which is a type of journalism
that uses sensational headlines instead of well-researched news to sell more newspapers, is a
US term that would have no special meaning for an EIL learner in other cultures. There are also
cultural differences between spoken and written language in social context. For example, the
way business communication is written or certain essays are composed is different from culture
to culture. It is, therefore, very important to keep these differences in mind when designing a
curriculum (plan of what to teach in a course or program) or textbooks for EIL learners.

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Three Levels of Culture

There are three levels of culture that we should consider when making decisions about cum
design and instructional materials for EIL learners.

1. Teachers can draw on learners' own culture (source culture) in English. For example, a
teacher in Brazil might use the carnival in Rio to teach greeting visitors.
2. Teachers can teach the culture of certain countries where English is spoken as a native
language (target culture). For example, a teacher might use Halloween (an American
tradition) as an example when teaching about scary ideas.
3. Teachers can include different cultures from all over the world (international target
culture). For example, a teacher in Japan might use an African dance to teach describing
with the present continuous tense.

Source Culture Materials, Target Culture Materials, and International Cultural Materials
“3 Types of Cultural Materials” by Zarin Marvi for University of Maryland Baltimore County is licensed under CC BY 4.0 for use in the AE E-
Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State.

It is important to emphasize that it is the teachers who must decide which approach to use.
Teachers are the ones who can determine what is best for their students. However, keep in
mind that learners may use English for many purposes and contexts in their lives, so learning
about all cultures in all three levels can be helpful.

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1.4.1 Optional Discussion: Materials Review for
Teaching English in International Context

Source Culture Materials, Target Culture Materials, and International Cultural Materials
“3 Types of Cultural Materials” by Zarin Marvi for University of Maryland Baltimore County is licensed under CC BY 4.0 for use in the AE E-
Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State.

Directions
We all have to use and create different types of teaching materials for our students. For this
activity, please do the following:

1. Review how culture is taught in your teaching materials (textbooks, handouts, and other
books such as novels) and answer the following questions:

• How do the textbook and/or your other teaching materials present culture?
• Do they show all three levels of culture? Give some examples.
• If you don't have teaching materials, or if your materials don't teach all the levels of
culture, how might you include the three levels of culture in your lessons?

2. Post your responses to these questions in the discussion thread below. Your responses
should be between 150-250 words long.

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Here is a sample post for this discussion:

Hello Fellow Participants,

In my classes, I use textbooks and easy readers (books designed especially to be used for ESL
students of different levels). They represent two levels of cultural materials: target culture,
providing insights on the American and British culture from a variety of perspectives (traditional
holidays such as Thanksgiving and Christmas; festivals such as Mardi Gras and Coachella), and
international cultural materials, introducing traditions and practices from around the world
(Single's Day in China, Latin American food, Mediterranean travels, etc.). I try to expand the
international culture materials by using videos, articles, and interviews showing a variety of
accents, traditions, and habits. I also use current cultural and political topics from all over the
world.

Since our textbooks do not include source culture materials, I use the internet to find sources
written in English about our traditions, culture, and history. The lack of source culture materials
is also a great opportunity to have the students do some research about their own culture
in English and then maybe compare it with either the target or international culture.

Kati

This discussion is not graded. However, please see this self-assessment rubric for scoring on
how well you address each part of the assignment.

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1.5 English Attitudes Survey Review

Now that you have completed Module 1, revisit the English Language Attitudes Survey to see if
your beliefs have changed or not. Similarly to the warm-up survey, you can only take this
review once.

This survey will not count towards your grade, but is required to complete Module 1. The
survey must be completed online.

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1.6 Reflection: Cascading New Knowledge Survey

Quiz Instructions
Cascading New Knowledge
In education, we use the word cascade to describe sharing knowledge among professionals. For
example, after finishing this MOOC, you may want to share with your colleagues some of the
new approaches that you have learned. In other words, you would cascade new knowledge.

Please complete this graded survey on how you would design an activity using Open
Educational Resources and how you might cascade the knowledge you gained in this module.
There are three free-response questions (where you have to write a short answer) and one
multiple choice question.

This survey is graded. You will receive 4 points after you submit it.; however, you will not
receive personalized feedback from an instructor on this assignment.

Here is a sample response to each of the free response questions.

This survey must be completed online.

1. Describe an activity that you use to teach culture in your classroom. Topic:
Birthday traditions

Objectives: By the end of the activity, students will be able to talk about different ways to
celebrate birthdays all over the world.

Students’ level: Intermediate

Step 1: Students form groups of 3 and discuss how they celebrate their birthdays, sharing their
own family traditions.

Step 2: Each group receives a birthday tradition (Sweet 16, Bar Mitzvah, Quinceañera) that they
have to research and prepare a presentation about (if there is a computer lab, students can
work on it in class, or they can do it at home).

Step 3: Each group prepares a presentation using PPT, Prezi, or boards.

Step 4: Each group presents in class.

Step 5: After the presentation, students can ask questions.

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2. Which level of culture does your activity address?
Level of culture: Source culture, target culture, international target culture.
3. How could you develop your activity into an OER (open educational resource)?

I would make sure that all the PPT presentations include the sources (preferably OER sources)
that the students used. Then I can create a PDF document from all the PPT presentations and
post it on the Creative Commons website with a CCBY 4.0 attribute.

This survey must be completed online.

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Module 1 Check
Quiz Instructions

Please answer one question to verify that you have completed all activities in Module 5. You
must choose "yes" in order to move on in the course. This quiz will count as 1 point toward
your grade.

This quiz must be completed online.

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MODULE 2: LEARNER CENTERED INSTRUCTION, LEARNING STRATEGIES,
AND CRITIAL THINKING
Table of Contents

2.1 Introduction to Module 2 …………….………………………………………………………………….………………….…… 2

2. 2 Warm-up: Reflection on Learning Styles, Strategies, and Metacognitive Learning ……………………... 4

2.3 Lecture: Focus on the Learner, Learner Differences ……………………………………………………….……………. 5

2.3.1 Optional Video: Individual Learner Differences ………………………………………………………………….……. 42

2.3.2 Activity: Learner Profile

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....…….51

2.4 Optional Video: Student Centered Classroom management …………………………………..…..… 52

2.4.1 Quiz: Learner Centered Classes …….……………….……………………………………………………………...........…. 60

2.5 Lecture: Strategies-Based Instruction. Metacognition, and Critical Thinking in Second Language
Teaching lecture …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….… 61

2.6 Culture Spotlight: Critical Thinking Skills in American Classroom …………………………………….……..…… 114

2.6.1 Optional Discussion: Communicative Language Teaching and Cultural Scenarios……………………... 116

2.7 Reflection: Cascading New Knowledge Survey ………………………………………………………………….…….…… 118

Module 2 Check ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………….………. 119

1
© 2020 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County. Module 1: Teaching English across Cultures
for the Online Professional English Network (OPEN), sponsored by the U.S. Department of State
with funding provided by the U.S. government and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed
under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this
license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
2.1 Introduction to Module 2: Learning-Centered
Instruction, Learning Strategies, and Critical
Thinking

"Puzzle Piece" by kingmaphotos is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

In this module, you will explore different types of learners and a variety of learning styles. We
will explore learner needs, and we will reflect on our own teaching styles in order to make
better teaching decisions. You will compose a learner profile, you will also examine different
activities that will help our students build confidence and better connections to their culture.
We will also share and discuss learner-centered strategies that can be used to assist our
different learners to succeed in learning English.

Additionally, we will examine how teachers can help students develop metacognitive
awareness and critical thinking skills. Lastly, we will present and compare basic interpersonal
communication skills (BICS) and cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP), and exchange
ideas on how students can acquire the latter to develop higher order thinking skills (HOTs).

As you begin this module, it is important to set some learning goals. Think about what you hope
to gain from this module.

• Do you want to learn more about addressing different learner needs and interests?

• Do you want to learn more about how you can help students develop critical thinking?

Take a minute to write or type your goals for this module.

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Wonderful! We will check in at the end of the course to see whether you have made progress
on your course goals, but also feel free to share them with a friend, a colleague, or another
person taking this course.

As always, we encourage you to engage with the material as deeply as you can. We look
forward to working with you in this module!

Module 2 Task List:

The module should take 4-5 hours to complete.

1. Complete the warm-up activity about Reflection on Learning Styles, Strategies, and
Metacognitive Learning (15 minutes)
2. Read Focus on the Learner, Learner Differences lecture (45 minutes)
3. Watch an optional video Individual Learner Differences (15 minutes)
4. Complete the Learner Profile activity (15 minutes)
5. Take the Learner-Centered Classes quiz (15 min)
6. Read Strategies-Based Instruction. Metacognition, and Critical Thinking in Second
Language Teaching lecture (45 minutes)
7. Read Culture Spotlight: Critical Thinking Skills in American Classroom (15 minutes)
8. Participate in the optional discussion on Communicative Language Teaching and Culture
Scenarios (30 minutes)
9. Reflect on the module in Cascading New Knowledge assignment (30 minutes)

The Module 2 Packet includes all materials you need for the module. You can download it here.

Module Requirements

• Each page of the module should be viewed and read

• All quizzes require 7 points to pass
• Discussions need to be reviewed but posting is optional
• Cascading New Knowledge Surveys should be completed at the end of each module
• Completion of the previous module is always a prerequisite for the subsequent module

3
2.2 Warm-up: Reflection on Learning Styles,
Strategies, and Metacognitive Learning

This work is a derivative of “Untitled.” by Gordon Johnson , via Pixabay)is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

We all have different styles of teaching and learning. We have also experienced classrooms that
are focused on the teacher or focused more on the learner.

Think and Write

1. Think about your experiences in different classroom environments and answer the
following questions:

▪ Have you taught or participated in a class that was teacher-centered? What was it like?
▪ Have you taught or participated in a class that was learner-centered? What was it like?
▪ What is the difference between a teacher-centered and a learner-centered class?
▪ How would your teaching strategies differ for teacher-centered and learner-centered
instruction?

2. On a piece a piece of paper or in a word doc, write some notes on your answers to these
questions. Use this opportunity to think about what you already know.

You do not have to submit this assignment. This activity is not graded. This is a chance to
activate your prior knowledge (think about what you already know). You should spend no more
than 5-10 minutes completing this.

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2.3 Lecture: Focus on the Learner, Learner
Differences

“Untitled” by Martin Polo via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

Read more about traditional and innovative roles of the teacher and the student in language
classrooms.

Introduction

Classroom environment and student roles are often guided by teacher roles. Therefore, it is
very important for a teacher to define his or her role, so learners can know what their teacher is
supposed to do.

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Teacher Roles in English Language Teaching

Teachers can play many roles. In a modern classroom teachers can be facilitators who observe,
advise and direct, rather than control and dictates the learning process. Teacher roles are
connected to the teaching methods. These roles determine the degree to which a teacher
controls a learning process. The content of lessons and how teachers and students interact also
depends on teacher roles.

Traditional Role of English Teachers

Traditional classrooms are teacher-centered. A teacher directs the learning process by selecting
what and how students should learn. Students are asked to memorize, repeat, and do drills.
This approach to language teaching assumes the teacher as a source of knowledge, The
learners are receivers of knowledge and they do not control what they learn and how they
learn it.

Focus on the Learner

Changes in teaching ideas overtime lead to changes in teaching methods and in roles of
teachers and learners in the classroom. In 1960s and 1970s a number of new theories helped
change how language is taught. Among these approaches are:

• Humanistic approach to language teaching. It considers learner intellectual and

emotional development to be equally important
• Communicative language teaching (CLT) approach. It is based on teaching real world
communication skills.

Recognizing Learner Differences and Learning Styles

Effective language teachers can engage students with multiple learning styles. It can be
challenging for one teacher to work with a variety of different learning styles. Consider how
these strategies can work to help students to be more successful with these three major
learning styles:

Visual:

• Use graphic organizers to show word and concepts relationships.

• Ask students to highlight texts and color-code their notes.
• Draw pictures of new concepts and ask students to do the same.
• Provide maps and charts to teach new material.
• Have students use different fonts, colors and sizes when/if using the computer.

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Auditory:

• Discuss new topics and subjects as a group and ask students to do it with partners.
• Ask students to record lectures and their own presentations and review them
afterwards.
• Have students read aloud and voice concepts and ideas to them.
• Ask students to create tunes and rhythms when learning new material.

Kinesthetic:

• Use role play to act out concepts and ideas taught in your course.
• Encourage students to take notes while listening to lectures or reading.
• Associate each new word with a gesture or movement.
• Have students spell new words in teams using their bodies.

New Role of English Teachers in Task Based Language Teaching

Communicative language teaching provided foundations for the task based language teaching
(TBLT). TBLT is a new approach that focuses on learning by doing. The goal is for the learners to
use language for communicative activities. The role of teachers also changes. Teachers become
facilitators of students' learning. Instead of providing the knowledge, teacher guides, motivates,
advises and monitors students' progress. Teachers now recognize learner differences and
provide students with different communicative activities. Teachers should also involve students
in group and collaborative work, and keep them interested and motivated to learn the
language.

Conclusion

The role of teachers in modern classrooms has changed from being a controller and an
organizer to being a guide and a facilitator. Learners can now be more in control of their
learning process. It all sounds good in theory, however, it may be quite challenging to achieve
such changes in teacher and student roles. Sometimes the learning context does not allow for
these changes (e.g., educational systems may have rules and specific curricular guidance).
Additionally, students may not be culturally ready to take on these changes. Therefore,
teachers should always consider cultural norms and expectations in addition to various teaching
approaches and strategies when planning a shift from a traditional to a modern teacher role.

Reference: (Copyrighted)

This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adopted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain
or Creative Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use
it after the course ends. Center for Access and Success. Tips for Educators on Accommodating Different Learning Styles.
Retrieved from the Internet. https://www.umassd.edu/dss/resources/faculty--staff/how-to-teach-and-accommodate/how-to-
accommodate-different-learning-styles/

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2.3.1 Optional Video: Individual Learner Differences
This is an optional but highly recommended activity. Feel free to use this graphic organizer to
guide you through this exercise. You do not need to submit the graphic organizer, but you may
want to share and discuss it with another person taking this class.

Now that you have learned about the many different types of learners, you can practice
identifying learner-centered teaching. For this optional activity, please do the following:
Watch the video, Shaping the Way We Teach English: Individual Learner Differences. Watch
what the teacher and students do in the classroom and think about how this created a learner-
centered classroom.

Use graphic organizer and answer the questions below. This graphic organizer uses guiding
questions and scaffolding to help you (the learner) understand the video better. Record your
thoughts on the graphic organizer attached. Feel free to share your thoughts with a friend, co-
worker, or another person taking this course.

1. Watch Part 1 of the video (0:00-4:01) and answer the following questions. Record your
answers on your graphic organizer.

How is the class organized?

• What activities did the students do?

• What skills did the students practice?
• How does the teacher make the class learner-centered?
• How does this teaching strategy connect to the English teaching practices
discussed in this module?

This work is a derivative of “Shaping the Way We Teach English” by University of Oregon's (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. via American English (Links to an
external site.)Links to an external site., used under Public Domain (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.. This derivative is licensed under CC BY 4.0 (Links to an
external site.)Links to an external site. by the University of Maryland Baltimore County for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State.

8
Video Transcript
Individual Learner Differences

Narrator: Module 11: Individual Learner Differences. Learners in one classroom are both
similar, and at the same time, different. A learner-centered approach to teaching requires
teachers to understand this duality and to be aware of the different ways in which students
learn. Some differences may be easier to see or discover such as age, sex, socioeconomic
conditions and level of education. Other differences may be more difficult to identify including
overall cognitive ability or intelligence and cognitive development in younger learners; learners
language proficiency levels and their motivation for language study; learners personality traits
along with their learning strengths styles and preferences. Module Focus: Introduction. The
focus in Module 11 is on how teachers can vary teaching approaches and techniques to help
facilitate learning for a wide variety of students. They can vary the type of language input along
with the content and the medium of delivery. They can vary learner tasks. They can teach
learning strategies. They can help students take responsibility for their own learning and they
can use group work appropriately.

Number 1: Viewing points for students using different skills, Video Segment Number 1
In this classroom, the students have chosen a popular song to work on and learn. Here they are
demonstrating the results of their work. Look for how the class is organized different activities
that the students do language and other skills that students are using and an overall learning
and teaching strategy

[The first group of students performs their song to the class.]

[The next group of students reads their story in front of the class.]

Group 1: “Today, I tell about my favorite experience. I have heard my friend talk about her
boyfriend. She passed along with him for a year.”

Group 2: “My group is talking about this song. This song is about a girl. She's four. She has fall in
love with one man, but she can't tell him about her love. She is pray every night too and she
want him to her boyfriend.”

[The final group of students sings the song aloud to the rest of the class.]

Summary: This was a large class. Students worked in groups. Each group had a different activity.
One group wrote and acted out a music video. One wrote a personal story that was similar to
the story in the song one group drew a picture about the song and explained it, and one group
changed the words of the song. They were using listening, speaking, reading, writing, music,
drawing and drama skills. One strategy the teacher used was to make students aware they
were using the song to learn English vocabulary.

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 2. Watch Part 2 of the video (4:01-8:48) and answer the following questions. Record
your answers on your graphic organizer.

▪ Describe different parts of the project that the teacher was describing.
▪ What overall teaching strategy was used?
▪ How does this teaching strategy connect to the English teaching practices
discussed in this module?

This work is a derivative of “Shaping the Way We Teach English” by University of Oregon's (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. via American English (Links to an
external site.)Links to an external site., used under Public Domain (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.. This derivative is licensed under CC BY 4.0 (Links to an
external site.)Links to an external site. by the University of Maryland Baltimore County for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State.

Video Transcript
Individual Learner Differences Part 2

Narrator: Number 2: Viewing Points- Learning stations and self-access rooms. Video
segment Number 2.

Another way to meet the needs of individual learning differences is to set up learning
stations or a self-access area or room. Some reasons for a self-access area are so that
learners can have choices and they can work at their own pace; so that learners can
have access to a variety of materials and do different tasks; so that learners can work
together on projects and activities; and so that the teacher can have more time to work
with small groups or individuals.

Female Teacher: S.E.A.R stands for Student English Access Room. So this is the room
for encourage your student to come and practice more skills of English like speaking
with listening reading and writing. This is the project from all their…all the project from
material five because I teach material five and they work in groups like this.
Normally, I cannot remember the name of the students so they put their faces on this
like this. This is the Tago Herps…yes, Tago is the name of the tree that our school
focus on these type of herbs. And this is the name of them and then we plan and then
10
use it to run it with the student bit by bit day by day years by years and up until now.
They can produce it very, very good.

At first they need to plan. I use 10 steps from story and then let them understand. I have
four stages of using project work teaching. The first one… I just introductory by let them
understand the project work and then I use the example project for them. The first
example for me is smoking project to let them know that smoking is not good; to let
them get the information and then they can analyze, analyze the information and then
they conclude and present it to the class.

After that, I control them to make the project of smoking. After that, they will do it by my
help. According to my help they do the project one and then after that they can do it by
themselves with the interest for project two and they develop until now. They can do it
by integrated how to do how to run the project to other subjects like Tago is for the
botany and herbs is for science. So they can they can run this and get the point for me
and then they can answer another score from another again in their subjects.

3. Watch Part 3 of the video (8:48-12:52) and answer the following questions. Record your
answers on your graphic organizer.

▪ Describe the school’s self-access room.

▪ What overall teaching strategy was used?
▪ How does this teaching strategy connect to the English teaching practices discussed in
this module?

This work is a derivative of “Shaping the Way We Teach English” by University of Oregon's (Links to an external site.)Links to an external
site. via American English (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site., used under Public Domain (Links to an external site.)Links to an
external site.. This derivative is licensed under CC BY 4.0 (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. by the University of Maryland
Baltimore County for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State.

11
Video Transcript
Individual Learner Differences
Narrator: Notice the different sections or areas of this self-access room and the kinds of
resources that are available. There is a schedule to help students determine when they can use
different areas of the room.

This room can be used for independent study or for group work. A similar, but smaller self-
access area, can also be created in one corner of a classroom, or even on a cart that moves
from class to class. Teachers can gradually develop areas or carts as time and the availability of
materials allow. Workstations are another way to support individual learning differences.
Students can work together, or individually, at a station. Using workstations can give the
teacher time to work with one group, while other groups are working on something else.
Workstations can also give students the opportunity to manipulate things to help them learn,
which is a different kind of learning.

Female Teacher: I see. These two are right. Did you see that? Can you show this to everybody?
See so these…

Narrator: At one station, students put together a brain puzzle as part of learning about its parts
and their functions.

Another way to learn is to use the world outside the classroom. For this project, students
counted all the different animals they saw in their neighborhoods. Then at one of their
workstations, they combined that information into a graph.

Summary: self access centers or areas and workstations give learners choices; they allow
learners to work at their own pace; they provide access to a variety of materials and
opportunities to do different tasks; they provide materials for working together on projects and
activities; and they provide time for the teacher to work with individuals or groups.

Module Focus: Summary

The focus in Module 11 has been on individual learning differences. Teachers can vary
approaches and techniques to help facilitate learning for a wide variety of learners. When they
vary the type of language input along with the content and the medium of delivery, they
vary learner tasks, they teach learning strategies, when they help students take responsibility
for their own learning, and when they use group work appropriately.
See the manual for readings and more information on this and other topics related to individual
learner differences.

12
Alternative Assignment
If you are unable to view the video, please do the following:

1. Read the transcript for only Part 1 of the video.

2. Read what the teacher does in the classroom. What does the teacher do to create a
learner-centered classroom? How does this relate to the concepts we learned in this
module?
3. Read what the students do in the video. What activities do the students do that
make this classroom learner-centered? How does this relate to the concepts we
learned in this module?
4. Record your thoughts on the graphic organizer.

Shaping the Way We Teach English: Individual Learner Differences Graphic Organizer

Watch Part 1 of the Video (0:00-4:01) and type the answers to the following questions below.

1.) How is the class organized? 1.) How does this teaching strategy connect to the
English teaching practices discussed in this
2.) What activities did the students do? module?

3.) What skills did the students practice?

4.) What overall teaching strategy was used?

Watch Part 2 of the Video (4:01-8:48) and type the answers to the following questions below.

1.) Describe different parts of the project that 1.) How does this teaching strategy connect to the
the teacher was describing. English teaching practices discussed in this
module?

2.) What overall teaching strategy was used?

Watch Part 3 of the Video (8:48-12:52) and type the answers to the following questions below.
1.) Describe the school’s self-access room. 1.) How does this teaching strategy connect to the
English teaching practices discussed in this
module?
2.) What overall teaching strategy was used?

13
2.3.2 Activity: Learner Profile

Learner Profile Activity Template

As we begin our focus on the learner, let’s take a look at the learners you currently have in
class. If you are not currently teaching, work with a colleague to obtain the profile data. This
data will be the foundation you build upon for your learner-centered, project-based topic.

(Note: you will type over the items in green; this is just a reminder of what is needed for each
category.)

Number of students

Age and grade level

Sex

Ethnicity of students

Language
All 4 skills
proficiency:
Language
How many years studying English
experience: (a)
Language
Type of curriculum, methods, and approaches used
experience: (b)

Motivation: (a) Kinds of topics interesting or motivating for your learners

Kinds of texts and activities interesting or motivating for your

Motivation: (b)
learners
Kinds of technologies interesting or motivating for your
Motivation: (c)
learners

14
We recommend that you use this template to develop your learner profile for all your classes.
Developing your learner profile can help you improve your teaching, plan learner-centered
activities, and support your classroom management. For this activity, please do the following:

1. Review the Module 2 lectures, readings and the Learner Profile Activity template above.
2. Select one of your current classes and fill in this template with your students’
information.
3. Copy/provide your responses by filling out this quiz.
4. To respond to quiz Question #10, write a paragraph on how you think a learner profile
will assist you in making your classes interactive and engaging in the future.

This activity is graded and it is worth 10 points. You will automatically receive points for
completing this quiz. You are allowed multiple attempts to complete this quiz. You will not
receive instructor feedback.

15
2.4 Optional Video: Student Centered Classroom
Management
OPTIONAL:
Webinar on Student-Centered Classroom Management

Student-centered classroom management differs from teacher centered classroom

management.

The overall focus of classroom management should be on encouraging good discipline

and behavior to facilitate students' learning opportunities. The following presentation
discusses different classroom management techniques and it presents 5 adaptable
forms that can be used to guide activities in learner-centered classrooms. The author
discusses how and when each form is best used.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BQ_guy2iBXk&feature=youtu.beLinks to an
external site.

“Student-Centered Classroom Management: Addressing Classroom Issues with 5 Adaptable Forms” by C. Thomas,. via YouTube (Links to an external site.)Links to
an external site. is licensed under Public Domain (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site..

Reference
Thomas, C. Student-Centered Classroom Management: Addressing Classroom Issues with 5 Adaptable Forms
[Webinar].

16
2.4.1 Leaner Centered Classes

“Untitled” by Tumisu via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

Quiz Instructions

Now that you have had a chance to read and reflect on learner-centered classrooms, learner
differences, and communicative classroom management, try and match concepts with their
meaning. Take the quiz to test yourself!

This quiz is graded and it is worth 10 points. You are allowed multiple attempts to complete this
quiz. You must earn at least 7 points to unlock the next page.

17
2.5 Lecture: Strategies-Based Instruction,
Metacognition, and Critical Thinking in Second
Language Teaching

“Untitled (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.” by Gerd Altmann (Links to an external site.)Links to an external
site.via Pixabay (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. is licensed under under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

Read more about learner styles-and strategies-based instruction below.

Introduction

In order for students learn new skills and to retain, or keep, knowledge for a long time,
instructors use learning strategies in the classroom. When students engage with the course
content and use strategies to help them remember it, students can communicate better in their
new language and also become better language learners overall (Dale, 1946).

An Overview of Language Learning Strategies

Language learning strategies (LLS) are specific actions and steps that learners use to help them
remember information. They are important in the learning process and should be explicitly
taught by language teachers.

18
Learner strategies: (Oxford, 1990)

• allow learner to be self-directed

• expand the role of teachers
• are problem-oriented
• involve many aspects, not just the cognitive
• can be taught
• are flexible
• are influenced by many factors

Types of Learning Strategies

There are three main types of learning strategies: metacognitive strategies (learners are
thinking about the process of learning), cognitive strategies (learners create strategies for
specific tasks or assignments) and socio-affective strategies (learners work together to get
knowledge). Here are specific classroom techniques to make learners aware of their learning:

Students can use Metacognitive Strategies like these:

• Identify words they don't know, or recognize where and when they don't understand.
• Tell a peer how they solved a comprehension problem
• Practice self talk by repeating a positive statement about their learning goals at the
beginning of each class.
• Students record what they learned at the end of each week in a learning log to track
progress.
• Students use a checklist to ensure that they meet all requirements for an assignment.
• Teacher assigns note takers for each class. The note taker can use the same graphic
organizer for each class. Keep a log of class notes that students can go back and look at.
• Teacher assigns a course “wrapper” who summarizes the material at the end of each
class.

Student can use Cognitive Strategies like these:

• Categorize new vocabulary words into a graphic organizer to help remember them.
• Imagery: Drawing a picture to symbolize the new vocabulary word in a learning log.
• Repetition: Repeating a concept over and over again to help students remember.
• Music: Building a song, music video, etc. to help students remember.
• Students write synonyms (words with the same meaning) for unknown words.
• Read a paragraph several times for different purposes (main idea, details, to ask
questions, etc.)
• Use formulas and patterns to solve difficult grammar and spelling patterns.
• Use rhymes or special phrases to help remember new vocabulary.
• Use different colored pens to mark their work for different criteria.

19
Students can use Socio-Affective Strategies like these:

• Practice a 'Round Robin' activity where they form groups, then trade papers with other
groups in the class after each question to share multiple answers.
• Ask students to be peer models and model the correct way to perform the language.
• Assign certain students to teach class material to their classmates.
• In the classroom, display questions that students can ask their peers or themselves if
they need help.
• Appoint student roles in the class such as leader, note-taker, timekeeper, etc.

Conclusion

Learning strategies and strategies-based instruction are designed to train students how to
continue their language learning beyond the classroom. Teachers are encouraged to develop
different activities that explicitly teach strategies and also take into consideration the various
styles of learners. The goal is for students to become independent learners.

Before any activity, instructors should ask themselves two questions:

1. What learning styles would be most beneficial in completing a task?

2. What learning strategies will my students need to complete this task successfully?

References (Copyrighted)

This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Lessard-Clouston, M. (1997). Language Learning Strategies: An Overview for L2 Teachers,

Retrieved from TESL Journal, Vol. IX, No.4 http://iteslj.org/Articles/Currie-MITheory.html

O'Malley, J.M. & Chamot, A.U. (1990), Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition, CUP.

Oxford, R. (1990a). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. New York:
Newbury House.

20
Read more about metacognition below.

“Untitled (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.” by Gordon Johnson .via a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

Introduction

Metacognition is defined as thinking about thinking. According to Anderson (2002),

metacognitive learners are aware of their own thinking process and know which learning
strategies to use at different stages of their leaning process. They are able to learn more
effectively because they can self-direct their own learning. English language teachers can help
students become aware of their own learning processes, which will in turn help learners become
better learners. This highlights the importance of teaching students metacognitive skills, as it
gives them tools for learning and success.

Metacognition Model

Metacognition follows the sequence of thinking and reflective processes. They are:

• Preparing and planning for learning: It is important for students to be thinking ahead
about their learning process with certain learning goals in mind. Teachers can
provide students with specific and achievable learning goals. Then learners can assess
their own progress against the established learning goals and objectives. Successful
students are able to select learning strategies and use metacognitive skills based on their
learning situations.
• Selecting and Using Learning Strategies: When learners can identify and use learning
strategies to fit a their learning - they are metacognitively aware. Teachers should
introduce learners to a variety of strategies and techniques to choose from to do complex
tasks. Students need to be trained on how to best use these strategies, and they need to be
aware than no strategy will fit all their learning needs.
• Monitoring Strategy Use: Being able to monitor which learning strategy is used is
another characteristic of metacognitive learners. They need to do periodic self-checks to

21
 see whether the strategy they selected is still the best one for the learning task. Instructors
can help students learn to monitor their strategy use by occasionally pausing and
reflecting on their learning process.
• Combining Various Strategies: Metacognitive learners can combine various
matacognitive skills. Such learners are able to connect, sequence, and coordinate multiple
strategies to achieve the desired learning outcome. Teacher-facilitators can make sure that
students are aware of the multiple strategies that are available to them for specific
activities.
• Evaluating Strategy Use and Learning: Part of the metacognitive learning process
involves being able to assess whether the learning is happening effectively. Teachers can
facilitate such self-evaluation by asking prompting questions that will help learners
connect the dots between their intended learning goals and learning outcomes. Examples
of such questions include 'What am I trying to accomplish?', What strategies am I
using?', 'How well am I using them?'. and 'What else could I do?'

Conclusion

English language teachers are important in teaching metacognitve skills. They help
learners learn and practice metacognitive strategies, self-reflect, self-assess, and
become better learners (Anderson, 2002).

References (OER)

Anderson, N. (2002). The Role of Metacognition in Second Language Teaching and Learning.
ERIC DIGEST EDO-FL-01-10

Read more about Critical Thinking and Higher Order Thinking (HOT) skills
below.

Boom’s Taxonomy” by Tiera Day for University of Maryland Baltimore County is licensed under CC BY 4.0 (Links to an external site.)Links to an
external site..

22
The image contains a pyramid and it reads the following: Bloom's Taxonomy Remembering:
Recalling information, listing, describing, stating. Understanding: explaining ideas, summarizing,
interpreting, classifying. Applying: Using the information in another familiar
situation. Analyzing: Breaking information into parts and exploring relationships between
parts. Evaluating: Justifying decisions, critiquing, judging. Creating: Designing, planning,
producing, inventing.

Introduction

Critical thinking is defined as a process of actively conceptualizing, analyzing, synthesizing and

evaluating information and knowledge by using observations, reason, experience and
communication to create guiding principles for action. It engages students at higher levels of
Bloom's taxonomy's cognitive domains of learning. Cognitive approach to teaching and learning
encourages the relationship between learner thinking and language. Students need to use
multiple thinking skills, such as problem solving, reflective and critical thinking, analyzing,
synthesizing and critiquing to learn language effectively. Language teachers can encourage
students to develop critical thinking skills by engaging them in a variety of activities that
promote such skill development (Üstünloğlü, 2004).

BICS and CALP

Using higher order thinking and critical thinking skills requires a certain type of academic
language proficiency which students can only develop through focused learning. Such academic
language differs greatly from the language we use for for social and every day
communication. Cummins (1994) first defined these types of language and language acquisition
as Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language
Proficiency (CALP).

BICS: Basic interpersonal interactions are normally context imbedded, which means they are
happening in a specific setting. Interactions requiring BICS almost always occur in informal
social settings. They tend to not be cognitively demanding. A student can become proficient in
BICS in 6 months to 2 years after moving to the English speaking country.

Here are some examples of BICS learner-centered activities:

• Making an appointment with a doctor

• Communicating with a taxi driver
• Asking for directions
• Making restaurant reservations

Notice that all of these activities are happening in a particular context (i.e., they are context
embedded). If necessary, the teacher can provide pictures and illustrations to help learners
with vocabulary and with practicing talking about these topics.

23
CALP: CALP implies academic learning. The range of academic skills one needs to develop to be
cognitively proficient in academic English includes reading, writing, speaking, and listening.
These types of skills usually take from five to seven years to develop, as one requires time to
become proficient using English in specialty academic areas.

Academic language acquisition includes more than just understanding and being able to
produce content and appropriate vocabulary. It includes skills such as comparing, classifying,
synthesizing, evaluating, and inferring. Academic language tasks are context reduced.
Information is often acquired through reading or presented by a teacher. As student get older
the context for academic tasks becomes more and more reduced.

Here are some examples of CALP learner-centered activities:

• Writing a book review

• Conducting a debate
• Taking notes of an academic lecture
• Reporting on a political event

Notice that all of these activities are centered around more abstract concepts and events. They
are removed from the immediate context (i.e., the lecture may be on Ancient Greece, and it
may describe events that happened long ago). Students need to have a relatively high language
proficiency to be able to engage in such activities.

Conclusion

It is very important that English language teachers distinguish between BICS and CALP and
know what it takes to acquire these different sets of skills (Cummins, 1994). It is also important
to make a connection between CALP and helping learners develop critical thinking skills. CALP
allows learners to engage in Higher Order Thinking (HOT) activities and further develop their
academic skills and abilities.

References (OER)
Üstünlüoglu, E. Language Teaching Through Critical Thinking and Self Awareness
(Forum) https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/04-42-3-b.pdf

Reference: (Copyrighted)
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Cummins, J. (1994). The Acquisition of English as a Second Language, in Spangenberg-Urbschat, K. and Pritchard, R. (eds) Reading Instruction for
ESL Students Delaware: International Reading Association,

24
2.6 Culture Spotlight: Critical Thinking Skills in
American Classroom

CULTURE SPOTLIGHT
“Cultural Spotlight icon” by Tiera Day for University of Maryland Baltimore County is licensed under CC BY 4.0 for use in the AE E-Teacher
Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State.

Critical Thinking Skills in American Classrooms

Overview

There has been a continuous emphasis on teaching critical thinking (i.e., higher order thinking
skills - HOTs) in U.S. classrooms. Critical thinking standards and objectives are now part of state
and national curricula. U.S. teachers are specifically focusing on teaching critical thinking
strategies across disciplines. As part of this overall emphasis, English language (ESL/ESOL)
teachers play an important role in helping students develop critical thinking through exposure
to extensive English language practice.

Directions: Read this section about learner-centered practices that encourage critical thinking.
This section also contains examples of actual strategies English teachers can use to encourage
higher order thinking skills. There is an optional discussion board following this reading where
you can on HOT skills and strategies you use as part of your classroom.

Way to Encourage Critical Thinking Skills

The general shift to learner-centered American classrooms promotes acquisition of critical

thinking skills in the following ways:

• Teachers act as facilitators and engage in problem solving with students, instead of
offering solutions that students can use.
• Teachers emphasize the importance of 'how' over 'what'. In other words, they
emphasize the importance of knowing how to get the right answers or how to construct
a response based on own knowledge and experience over knowing the right answer.
• Students are not expected to memorize facts, but they are encouraged to think about
how they can connect to big ideas and apply their existing knowledge to new situations.

25
 • Teachers emphasize that mistakes are a normal part of the learning process. We
can learn from our mistakes if we have the right attitude.
• We distinguish between feedback and grades. Feedback provides constructive
suggestions on how the work can be improved; grades assign a specific value for the
work done.
• Class participation is expected and it is often a part of the course grade.
• Final projects are often group centered to allow learners an opportunity to engage and
display their knowledge and apply their skills collectively.
• Assignments often require research and problem solving.
• Tasks and assignments that require HOTs often presume no right answer, but they
encourage students to justify their responses.

Examples of Teaching Strategies that Encourage Critical Thinking Skills

Here are some specific examples of teaching strategies that encourage critical thinking skill
development:

• Start lessons and activities with a question: Phrase the questions to elicit open ended
responses that encourage students to draw on their experiences, make inferences, and
connect to prior knowledge.
• Brainstorm prior to teaching new material: Ask students to think about what they are
about to learn before they engage with an activity. Ask many questions; allow students
to explore and connect ideas.
• Compare and contrast: Allow students an opportunity to examine the topic closely and
consider its components by comparing it with other topics. Students can compare and
contrast everything they learn about (i.e., today’s topic and yesterday’s topic, main
character they are reading about to another character, objects they interact with to
other objects at school or at home).
• Classify and categorize: Students will practice understanding and applying rules while
engaging in classifying activities. You can ask them to sort objects, words, and
definitions into different categories based on common characteristics. Students think
and reason with themselves while classifying.
• Make connections: Students can be continuously making connections between what
they read and learn about and real-life situations. They practice critical thinking by
identifying patterns between objects, concepts, and events.
• Assign group work: Teamwork promotes discussion, debates, negotiations and healthy
arguments. Learners will practice these critical thinking skills while collaborating with
each other on common projects.
• Use role playing: Role playing requires students to step into someone else's shoes and
consider different points of view. They may need to assume opinions and perspectives
they disagree with, and, therefore, they will be asked to consider those. This can help
learners be creative and analytical.

26
How might you include strategies like this in your classroom?

2.6.1 Optional Discussion: Communicative Language

Teaching and Cultural Scenarios

Communicative Language Teaching and Culture

Think about your own educational and cultural context. Consider communicative language
teaching and task-based learning, as well as the cultural behaviors and norms that are expected
in your teaching and learning content. Read the following scenarios from different perspectives,
and consider how you would respond.

Communicative Language Teaching Scenarios

Scenario 1: The teacher
Natalya has been asked to teach English to a class of intermediate students. She would like
students to speak a lot in class, so she designed a lot of communicative activities. One of the
activities was a debate. When she started the activity, the students just quietly sat in their seats
and no one wanted to talk. Why might this happen? What could she do?

Scenario 2: The student

Oscar uses a lot of communicative activities in his classroom. He regularly puts students in pairs
and groups to practice. A student and his parents came to see him after class to complain that
the students were not getting direct instruction from the teacher, and were spending time
talking to their friends in class. The parents want to know why other students are "teaching"
their children instead of the teacher. What might Oscar say to the parents to explain his
approach?

Scenario 3: The administrator

Asma started using role play and interviews in her classroom and they were a huge success.
Students love working with each other and participating in the authentic activities. Because you
have a large class, these activities can be noisy at times. One day the director of her school
walked into her classroom because he heard a lot of noise. Most of the other classes were very
quiet. The director asked her to come to see them and explain why her classroom was so chaotic
and loud. What can Asma say to support her approaches to language teaching?

27
Directions:

1. Choose at least one scenario to write about. (You may choose more if you wish.)
2. Write a brief (150-250 word) reflection on the challenge that arises in the scenario
and what advice you might give to the teacher. Include any cultural norms that are
important to consider in your own teaching context.
3. Read at least one of your colleague's posts and respond with a question, suggestion,
or meaningful comment.
OPTIONAL: Read and respond to as many peers as you like.
This discussion is not graded. However, please see this self-assessment rubric for scoring on
how well you address each part of the assignment.
2.6.1 Optional Discussion: Communicative Language Teaching and Cultural Scenarios

Criterion Below Expectations Meets Expectations

Post discusses
challenges that arise in Only discusses Lists several challenges
the scenario and challenges but does not and provides actual
provides advice to the provide advice advice
teacher
Post reflects high level Reflects on and
Does not reflect
of critical analysis of analyzes module's
module's content
module content content
Posts made
contributions that
Incorporates new Incorporates new
incorporated new
perspectives but does perspectives and
perspectives on course
not contribute to contributes to further
content and others'
further sharing sharing
ideas to further the
discussion

28
2.7 Cascading New Knowledge
Now that you are familiar with learner-centered instruction, learner differences and critical
thinking, it is time to reflect on the module! Some of the questions in this graded survey
are open-ended, meaning that they require a full answer, drawing on your own knowledge or
feelings. You are encouraged to draft your answers somewhere else, so that you can save them
and revisit your thoughts later. Then, you can copy/paste or type in your responses to the
survey. This will give you a chance to take some time to reflect on the answers. Remember, the
purpose of this survey is for you reflect on your own. You will NOT receive instructor feedback
on this activity.

This survey is graded. It contains five questions and you can earn a maximum of 10 points. You
are allowed multiple attempts to complete this activity. You will not be given instructor
feedback for this activity.

29
Module 2 Check

"ULinks to an external site.ntitled" .Links to an external site. by kropekke. Links to an external site. is licensed under a Pixabay
License. Links to an external site. It is free to use and share.

Please answer one question to verify that you have completed all activities in Module 2. You
must choose "yes" in order to move on in the course. This quiz will count as 1 point toward
your grade.

30
MODULE 3: LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODS FOR A
NEW MILLENIUM, BACKWARD DESIGN
Table of Contents
3.1 Introduction to Module 3 …………………………………………………………………………………….. 2

3.2 Warm Up Discussion: How I Learned, How I Teach ………………………………………………. 4

3.3 Lecture: Overview of Language Teaching Methods and Approaches ……………………. 5
3.3.1 Optional Activity: Methodology Videos …………………………………………………………….. 21
3.4 Reading: Methodology in the New Millennium …………………………………………………….. 51
3.4.1 Quiz: Methods and Approaches …………………………………………………………………………. 68

3.5 Lecture: Language Teaching Principles ………………………………………………………………….. 69

3.5.1 Activity: Applying Language Teaching Principles ………………………………………………… 71
3.6 Culture Spotlight: Cross-Cultural Differences in Teaching Methods ………………………. 72
3.7 Lecture: Backward Design and Lesson Planning …………………………………………………….. 74

3.7.1 Optional Reading: A Ten Step Process for Developing Teaching Units ………………… 82
3.7.2 Quiz: Using Backward Design ……………………………………………………………………………… 100
3.8 Reflection: Cascading New Knowledge ………………………………………………………………….. 101
Module 3 Check ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 102

© 2020 by the University of Maryland, Baltimore County. Module 3: Language Teaching Methods for a New Millennium,
Backward Design for the Online Professional English Network (OPEN), sponsored by the U.S. Department of State with funding
provided by the U.S. government, and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

1
3.1 Introduction to Modules: Language Teaching
Methods for a New Millennium and Backward Design

Please view the introduction video. You can download the transcript here.

Video Transcript:

Hello Everyone and welcome to Module 3. This module is packed with a lot of fun activities, and we hope
that you will enjoy working through each one of them.

In this module we will present different methods and approaches we can take to teach English. We will
discuss various activities and tasks associated with these different teaching methods. We will also take a
closer look at communicative language teaching (CLT) and task-based learning (TBL). Additionally, we will
review teacher-centered and student-centered classrooms and how we can further move towards using
student-centered approaches. In our "Communicative Language Teaching and Culture Scenarios," we will
take a closer look at some norms and behaviors practiced in American classrooms and you will have an
opportunity to examine different classroom scenarios in one of the optional discussion activities. We
encourage you that if you have time, participate in as many of these optional discussions as you can. They
will give you a great opportunity to “meet” your colleagues from all over the world. It will also give you a
great opportunity to learn from each other as much as you can.

2
The second half of the module focuses on the concept of backward-design lesson planning. I am sure that
many of you are familiar with lesson plans. Take a moment and think of how you design a lesson.
Before we begin the module, take a minute to reflect on your own learning English as a foreign language
and think of some of the goals you set out for yourself for this week.
• Do you want to explore different old and new methods of teaching English?
• Can you remember the greatest challenges you had with the methods used when you were
learning English?
• Are those methods still in use in your country? Are they effective?

Great! We hope that you will find this module informative and, we are very excited to keep working with
you in this course. Let's get started.

Module 3 Task List:

The module should take 4-5 hours to complete.

1. Reflect on your learning and teaching in the Warm-up: How I Learned, How I Teach (15
minutes)
2. Read our first Lecture: Overview of Language Teaching Methods and Approaches(45
minutes)
3. Watch the Methodology Videos in this optional activity (60 minutes)
4. Read an article about Methodology in the New Millennium(45 minutes)
5. Take the Quiz: Methods and Approaches (15 minutes)
6. Read our second Lecture: Language Teaching Principles (30 minutes)
7. Complete the Activity: Applying Language Teaching Principles(15 minutes)
8. Read Culture Spotlight: Cross-Cultural Differences in Teaching Methods(25 minutes)
9. Read our third Lecture: Backward Design and Lesson Planning (45 minutes)
10. Read the optional A Ten-Step Process for Developing Teaching Units (45 minutes)
11. Take the Quiz: Using Backward Design (15 minutes)
12. Complete the Cascading New Knowledge Survey (30 minutes).

The Module 3 Packet includes all materials you need for the module. You can download it here .
Module Requirements

• Each page of the module should be viewed and read

• All quizzes require 7 points to pass
• Discussions need to be reviewed but posting is optional
• Cascading New Knowledge Surveys should be completed at the end of each module
• Completion of the previous module is always a prerequisite for the subsequent module

3
3.2 Warm-up: How I Learned, How I Teach

We all have different styles of teaching. We have also experienced classrooms that are focused
on the teacher or focused more on the learner.

Think, Reflect, and Write

1. Think about your experiences learning and teaching English, and what methods or techniques
were used. Answer the following questions:

• How did you learn English?

• How did you learn to teach it?
• What are some types or kinds of activities that are helpful or effective?

2. Think about your experience planning lessons and answer the following questions:

• When you plan a lesson, how do you decide what to teach?

• How do you decide how to teach it?
• What might you include from the course modules in your future planning?
• How will you know if the students understand and can use what they've learned?

3. On a piece a piece of paper or in a word doc, write some notes on your answers to these
questions. Use this opportunity to think about what you already know.

You do not have to submit this assignment. This activity is not graded. This is a chance to
activate your prior knowledge (think about what you already know). You should spend no more
than 10-15 minutes completing this.

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3.3 Lecture: Overview of Language Teaching
Methods and Approaches

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After reading through the PowerPoint, please study this chart on the following page that
summarizes the language teaching methods mentioned in the presentation.

References (copyright):

This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy.

White Plains, NY: Longman.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (1986). Techniques and principles in language teaching. New York, N.Y.,
USA: Oxford University Press.

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 Grammar-Translation Direct Method Audiolingual Silent Way Suggestopedia TPR Communicative
Language Teaching
Goals Read in L2 Communication Communication Self-expression of Ss need to overcome Help Ss develop Communication in social
Learn grammar, vocabulary, Think in L2 Ss and psychological barrier listening fluency context
culture Direct association in L2 independence to learning
without translation from T
Role of teacher/student Traditional T-centered T-centered T is a facilitator Ss trust and respect T Director Facilitator
T is the authority and Ss T is the L2 model for and resource as authority T provides model of Encourages
learn from the T imitation provider Ss adopt child-like L2 for imitation communication among Ss
roles
Teaching/learning Translation Use L2 only New grammar and Ss are guided to Relaxing atmosphere Comprehension Ss learn to communicate
process Explain grammar rules Grammar is taught vocabulary through discover L2 Use of songs, music, before production by using real-life
Memorize vocabulary through examples and dialogues Initial focus on and games to T models then Ss situations in the
application correct activate the whole perform classroom
pronunciation brain
Student/teacher T to S Both T and S T directed T active but T/S and S/S T speaks and Ss T arranges task for
interaction Some S to S S/S in drills mostly silent interaction respond non-verbally communication
S/S interaction Later Ss verbalize
Language skills Vocabulary/grammar Vocabulary over grammar Structure is important Pronunciation and Vocabulary Grammar and Function over form
Reading/writing Focus on communication (sound system and intonation Minimal grammar vocabulary
grammar patterns) Oral before
Order of skills is written
listening-speaking-
reading-writing
Role of L1 L1 in classroom Not used L1 habits sometimes Used to form L1 used to translate Not used Generally, not used
Two-way translation interfere with L2 sounds in L2 dialogues
Used for feedback L1 is gradually
reduced
Evaluation Written translations Communicative Tests where each Continuous In-class performance By observation Communicative tests
Application of grammar (interview) question focuses on observ ation Fluency and accuracy
rules only one point of the Ss develop their
language own criteria
Error correction T gives correct answers Self-correction Avoid errors by Self and peer No open correction Unnoticeable No error correction
overlearning correction correction unless errors interfere
with communication

Sample Activities Translation Reading aloud Repetitive drills with Color charts to Songs Command drills Pair work
Drills Fill in the blank focus on pronunciation teach Games Role plays of Interviews
Dictation pronunciation everyday activities Debates
Conversation practice Rods to teach Information-gap activities
Paragraph writing grammar
structures

©2019 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). Summary for Language Teaching Methods for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State, with funding provided by the U.S.
government, and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org /licenses/by/4.0/

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Below you can view videos and lesson plans for some of the methods discussed in the
presentation. You can also read the transcripts that are following the videos.

3.3.1 Optional activity: Methodology Videos

Methodology Videos
OPTIONAL: Watch the videos for each method. (If you cannot stream the video, there is a
transcript you can read for each video.) Look for evidence of the following in each video:

• The role of the teacher

• The role of the student
• The role of the native language
• The role of the target language
• Types of language learning activities
• How errors are addressed

Suggestopedia

Audiolingual Method

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Silent Way

TPR (Total Physical Response)

Communicative Approach

Additional OER Resource

Larsen-Freeman, D. (1990). Language Teaching Methods. U.S. Information Agency. Retrieved
from: https://americanenglish.state.gov/resources/language-teaching-methods#child-
1423 (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

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 Transcript
Learn English through drama – Course Explained Fast Learning School

Narrator: Suggestopedia is one of the few methodologies by UNESCO as a most innovative

and effective learning method. The students learn a language up to 6 times faster and they
learn through games, art, music, and drama.

Nicole (teacher): It’s very much a speaking based course. They’re involved in lots of
vocabulary, exercises to learn new words, new idioms, new expressions and then to put those
to use and to integrate them into their vocabulary smoothly through improvisation, role-play, and
drama, and writing.

Clips of students learning.

Daniela (founder of Fast Learning School): We use art to create a pleasant atmosphere in
order to make the students understand and memorize faster. Art is the best vehicle for
spontaneous memorization because it helps the students to relax and overcome their learning
barriers and has high motivational power, as well.

Students performing:

Agnieszka: I was working in Covent Garden and saw a crown of enthusiastic people
surrounding…a young juggler!
Student 2: So, the best solution was to kill Mr. Hyde
Student 3: Using the new technology I solved this case very quickly…
Nicole: So, they basically do lots of speaking, learning new words, writing, acting…performig

Giovanni (Student): I’m like a farmer put in London…like a mouse in the jungle. Oh, Oh! My
Face?
Student 3: A selfie, yeah!
Nicole: They have become more confident at speaking, they have become more natural with
the language, I think quite a lot in a short period of time. So, it’s quite intense, as well.

23
Students describing the course:
Agnieszka: The teachers are very, very well prepared.
Catalina (Student): Really nice and friendly atmosphere.
Giovanni: To learn English, acting…I think it’s a really good way.
Agnieszka: I’m more open for speaking.
Stefano (Student): Just more self-confident.
Nicole: So there’s all kinds of students attending this course. There are students, there are
professionals, there are people who live in London already and there are others who have come
from abroad.
Daniela: We use drama as a way to improve the English skills, to gain confidence in speaking
English. We make the students work hard in order to develop their skills, but at the same time
we have fun.

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 Transcript
Language Teaching Methods: Audio-Lingual Method Video

Dian Larson-Freeman: Hello, my name is Diane Larson Freeman. I’m a

teacher educator at the School for International Training. It’s common I
language teaching education programs to survey current language teaching
methodologies. At SIT, we do this by giving our teacher trainees a direct
experience with each method. The purpose of this video tape series is to
provide you with a similar, but vicarious experience involving six common
methods: the Audio-Lingual Method, Community Language Learning, the
Comprehension Approach, Suggestopedia, Silent Wat and the Communicative
Approach. Intermediate level lessons you will observe were taped at the
Television Studios of the USIA in Washington DC and it is through the courtesy
of the USIA that this program is being made available to you. The students were
all volunteers who were studying English at the time.

The instructors are experienced language teachers and teacher educators from
SIT, who have each taught students in various parts of the world using methods
they demonstrate for you here. For the sake of coherence, the instructors have
designed their lessons around a common theme, namely that of a house. What
you will see are somewhat condensed versions of the original lessons. All the
steps of the lessons have been preserved, but some of the participation has
been trimmed in the interest of time. The instructors have tried to faithfully
depict each method, but of course, each instructor is also putting the principles
into practice based upon his or her interpretation and experience.

First, I will introduce each method. Next, you will observe the method and
practice. Afterwards, I will point out the salient techniques and principles
associated with each method. The lessons are meant only to introduce you
to these methods. All of the methods have a richer repertoire of principles
and techniques than can be fully portrayed here. If you wish to learn more,
you may choose to consult my book Techniques and Principles and
Language Teaching published by Oxford University Press.

As you view the tape, try to remain open to what you see. You may be missing
out on something valuable if you reject and of the things you observe in these
lessons because you don’t see how they could apply to your own situation. For
example, there are about 25 students participating in these lessons. Your own
classes may be much larger than these. Rather than thinking “this will never
work with a large class,” think instead “is

25
there anything worthwhile for me in this technique,” and if the answer is affirmative, next
ask yourself “how then can I adapt this technique to my own circumstances” or “what
other way can I put this principle into practice?” Let your imagination create the
possibilities for you.

The first method we will observe is the Audio-Lingual Method or ALM. It’s a method with
which many of you may already be familiar. My colleague Michael Gerald will now
demonstrate the ALM. Watch carefully what the teacher is doing and what he is asking
the students to do.

Michael Gerald: Good morning, class.

Class: Good morning. How are you?
Michael: Fine, thanks. How are you?
Class: Fine, thanks.

Michael: Good, I'm happy to hear that. Today, today's lesson is going to be about two
people: about a salesman, a special kind of a salesman. Now you know what a
salesman is. That's a person who sells something to somebody else. A salesman.
Today the salesman is a vacuum cleaner salesman and the other person – here's the
vacuum cleaner salesman and let me write that – the other person is a woman or we
could call her a housewife. So now I want you to just listen and watch what I do. Listen
carefully, watch what I do, and try to understand. Okay? Now, I'm the salesman now,
okay? I'm going to be both people. I'm going to play two roles. I'm going to be the
salesman and the woman. Okay. Ring ring ring ring, ring ring ring ring. Now, the
woman. Hello? Hello madam. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town? Yes,
of course I would. Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner. No, I
don't. What? Why not? Because my husband does the cleaning in our house. Oh. Okay,
now listen and I'll do it one more time. You just listen and and don't talk this time. Listen
again, I'll do it one more time. Salesman. Rings the bell. Woman. Good morning. Good
morning, madam, would you like to have the cleanest house in town? Yes, of course I
would. Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner. The woman says,
“No, I don't.” Salesman says, “What, why not?” And the woman says, “Because my
husband does the cleaning in our house.” And the salesman says, “Oh.” Alright now,
we're going to learn this together now. I'm going to help you learn how to say this whole
dialogue, okay? So, please repeat the first line, the woman says, “Good morning.”

26
Class: Good morning.

Michael: Good morning.

Class: Good morning.

Michael: The salesman says, “Good morning. Would you like to have the cleanest
house in town?”
Class: Good morning. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?

Michael: Okay, house in town. Just say that much.

Class: House in town.
Michael: The cleanest house in town.

Class: The cleanest house in town.

Michael: Okay, now just Group D here. The cleanest house in town.

Group D: The cleanest house in town.

Michael: A, the cleanest house in town.
Group A: The cleanest house in town.
Michael: The cleanest house in town.
Group A: The cleanest house in town.

Michael: Okay, now just you. The cleanest house in town.

Student 1: The cleanest house in town.

Student 2: The cleanest house in town.

Michael: The cleanest house in town.

Student 3: The cleanest house in town.
Michael: Cleanest.

Student 3: Cleanest.
Michael: The cleanest house in town.

Student 3: The cleanest house in town.

Michael: Good. Very good. Okay. This group, the cleanest house in town.

Group B: The cleanest house in town.

Michael: The cleanest house in town.

Group B: The cleanest house in town.

27
Michael: Ah, no, just right now, just this group, okay? That’s good. In a minute, in a
minute. The cleanest house in town.
Student 4: The cleanest house in town.

Michael: You there.

Student 5: The cleanest house in town.
Michael: The cleanest house in town. Good. Everybody, the cleanest house in town.

Class: The cleanest house in town.

Michael: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Class: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Class: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: Okay, would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Student 6: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: Good. Okay, you.

Student 7: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?

Michael: The. The cleanest house in town.

Student 7: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: Good. Okay, from the beginning now. The woman says, “Good morning.”
Everybody, good morning.
Class: Good morning.
Michael: The salesman says, “Good morning, madam. Would you like to have the
cleanest house in town?”
Class: Good morning, madam. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?

Michael: Okay, good. Now, the woman says, “Yes, of course I would.”
Class: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Yes, of course I would.
Class: Yes, of course I would.

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Michael: Alright, this half of the class. Yes, of course I would.

Half of class: Yes, of course I would.

Michael: This half. Yes, of course I would.

Other half of class: Yes, of course I would.

Michael: You, please. Yes, of course I would.

Student 8: Yes, of course I would.

Michael: Yes, of course I would.

Student 8: Yes, of course I would.

Michael: Yes, you have to say it with feeling, right? Yes, of course I would.

Student 8: Yes, of course I would.

Michael: Good, thank you. You, sir.
Student 9: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Yes, of course I would.
Student 9: Yes, of course I would.

Michael: Okay, everybody, yes, of course I would.

Class: Yes, of course I would.

Michael: Salesman says, “Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum
cleaner.”
Class: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.

Michael: Vacuum cleaner.

Class: Vacuum cleaner.

Michael: Hoover vacuum cleaner.

Class: Hoover vacuum cleaner.

Michael: The amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.

Class: The amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.

Michael: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.

Class: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.

29
Michael: Okay, this group. Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum
cleaner.
Group: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Michael: Alright, you. Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Student 10: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Michael: Good, very good. Very good. Alright, you try it. Then, madam, you need the
amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Student 11: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Michael: Vacuum cleaner. Very good. Everybody, then, madam, you need the amazing
Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Class: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Michael: Now you remember that we don't write down these dialogues as were saying
them because at the end of the class I will give you a copy so you can read it. Right now
concentrate on memorizing it just from the sounds, okay. And later you'll be able to see
it in writing. So, from the beginning the woman says, “Good morning.”

Class: Good morning.

Michael: The man says, “Good morning, madam. Would you like to have the cleanest
house in town?”
Class: Good morning, madam. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: Yes, of course I would.
Class: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Class: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Michael: No, I don’t.
Class: No, I don’t.
Michael: What? Why not?
Class: What? Why not?
Michael: What? Why not?
Class: What? Why not?

30
Student 12: What? Why not?
Michael: Yeah. What? Why not?
Group: What? Why not?
Michael: Okay, use the gesture, see. What? Why not?
Class: What? Why not?
Michael: Try it with your hands. Use your hands.
Class: What? Why not?
Michael: Yeah, what? Why not? And your shoulders, see my shoulder. What? Why
not?
Class: What? Why not?
Michale: Okay, everybody together. What? Why not?
Class: What? Why not?
Michael: Okay, and the woman says, “Because my husband does the cleaning in our
house.”
Class: Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Michael: In our house.
Class: In our house.
Michael: The cleaning in our house.
Class: The cleaning in our house.
Michael: My husband does the cleaning in our house.
Class: My husband does the cleaning in our house.
Michael: Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Class: Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Michael: This group here, please. Just this group. Because my husband does the
cleaning in our house.
Group: Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Michael: Okay, listen to me. Because my husband does the cleaning in our house. Now
wait, wait. Just you, please. You try it.

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Student 13: Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Michael: Does.
Student 13: Does.
Michael: Does the cleaning.
Student 13: Does the cleaning.
Michael: Now again. Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Student 13: Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Michale: Good, very good. Everybody. Because my husband does the cleaning in our
house.
Class: Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Michael: And then the salesman says, “Oh.”
Class: Oh.
Michael: He’s sad. Oh.
Class: Oh.
Michael: I will be the salesman, and you – all of you – will be the woman, okay? I'm the
salesman. So, I ring the bell. Ring ring ring ring.
Class: Good morning.
Michael: Good morning, madam. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Class: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Class: No, I don’t.
Michael: What? Why not?
Class: Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Michael: Oh. Okay, now we’ll change and you will be the salesman and I will be the
woman. Okay. Ring the bell, ring the bell.
Class: Ring ring ring ring.
Michael: Good morning.

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Class: Good morning, madam. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: The cleanest house in town.
Class: The cleanest house in town.
Michael: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Class: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: Yes, of course I would.
Class: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Michael: The amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner? No, I don’t.
Class: What? Why not?
Michael: Why not? Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Class: Oh.
Michael: Alright, can we have two volunteers? Two volunteers. Come up, please. And
how about a woman now. Hassan, you can be the salesman and we need a woman.
Sonia, please. Oh just, you begin. Ring the bell.

Sonia: Good morning.

Hassan: Good morning, madam. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Sonia: Of course, I would.
Hassan: Then I got the Hoover, amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Michael: That you need.
Hassan: You need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Sonia: Oh no, I don't.
Michael: What? Why not?
Hassan: What? Why not?
Sonia: Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Hassan: Oh.
Michael: I'm sorry. I'm sorry you didn't sell it.
Hassan: Maybe the next one.

33
Michael: The next one. Can we have two more people, please? Two more people to do
this. Two more volunteers. Two more brave, courageous volunteers. Here’s one. Maria.
You want to be the salesman? Saleswoman. Okay. And come on, yes. Yes, you're the
housewife.

Maria: Ring.
Housewife: Good morning.
Maria: Good morning, madam. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Housewife: Yes, I do.
Michael: Of course I would.
Housewife: Of course I would.
Maria: Then you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Housewife: Oh, I don't.
Maria: What? Why not?
Housewife: Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Maria: Oh.
Michael: Now, we're going to do a little grammar practice. Grammar practice, okay?
Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Class: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: Prettiest house.
Class: Would you like to have the prettiest house in town?
Michael: Good. Would you like to have the prettiest house in town?
Class: Would you like to have the prettiest house in town?
Michael: Greenest lawn.
Class: Would you like to have the greenest lawn in town?
Michael: Would you like to have the greenest lawn in town?
Class: Would you like to have the greenest lawn in town?
Michael: Good. Okay, now, again. This time individual people. Okay, we'll do it again.
Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?

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Student 14: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?

Michael: Cleanest.
Student 14: Cleanest.
Michael: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Student 14: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?

Michael: In town.
Student 14: In town.
Michael: Okay, good. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?

Student 14: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?

Michael: Would. Would you like.

Student 14: Would you like to clean house...
Michael: Okay, wait. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?

Student 15: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?

Michael: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?

Student 16: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?

Michael: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?

Student 17: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Student 18: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Student 19: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: The cleanest house in town.

Student 19: The cleanest house in town.

Michael: Okay, everybody. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?

Class: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?

Michael: Okay, now you try again, please.

Student 14: Would you like to clean...

Michael: To have.

35
Student 14: to have the clean...
Michael: The cleanest house in town.
Student 14: House in town.
Michael: Okay, everybody. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Class: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: The prettiest house.
Class: Would you like to have the prettiest house in town?
Michael: Good. The biggest car.
Class: Would you like to have the biggest car in town?
Michael: Greenest lawn.
Class: Would you like to have the greenest lawn in town?
Michael: Would you like to have the greenest lawn in town?
Class: Would you like to have the greenest lawn in town?
Michael: Very good, very good. Now, I will ask the question: would you like to have the
cleanest house in town? You answer: yes, of course I would. Yes, of course I would.
Okay, I ask the question, you give the answer. Would you like to have the cleanest
house in town?

Class: Yes, of course I would.

Michael: Would you like to have the biggest car in town?
Class: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Would you like to have the greenest lawn in town?
Class: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Yes, of course I would.
Class: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Would you like to have the prettiest house in town?
Class: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Now you ask me the questions. Cleanest house. Ask me the question.

36
Class: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?

Michael: Yes, of course I would. Prettiest house.

Class: Would you like to have the prettiest house in town?

Michael: Yes, of course I would. Biggest car.

Class: Would you like to have the biggest car in town?
Michael: Yes, of course I would. The greenest lawn.
Class: Would you like to have the greenest in town?
Michael: Yes, of course I would.

Diane Larson-Freeman: It’s only now at the end of grammar drilling that the students
see the printed word.

Michael: Okay, now this time I’ll read it and then you repeat after me. Read it, then
repeat, okay? Good morning.
Class: Good morning.
Michael: Good morning, madam.

Class: Good morning, madam.

Michael: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?

Class: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?

Michael: Yes, of course I would.

Class: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.

Class: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.

Michael: No, I don't.

Class: No, I don’t.

Michael: What? Why not?

Class: What? Why not?

Michael: Because, you see, my husband does the cleaning in our house.

Class: Because, you see, my husband does the cleaning in our house.

37
Michael: Oh.

Class: Oh.
Michael: Alright now, for your homework for tomorrow, I want you to memorize this. Memorize
it and tomorrow, in class tomorrow I'm going to ask you to say this perfectly with no mistakes
without the paper. You understand?

Class: Yes.
Michael: So your homework tonight is to memorize this perfectly. Okay and then the other
thing you have to do – you have two things for homework – you have to sell this vacuum
cleaner to someone, okay? Sell this vacuum cleaner to someone for homework, okay? That's
all for today. Thank you for coming. See you tomorrow. Goodbye.

Diane Larson-Freeman: As the lesson began we saw the teacher presenting a dialogue to the class. The students
just listen to the teacher at first. One of the ALM teacher’s major roles is that of a model of the target language. It’s
the student’s job to repeat as accurately as they can the teacher’s model. Language learning is seen to be a process
of habit formation. The more often the students repeat something the stronger the habit and the greater the
learning. We saw how the students stumbled over one of the lines of the dialogue they were repeating. When this
happened, the teacher used a backward build up drill with a troublesome line. He started at the end of the
sentence and had the students repeat the final phrase. To this he added each phrase in turn until the students were
able to say the whole sentence smoothly. The teacher corrected the students’ errors in other ways, as well. For
example, by quickly saying the phrase for the students to her and repeat.

It’s important to prevent learners for making errors since errors lead to the formation of bac habits. Later in a
lesson the teacher used grammar drills, a single slot substitution drill, and a question-and- answer drill. These drills
help students to learn, or even better, to overlearn the sentence patterns of the target language. The overlearning
leads to automaticity. You may have noticed that the teacher often said “good” or “very good”. In this way, he
positively reinforced to students’ work. Such reinforcement helps the students develop correct habits. It wasn’t
until the end of the lesson that the students got to see the written version of the dialogue which they were
learning. This is consistent with the ALM principle that speech is our basic to language in the written form.

38
 Transcript
Silent Way: rods (part 1 of 3)

Caleb Gattegno was another methodologist who believed that language learning could occur at
a much faster rate than normally transpires. What often happens, however, is that teaching
interferes with learning. To prevent this from occurring, the central principle of Gattengno’s
Silent Way is that “teaching should be subordinated to learning.” This means, in part, that the
teacher bases his lesson on what the students are learning at the moment, not what he wants to
teach them. Watch how this principle is put into practice in the demonstration of the Silent way
which follow, taught by my colleague, Donald Freeman.

After the teacher greets the students, we skip to where the teacher is reviewing some of the
words the students will use that day by pointing to them on a “Fidel” (a color-coded chart on
which each English sound is assigned a distinctive color). He focuses on the differences in
pronunciation between thee and the.

By beginning the less with the Fidel Chart, something with which the students are familiar, the
teacher can build from the known to the unknown. The teacher next constructs a floor plan with
Cuisenaire rods. He elicits from the students the relevant vocabulary. He has the basic structure
in mind, but he lets the students take responsibility for guiding the construction of the floor plan.
The teacher respects the intelligence of his students and gives only what help is necessary.

Gattegno believed that language is not learned by repeating after a model. Students need to
develop their own “inner criteria” for correctness – no trust and to be responsible for their own
production in the target language. In fact, he was fond of saying, “The teacher works with the
students while the students work on the language.”

You may have noticed that the teacher spent a lot of time working with the students’ errors.
Errors are important and necessary to learning. They show the teacher how the students
understand what he is teaching and specifically where things are unclear. The teacher used a
variety of tools (hand gestures, charts, the blackboard, and other students) to get the students
to self-correct.

If the students are given answers, rather than being allowed to find the corrections themselves,
they won’t retain them. However, at the beginning, the teacher expects students to progress, not
perform perfectly.

39
The teacher was silent in that he did not model the language, but rather, directed the students in
using it. It is the students who should be practicing the language, not the teacher. Because the
teacher does not supply a model, the students learn to give their full attention to the teacher’s
cues. They are also encouraged to learn from one another. Indeed, we saw that the students
standing in the back were learning from those seated at the table.

By listening to the sentences, the students wrote towards the end of the lesson, the teacher can
verify what particular students have learned that day. This same sort of information was
obtained when the teacher asked the students directly what they had learned. Both sources of
student feedback help to inform the teacher about what to work on next. Students, in turn, learn
to accept responsibility for their own learning.

All Students: Yellow rod. A yellow rod. blue rod. A blue Rod.
Students one at a time: A blue rod. A blue rod.

Donald Freeman pointing to Students individually: A blue rod.

Students all together: A blue rod.

Donald Freeman pointing to Individual Students: A blue rod.

Donald Freeman: Very Chicago.

Student: (Laugh)

Donald Freeman: Say it

Students all together: A blue rob.

Donald Freeman pointing to Individual Students: A blue rod.

Students together: A blue. A green rod. A black rod, a blue rod, green rod Students
begin to speak the colors of the rod as the teacher raises them up. (Colors are Blue,
Green, Brown, Black, Red, Yellow) A light green rod.

40
Male Student: Two rods
All Students: Two rods.

Male Student: Three rods,

All Students: Three rods. Four Rods.

All Students: A blue rod. Two blue Rods.

Female Student 1: Two rods, two rods.

Freeman asks student the word for rod in their native language.

Female Student 2: A blue rod and a brown rod.

All students: A blue rod and a brown rod.
Male student: a blue rod and then a brown rod. Brown rod. A blue rod and brown rod. A
blue rod and A brown rod.

Freeman: This is your job from now on. Your job, listening. Okay,

All students: A blue rod and a brown rod.

Female student 3: A blue rod and a brown rod.
Female student 4: A blue rod and a brown rod.
Female student 5: A blue rod and a brown rod.
Female student 6: A blue rod and a brown rod.

Freeman: Chicken
(All students laugh)
Female student 7: A yellow rod, a blue rod, and uh yellow rod and a yellow rod, and a
blue rod and a brown rod.

Female student 8: A brown rod and a blue rod, a blue rod and a yellow rod, a yellow
rod and a brown rod and a blue rod and a blue rod. and a red rod.

Male student 2: Yellow rod and a red rod and a yellow rod and a blue rod and a brown
rod and a blue rod and a brown rod and a red rod.

Freeman: Bonus

(All students laugh)

Male student 2: A red rod and a brown, and a green rod. A red rod and green rod a
yellow rod and a blue rod brown rod and a light green rod and a black rod.

41
Students clapping

Female Student 4: Red rod and a green rod and a yellow rod and a blue rod and a
brown rod and a light green rod and a black rod.

Freeman: What color is this? Purple.

Students: Purple
Female student: Light red? Purple?

Freeman: I don't know?

Female student: Light red?

Teacher points to purple on diagram.

All students: Purple

Students repeat color name.

All students: pur...pur..pur..purple.

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 Transcript
Language Teaching Methods: Comprehension Approach/TPR Video

Diane Larsen-Freemen: Learners’ feelings are also given importance in the next method we
will see demonstrated. Psychologist James Asher’s method, Total Physical Response, is being
offered as an example of a general approach called the Comprehension Approach. The
Comprehension Approach, as the name suggests, places value on students’ understanding the
target language, and thus emphasizes the listening skill. Other examples of this approach are
Krashen and Terrell’s Natural Approach and Winitz’ materials, The Learnables.

Asher bases his method on the observation that a baby spends many months listening to the
people around it long before it ever says a word. The child has the time to try and make sense
out of the sounds it hears. No one tells the baby it must speak. The child chooses to speak
when it is ready. Moreover, according to Asher, much of the linguistic input directed to the child
contains commands. Look for how Asher’s observations about child language acquisition have
influenced his approach to second language learning. My colleague, Kathleen Graves, will
present Total Physical Response.

Kathleen: Today we're going to learn about cleaning the house. Something I'm sure that
everybody loves to do, we all we all need to clean the house maybe not everybody loves to do it
but it is something we need to do. And in order to clean the house we need a brush, yep we
need a brush, we need a sponge okay we need a dust cloth, we need a vacuum cleaner right
and we need a broom. Okay, could I have someone come up here to the front and be a
volunteer? Thank you very much Hassan. Okay Hassan I'd like you to point to the vacuum
cleaner. Okay, could you point to the sponge? Okay, could you point to the brush? Okay, could
you point to the broom? That's right, could you point to the dust cloth? Okay, could you point to
the broom? Okay point to the vacuum cleaner? Okay, point to the sponge. Point to the brush.
Point to the vacuum cleaner. Point to the broom. Point to the dust cloth okay. Good. Thank you,
could you sit down? Okay, so I'd like the whole class to do that point to the desk cloth. Okay,
point to the brush. Okay point to the desk cloth. Okay, don't point to the brush. Okay, could you
point to the vacuum cleaner, the broom and then the desk cloth. Okay, could you point to the
sponge. the vacuum cleaner and then the brush. Okay, very good. Now, we’re going to use the
sponge to wipe the counter. Okay, now we visited a house the other day, do you remember?
And we saw here was the sink, this is the sink, and here was, this area was the counter. Okay,
and we use the sponge to wipe the counter. Okay, so let's try this together. Watch me I'm you
I'm sweeping the floor, I'm vacuuming the rug, okay, I'm scrubbing the sink, I'm wiping the
counter, and I'm dusting the bookshelves. Okay, so let's just try the actions okay could someone
come up here and do the actions with me? Okay, Gideon thank you.. Okay, we don't need to
use these we can just pretend. Okay, we're going to sweep the kitchen floor, sweep. All right,
okay, and then what will we do next we'll wipe off the counter. Okay, and then we're going to
scrub the kitchen sink. Okay, and then we're going to go into the living room and we're going to

43
vacuum the rug, and then we're going to dust the bookshelves. Okay, so I'm just going to say something
we'll do it together dust the bookshelves. Okay, vacuum the rug. Okay, sweep the floor. Scrub the sink.
Wipe the counter. Okay, and did we forget one dust the bookshelves
again. Okay, thank you very much could you sit down. Okay now, let's everyone we'll do it together how
about if everybody stands up. Okay, so let's first vacuum the rug. Okay, dust the bookshelves. Okay, wipe
the counter. Scrub the sink. Okay, and sweep the floor. Okay, good now sweep the floor then vacuum the
rug. That's right so we sweep the floor and then we vacuumed the rug. Okay, dust the bookshelf then wipe
the counter. Okay, so we dusted the bookshelf and then we wiped the counter. Okay, scrub at the sink and
then wipe the counter. Okay, so we scrub the sink and we wipe the counter. Okay, let's go into the living
room and we'll…yeah thank you dust the bookshelves and vacuum in the rug. Oh, good. You're very good
house cleaners that's great! Okay, why don't we sit down. Now let's have let's see Enda tell Gideon to
scrub the sink.

Edna to Gideon: Scrub the sink.

Kathleen: Okay thank you Gideon tell hey Jesus to vacuum the rug.

Gideon to Jesus: Vacuum the rug.

Kathleen: Okay, Jesus tell Alphonse to wipe the counter.

Jesus to Alphonse: Wipe the counter.

Kathleen: Alphonse tell Abdullah to vacuum the rug.

Alphonse to Abdullah: Vacuum the rug.

Kathleen: Now the next thing we have to do is I'm going to ask you to scrub the sink. Okay, now we're
going to scrub the sink quickly. Okay, now scrub the sink carefully, carefully,
carefully. Okay, wipe the counter quickly. Okay, wipe the counter carefully. Okay, sweep the floor
carefully. Now sweep it quickly. Okay, vacuum the rug quickly. Now vacuum it carefully, carefully. Okay,
let's see scrub the sink quickly and then vacuum the floor carefully. Oh, good okay, now dust the
bookshelves carefully and then vacuum the floor quickly. Okay, vacuum the rug carefully, dust the
bookshelf quickly, and then run into the kitchen and sweep the floor quickly. Oh, some, some people are
dusting the floor, some people are dusting the bookshelf carefully and some are dusting it quickly.
Vacuum the rug carefully and then dust the bookshelf quickly. Okay, good job. Thank you. Okay let's no,
no, no, wait don't sit down. Let's go into the kitchen now and scrub the sink quickly, wipe the counter
carefully, and then sweep the floor carefully. Good job. Thank you very much please sit down. Sonia wipe
the counter carefully keep wiping. Deep, while Sonia is wiping the counter sweep the floor carefully and
scrub the sink quickly. Okay, now tell Sonia to stop wiping the counter.

Deep to Sonia: Stop wiping.

Kathleen: Okay, good let's see, Anna Greta tell Seetie to dust the bookshelves quickly.

Anna Greta to Seetie: Dust the bookshelves quickly.

44
Kathleen: Edwin while Seetie is dusting the bookshelves, vacuum the rug carefully. Okay Said, tell Edwin
to stop vacuuming the rug.

Said to Edwin: Stop vacuuming the rug.

Kathleen: Okay tell Seetie to stop dusting the bookshelves.

Edwin to Seetie. Stop dusting the bookshelves.

Kathleen: Uhm, let's ask some questions. Who, who likes to clean the house raise your hand. A-ha
Hassan likes to clean the house, Maria likes to clean the house. Only two people. Okay, Maria and Hassan
like to clean the house. Okay point, who doesn't like to clean the house? okay who doesn't like to clean the
house raise your hand. Okay you don't like to clean the
house, you don't like to clean the house, you don't like to clean the house, you don't like to clean it, you
don't like to clean the house. Okay I like to clean the house, it's relaxing you know. Okay I like to clean the
house. who likes to clean the house raise your hand? Maria or you like to clean. is it like to clean the
house? Like? Like. You D? Jesus, Horacio, Hasaan, Maria, and, we all like to clean the house. Okay, good
so point to someone who likes to clean the house. Right. Okay, point to someone point to someone who
doesn't like to clean the house. So, this is some of the vocabulary that we learned today scrub the sink with
a brush, let, we’ll stay in the kitchen.
Wipe, wipe the counter with a sponge. Okay, do you have any questions about any of these words? No?
dust cloth, yeah this is a dust cloth.

Student: Instead of instead of a toilet. Oh uh, like a small toilet.

Kathleen: Okay a dust cloth. Okay we also have a duster something, something that looks with feathers.
Okay we have a duster but it's very hard to find dusters now. It's very difficult to find dusters so usually we
just, we just use a dust cloth okay? Yeah? Okay, then here's your homework. Now I have all of the all of the
vocabulary we learned today on these sheets of
paper and I would like you to study it and then in our next lesson we will practice giving each other the
commands. Okay, telling each other to do these things okay so we'll pass the homework out you take it and
you it. Okay, thank you very much.

Diane Larsen-Freeman: As we have seen, imperatives can be useful linguistic devices because meaning
in the target language can often be conveyed through actions. In addition, retention is thought to be
enhanced when learners respond physically. The teacher’s commands do increase in complexity but it’s
important that she not move too quickly. Students should feel successful as feelings of success and low
anxiety facilitate learning. Also, when the students do make an error, correction should be carried out in a
non-threatening manner, perhaps by just repeating the command, and giving students an opportunity to
self-correct.

From time to time, the teacher changes the order in which she issues the commands so
students do not memorize fixed routines. She also gives commands which combine previous imperatives in
unexpected ways as students need to understand more than the commands used in the training. Besides,
novelty is also motivating and can be fun. Language learning is more effective when it’s fun.

In the lesson we saw, the students did not do much speaking. They will later, however, when they are
ready to do so. They, too, will being by giving commands. Students are expected to make errors when
they first begin speaking. Teachers should be tolerant of them. Work on the fine details of the language
should be postponed until students have become somewhat proficient.

45
 Transcript
Language Teaching Methods: Communicative Approach Video

Diane Larsen-Freeman: You may have noticed that originators of the materials demonstrated
on these videotapes take as their primary goal, students communicating in the target language.
Many of these same methodologies emphasize the acquisition of linguistic structures or
vocabulary. In the last method we will observe, the Communicative Approach, it is
acknowledged that structures and vocabulary are important. However, adherents of the
Communicative Approach feel that students must master the functions or purposes to which it is
put before they will be able to truly use the language. Watch how this view of language
influences the way the teacher designs the lesson. The Communicative Approach will be
demonstrated by my colleague, Alex Silverman.

Alex: Anyway, today we're going to start a brand-new unit, and this unit will be focusing on a
new function persuasion. How do you convince people to believe in your point of view? Okay I
think this will be a useful skill for you to have both in your academic work and as you function in
the larger world in everyday life. And the topic that we'll be using to work on this art or skill of
persuasion will be the best place to live. We're going to talk about different kinds of living
situations. Okay, now it so happens that my family is facing an important decision on this topic,
the best place to live and I'll tell you the reason why. Like many American families, maybe some
that you know, my family we all started out together. I grew up in New York City and of course
everyone was together and then as the children grew up we spread out all over the country and
now we live hundreds or thousands of miles from each other. Why do you think can you guess
maybe why the children move to different places?

Alex and Students: Because work got interesting, studies, they got married and they moved
away. Yes.

Alex: Vacation?

Alex: Yeah, well my parents went on vacation to Florida once, and they liked it and they
decided to move there. Okay, so now the situation is this my parents, Bill and Sarah, live in
South Florida. I live in Western Massachusetts in the country, with beautiful hills and streams
and fields all around. My brother Charlie moved to a big city, Philadelphia. How many people
have been to Philadelphia? Just a few okay it's not too far from Washington. And my sister went
to Wisconsin, to Madison which is a small city for her studies and she liked it and she stayed
there. Now here is the problem. My parents are tired of living so far from the children they would
like to get back together, at least for a while, with one of the children. The question is which
place to go to since they love each of the children equally, their decision is going to be based on
which is the best place to live. A big city, the country, or a small city or town. Right? And we are

46
having a family meeting, a family council we call it to make that decision. And you're going to
decide which is the best place as if you are my family. And I'll be very interested to see what
your decision is. Okay? Now we're going to do a little bit of work before the role play on the
structure of persuasion. And to start that off I'd like to talk with you a little bit about where you
live and what you like about where you live. How many people here live in a big city at home in
your own country? Ah, most of you. How many live in is what we would call a small city town?
Just two or three. And how many live in the country? Just one in the country? Okay. All right
well let's talk about the big city then, since so many of you are from a big city what are the
reasons that you like living in a big city? What are some of the advantages that you find in big
city life?
Student: Better jobs.

Alex: Better jobs, okay.

Diane Larsen-Freeman: After the students give all their reasons, the teacher gives an example
of how one might make a case for living in a big city.

Alex: Finally, there's a wider variety of people that you can meet in a big city. Now what I just
did was structure my persuasion in a certain way that we like to do in English. And one term you
can use for this structure is making a case. Ok and if we look at this structure it's what I just did,
we open citing one reason and we say something like to begin with or first of all, and then we
strengthen or build the argument. We cite additional reasons and we use some of these
expressions to make a transition one from one reason to another; besides that, in addition,
moreover, furthermore. And the third part of the argument we're making the case, is perhaps a
summary of the main reason or a final reason. Right. Now who can work working with this
structure, who can make a case for, let's say, South Florida. Many of you know about Florida.
How many people have been to Florida?

Students raise hands.

Alex: A few of you but you've all heard of it. Who can make a case for living in Florida? Using
that kind of a formula? Who can start off? Martha?

Martha: Well okay I should try to convince…in short, I think that the place convenient for you
and it has a very good weather - all year round.

Alex: Absolutely go there I'm ready to go! Goodbye! Yes, (jokingly) who's going to teach you?
Okay, well that's very good. That's the idea and that's that the type of argument you can make in
a written form or when you're for example at a business meeting and you're trying to present
your point of view, you might use this kind of structure. Okay now we're going to go to the role
play that I mentioned before and you're each going to get a chance to practice making a case.
Okay? Now here is what we're going to do in the role play first of all you're going to divide into of
four and you will each receive a card. On the card is your identity for the role play. Each of you

47
will be one of the children; me, Alex, Charlie who lives in Philadelphia, where my sister Lynn
who lives in Madison, small city in Wisconsin. The fourth person in the group will be one of my
parents and it will say this on the card Bill or Sarah. Here is how it's going to work when you get
the card you will see information about your home; Madison or Philadelphia or Massachusetts.
These will give you hints about how to make a case for your place. Okay? What you will do is
first take a couple of minutes to study the card, see the information, think up additional reasons
besides the one the card the ones on the card for living in your place. Okay you are free to ask
me any questions you may have about any of these places because I've been to all of them. I
know them all pretty well. Okay, then once those two minutes are up and you've prepared your
case the Family Council will start. And what you will do is try to convince Bill or Sarah, the
parents, that your place is best. So you make a case in front of Bill or Sarah about your place
and everyone else will listen. Okay follow the formula for making a case. Once each of the three
children has made his or her case the parents in the group, the person playing my father or
mother Bill or Sarah, will decide which is the most convincing argument and will state the
reasons why. Okay so each child makes the case, Bill or Sarah listens thinks about the
arguments and decides which is the best one the, most convincing one. Then after that we’ll
come back in the large group and I'll ask the Bills and Sarah's to report on what they decided.
Okay any questions about the procedure? Okay could you move into groups of four and I will
give you your cards.

Group 1: What is the Grayson board…

Group 2: Your own room and save you some money for one of your children you have to live
with the other one. Yes, Otis yes, yes, remains same thing on the log a same situation and the
two of our children and help the oldest entertaining her parents that's no problem.

Group 3: Next tickets on to my country you can come you can…

Alex: Remember to ask me if you have any questions about any of the places.
Group 4 in discussion with Alex: I think it's not very poor yet no the air is clean
Alex: Yes, I don't know you're not sure they're telling the truth?

Student and Alex: Yeah, the big city might be more polluted. Yeah maybe that's a reason for
the country. Yeah, the parents are retired. Yes, work a mother to say no it's a very nice room

Alex: Okay you have your reasons

Alex: Yeah, can I get your attention the parents in the group need to decide now. So please
decide and tell everyone your reasons right now. It's time to decide the leaks who was a parent
here Victor, what did you decide?

Victor: Yes, a I listen carefully a what Lane, Charlie and Alice said about Wisconsin,
Philadelphia, Massachusetts. I think that I was confused and at first but a I think that Charlie
have to have the reason and I decided to go to Philadelphia because they said this city yay how
a V8 has some good technologies. Technology and library and I like to share official to research
also…

48
Alex: So, libraries are important to you?
Victor: and I like to swim in the sea…
Alex: uh-huh the sea isn't too far?
Victor: Yes, but it has his own boat
Alex: Oh, it has his own boat
Victor: yes
Alex: Oh, that's great okay great. So, we have one vote for Philadelphia okay, one vote for
Philadelphia. Okay parent Ibrahim?

Ibrahim: Another athlete I decided to join Alex in Massachusetts.

Alex: oh yeah thank you
Ibrahim: First of all, I have an opportunity to do my job correctly in town who which are not
which is not full yet polluted. Yeah in addition I have to opportunity to visit Boston which is a
good city yeah, and it's not too fast

Alex: Not too far it's a couple of hours yeah

Ibrahim: So finally, I think for the fan and for the job and for all our activities I decided to join for
Alex.

Alex: Okay so we have one vote for the country, in western Mass. Great. Who else was a
parent?

Female Student: Three family the first of all I think I like all of my children. Besides that is a we
are retired we have lots of time to go to out to look around. Its a good Fall for our house so I
finally I decided to go to the three family so this year I will go to the Philadelphia, next year we
go to the Western.

Alex: That's a clever solution so one family each year.

Female Student: I studied.
Alex: Now how do I count that kind of vote? I think I'll give one to everyone yes and it'll make
Lin feel good because she doesn't have any votes yet.

Male Student: My wife and I have a lot of problem because I let see my first son and Lin is my
wife Lhasa daughter...

Alex: Yes
Male Student: And she likes to live before in and I like to live with me for my first daughter this
is your problem

Alex: So, what did you decide?

49
Male Student: So, I'm tired I have 19 years old and when I die Alex can be take my place and
then take care of her, his brothers and sister so we decided to live with Alex and when we die
Alex can be take care of his brother and sisters.

Alex: Another very creative solution. Well I can't wait to call my parents and tell them. So, we
have another vote for Western Mass, the country. Let's count up the votes four the country,
three for the big city and only one for the small city. So, I am the winner. Thank you for helping
me decide that ok I will see you tomorrow. For homework, I'd like you to write a one-page
composition in which you follow this formula and make a case for your own place where you live
in your own country. Ok, one page, see you tomorrow have a good day.

Diane Larsen-Freemen: The lesson we just observed, we saw the students learning to make a
case. The vehicle the teacher used to have students practice making their cases was a role
play. This gives the language they are to use a social context, a characteristic of all
communicative events. It also gives the communication a purpose. Moreover, the role play gives
the students an opportunity to practice using language forms that are not only linguistically
accurate, but sociolinguistically appropriate as well, appropriate to the settings, topics and
participants.

By working in small groups, communicative interaction and cooperative relationships are

encouraged. Such occasions give students an opportunity to work on negotiating meaning or
trying to make themselves understood. They thus learn to communicate by communicating. As
the students’ role play, the teacher moves from group to group acting as an advisor or facilitator,
instead of as a director.

During the last activity, the “parents” are given the opportunity to report their decision. Students
are thus given an opportunity to express their opinions and to share their ideas on a regular
basis. When they do so, errors of form are tolerated by the teacher and are seen as a natural
outcome of the development of communication skills. The teacher may choose to draw attention
to common errors in subsequent lessons, but for now the focus is on fluency and reinforcing the
message that communication is primary.

This concludes the second tape of this two-tape video series on language teaching
methodologies. You may wish to spend a few minutes reflecting on what you have seen. Try to
identify techniques or principles which you find helpful and think about ow you might adapt them
to your own teaching situation. Of course, even those techniques or principles which you did not
find useful will help you clarify your own beliefs about the teaching/learning process. For
instance, what does your rejection of them tell you about our own teaching practice?

Being clear about why you do what you do will give you a firm foundation from which to sift
through the methods demonstrated here. We have presented some options; now it is your own
responsibility to hold them up to the filter of your own beliefs, experience, and the needs of your
students. I wish you well.

50
3.4 Reading: Methodology in the New Millennium
Read this article published by American English Links to an external site. A study guide is
provided.

"Methodology in the New Millennium"

See the study guide for this article on the next page.

Rodgers discusses what directions English language teaching might take in the new millennium.
His ten paths are: (a) student-teacher matching, (b) combination of popular methods, (c) the
reimagining of curricular development, (d) a more basic content-based teaching approach, (e)
use of the multiple intelligences model, (f) a return to function and genre, (g) learner strategy
training, (h) lexical chunks, (i) the expansion of definitions of language, and (j) adoption of a
fuller understanding of communication.

Please read and reflect on this article. Consider how it might connect to your own teaching
context.
Rogers, T. (2003). Methodology in the New Millenium. English Teaching Forum, 41(4), 2-
13. https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/03-41-4-a.pdf (Links to an
external site.)Links to an external site.

51
 iscussing the future of anything is always challenging, especially

D
the future of language teaching. The conservative temptation is to

assume that things will carry on much as they have in the past
and that the future will be recognizable from clues in the present.
After all, classrooms have maintained their familiar organization

for a thousand years. Why then should methodology alter radically if the classroom stays

the same? The alternative is to predict a science-fiction future in which, given one’s

ecological or technological bias, the future is nothing like the present.

My own predictions, then, will address both temptations. Some of the predictions
assume the carrying on and refinement of current trends; others appear more like

science fiction in their vision.

The recent past Next phases in language

teaching methodology
The 20th century has seen an immense
amount of activity in language teaching In assembling my methodological
methodology. Grammar Translation, the Direct predictions, I have borrowed ideas from other
Method, Audio-Lingualism—all preceded commentators and have created some
what some have called the Age of Methods, scenarios of my own. Some of these
comprising most of the final decades of the predictions are based on experience of the
last century (Richards and Rodgers 1986). last century. Others are somewhat
During this period a number of new methods idiosyncratic but draw on material already
clamored for attention and vied for adherents. existing outside the immediate purview of
Inevitably a reaction set in to what some language teaching. I propose ten scenarios
saw as scatter-fire approaches to language which may, individually and collectively,
teaching, leading to an “anti-methods” view shape the teaching of second languages in
of language teaching methodology. Long the next decades of this new millennium.
These speculations are presented in several
(1989) stated that “methods don’t matter brief outline sketches. I have given the
because they don’t exist”; Nunan (1991) millennial candidates identifying labels in a
supported criticisms of the profession and its
somewhat tongue-in-cheek style, perhaps
preoccupation with methods; Brown (1994a)
reminiscent of yesteryear’s method labels.
opined that “The era of methods is over”; and
The methodogical predictions are as
Woodward (1996) noted that the profession is
follows:
now in a period of “post-method thinking.”
Several alternatives were offered to the 1. Teacher/Learner Collaboration: Using
matchmaking techniques to link learners and
view that methods were at the heart of
methodology. Brown (1994a) argued that teachers who have similar styles and
methodology should comprise putting into approaches to language learning
practice certain general principles of good 2. Method Synergistics: Crossbreeding
language teaching derived from research or elements of various methods to find those
observation. Another view was that meth- practices which best support effective learning
odology should build on conscious modeling 3. Curriculum Developmentalism: Viewing
by less experienced teachers of the practices methodology as an integrated component in a
of expert or experienced teachers, whatever larger view of instructional design
these practices might be (Freeman 1992).

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 4. Content-Basics: Assuming that METHODS AND LEARNER ROLES
language learning is a by-product of a focus
Method Learner Roles
on meaning, on acquiring some specific
topical content Situational Language Teaching (SLT) Imitator
Memorizer
5. Multi-intelligencia: Basing instruction
Audio-lingualism (AL) Pattern Practicer
on a “multiple-intelligences” view, in which Accuracy Enthusiast
different approaches play to different learner
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Improvisor
talents Negotiator
6. Total Functional Response: Recon- Total Physical Response (TPR) Order Taker
structing the Notional/Functional idea with Performer
some new systemic twists The Silent Way (SW) Inventor
7. Strategopedia: Teaching learners the Problem Solver
strategies they need so that they can learn on Community Language Learning (CLL) Collaborator
their own Whole Person

8. Lexical Phraseology: Recrafting both The Natural Approach (NA) Guesser

Immerser
the nature and substance of language
Suggestopedia (S) Relaxer
learning (LL) to focus on lexical phrases and True Believer
collocations
9. O-zone Whole Language: Engaging all
aspects of language study—literature, METHODS AND TEACHER ROLES
language history, linguistic analysis, and so
Method Teacher Roles
forth—in support of second language learning
Situational Language Teaching (SLT) Context Setter
10. Full-frontal Communicativity: Error Corrector
Engaging all aspects of human
Audio-lingualism (AL) Language Modeler
communicative capacities—expression, Drill Leader
gesture, tone, and so forth—in support of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Needs Analyst
second language learning Task Designer
Total Physical Response (TPR) Commander
Teacher/learner collaborates Action Monitor

The classification of learning styles (e.g., The Silent Way (SW) Pantomimist
Neutral Observer
Kolb 1984 and Willing 1998) and teaching
styles (e.g., McCarthy 1984) has received Community Language Learning (CLL) Counselor
Paraphraser
considerable attention in recent years;
The Natural Approach (NA) Actor
however, relatively little attention has been Props User
paid to how to match learner and teacher
Suggestopedia (S) Autohypnotist
styles, either theoretically or practically. My
first prediction is that this kind of
“matchmaking” will occupy considerably
Shorthand identification of learner roles
more attention in instructional planning in the
and teacher roles were created as shown in
future. As an example of how this might work,
the two charts above. In application, teachers
I have borrowed some material on method
were encouraged to characterize their own
analysis from Richards and Rodgers (1986).
In a paper on learner and teacher styles and teaching style (or a teaching style to which
strategies in methods (Rodgers 1979), I they aspired) and to characterize the learning
synopsized the characterizations of learner style(s) they found predominant among their
roles and teacher roles for each of the eight students. With this information, they then
methods analyzed in the text. I then suggested matched styles to learner roles and teacher
a matchmaking procedure by which roles in the charts. Close matches led to a
individual teachers might consider the discussion of how teachers and students
appropriateness of recommended methods might be matched and to an examination of
depending on how they characterized procedures associated with the methods
themselves and their students. In other words, suggested as a result of the learner and
I tried to suggest how teachers might identify teacher matches. Such procedures were
“good-fit” methods to adopt or adapt for use assumed to be likely nominees for individual
in their own teaching/ learning situations. teacher adoption or adaptation. (For those

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53
unfamiliar with the major features of these particular insights. Although the search for
methods, I refer you to Richards and Rodgers commonalties across methods has been
[1986] or to Nunan’s [1988] one-page outline discouraged, such commonalties do exist. For
of the text.) example, one sub class of methods proposes
If such matchmaking becomes that a prolonged listening period should
theoretically viable, a major challenge for the precede production, and the other, that
future will be how to put such information production should be a first target. One set of
into practice in ELT classes. This problem methods regards L2 learning as similar to L1
challenges other notions of how individual learning, and the other set views L2 learning
differences in learning and teaching can be as significantly unlike L1 learning. However,
analyzed and accommodated (e.g., these supraordinate commonalties are too
Strategopedia and Multi-intelligencia below). abstract to help a language educator
searching for insights into the language
Method synergistics learning process or for suggestions for
Methods have been criticized for claiming improving classroom teaching.
universality of application as well as In several earlier papers (Rodgers 1989,
uniqueness in their individual properties and 1990), I examined method statements and

Classroom external
Birth—Native intelligence and aptitude
Bloom—Optimal biological period(s) for language learning
Background—Home and community past experience
Bath—Immersion in a second language situation Badge—
High status of second language in the community
Bridge—Desire of the learner to join a new culture
Bedroom—Language acquired from love partners
Bread—Financial rewards for language learning Bullets—
Physical threat for not learning a new language
By-product—Language learning in association with other important learning

Classroom internal
(Refer to methods and learner roles on the previous page for method abbreviations)
Brains—Requiring use of problem-solving, thinking capacities in connection with LL (SLT, CLT, SW, NA)
Breezy—Experiencing LL in a minimum stress, low affective filter environment (SW, TPR, CLL, NA, S)
Buddies—Undertaking LL with practice and support of partners (CLT, CLL)
Belonging—Being part of a supportive LL community (SW, CLL)
Biography—Building LL around personal details and interests of the learners (CLT, CLL)
Bugling—Providing attention calls and surprises to keep learners alert and interested (TPR, NA)
Body—Involving physical as well as mental self (SW, TPR)
Bargaining—Creating situations in which language is used to negotiate meaning (CLT) Baskets—
Providing mental categories for sorting and remembering language learned (TPR, CLL, S) Belief—
Convincing learners of their LL success (CLL, NA, S)
Bluff—Creating opportunities for learners to demonstrate more language competence than they actually
have (TPR, CLL, S)
Bounds—Setting LL goals which are clear, useful, and obtainable (CLT, NA)
Beyond—Demonstrating out-of-class payoffs for LL (CLT, CLL) Beat—
Orchestrating language presentation and practice with rhythm (S)

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practices in an attempt to extract those Learner Considerations: Learner considera-
assumptions about language learning that tions involve the ages, proficiency levels, and
were critical to learner success. The result of developmental stages of the learner or learners.
these analyses of the general literature are Considerations include societal expectations
summarized in the “Big B’s” chart on the and learners’ self-perceptions, prior learning
previous page. experiences and preferred learning styles,
The chart identifies features that positively strategies, environments, and groupings.
influence the learning of second languages. Administrative Considerations: Admin-
Features at the top of the chart are outside the istrative considerations comprise the choice of
context of the classroom and the control of the instructional models and the scale, pace, and
teacher. These are labeled “classroom style of educational delivery. Plans for and
external” features. The more relevant claims execution of teacher and learner selection,
are in the second half of the chart, which evaluation, and promotion, as well as
shows those positive features that are within environmental development and institutional
the context of the classroom and the control of image, are also administrative considerations.
the teacher. These are called “classroom Successful educational program design
internal” influences. and delivery demands successful integration
We know that teacher beliefs significantly of all four sets of considerations rather than a
affect teaching success. Teachers with a dominance by any one set.
strong belief in the positive influence of one It is important to note that what has been
or more of these factors will then look to the called Communicative Language Teaching
methods that support these factors as sources (CLT) has, in fact, reflected preoccupation
of ideas for their classroom. with different kinds of considerations at
various points in its brief history. The
Curriculum developmentalism changing nature of CLT has made definition
A curriculum development model that has and description of CLT often difficult to
been used quite extensively in project design formulate and confusing to follow (e.g.,
in the institution where I was associate director Yalden 1983). In its first phase, the “Wilkins
is called the KILA Model. It is diagrammed Period,” CLT concerned itself with attempts
below. Educational design comprises four to redefine the knowledge base, principally
kinds of considerations, which we have by defining language organization in terms of
called Knowledge, Instructional, Learner, notions and functions rather than in terms of
and Administrative considerations. Successful grammatical structures. In the second phase,
educational design is achieved only in the the “Munby Period,” CLT focused on
area in which all considerations are in determining learner needs through various
congruence and synchrony. mechanisms proposed for needs assessment.
The components of t he model are briefly In its third phase, the “Prabhu” Period, CLT
explained below (for more complete
discussion of the model see Rogers 1989).
Knowledge Considerations: In language
education, knowledge considerations involve
the input/output assumptions about what
language is, as well as specification of the
content—the topical range—of the instruc-
tional language examples or texts presented
and the student responses anticipated.
Instructional Considerations: Instructional
considerations reflect the input of teachers
and other staff involved with instruction.
They also include methods, materials,
programs, technologies, and educational
environments, as well as time and scheduling
techniques and plans for reporting on
learning progress to all stakeholders.

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was defined by the kind of instructional about something, what is the “about
techniques employed—group work, task something” that we are supposed to teach? In
accomplishment, meaning negotiation, caring most academic situations, language teachers
and sharing, and so forth. So, CLT focused on are neither invited nor equipped to use a
knowledge considerations—notions and second language to teach mathematics,
functions (Wilkins 1976)—in Phase 1; science, history, physical education, or other
learner considerations—learner needs traditional academic content areas. Some
specification (Munby 1979)—in Phase 2; and teach, in a second language, content, such as
instructional considerations—task-based astrology that does not compete with the
instruction (Prabhu 1987)—in Phase 3. CLT academic curriculum. This brings its own set
is still seeking an integrated realization of of problems. If content is inherent in
these considerations. language use, and if content-based
As the diagram suggests, methodology or approaches to language learning and teaching
methods represents only a small subset of seem to promise more effective routes to
those considerations in the area I have second language mastery, then we must ask
labeled “Instructional.” The view proposed ourselves what content is best for the
in this section is that we now require a language class. The natural content for
methodology designed in consonance with language people is language itself and
other instructional considerations, just as literature. We are beginning to see a
these instructional considerations need to be resurgence of interest in literature and in the
in consonance with the other three elements topic of language as “the basic human
of the KILA Model. technology,” as sources of content in language
Despite some early proposals in respect to teaching. More such attention will develop in
the curriculum developmental view for the future.
language education (e.g., Richards 1984) and The second question is “How much
some more recent texts on this topic (e.g., content?” As in other ELT matters, there is
Johnson 1989; Brown 1996), the curriculum often a polar, all-or-nothing approach to
development perspective in language content-based approaches. Often there is a
education, particularly in methodology, has hidden assumption that language learning
been rarely mentioned and is unformed in gains are only appreciable when content
conceptualization. blocks comprise entire courses or blocks of
courses, as in immersion or sheltered
Content-Basics
immersion teaching. However, much shorter
The Content-Basics perspective assumes blocks of interesting, meaning-structured
that language learning is a by-product of a units are also highly productive in language
focus on meaning—on acquiring some learning.
specific topical content. This view has Samuel Johnson (1755), in the discussion
supporters who hold that to teach language as of his plan for the famous Johnson dictionary,
if it were a set of patterns or rules or provides persuasive support for the use of
interactions apart from content is not only individual sentences as content blocks. A
misguided, but impossible (Crandall 1997). major feature of the Johnson dictionary was
Content-based instruction has not the set of sentence quotations accompanying
adequately addressed two key questions, each word entry. These provided “special
which future ELT teachers must address. precedents” drawn from great writers.
These questions are “What content?” and Johnson considered these sentences as
“How much content?” necessary and sufficient contexts to
A late 20th century maxim of language exemplify the best use of word entries in
teaching was “Don’t teach about language, speech and writing. Johnson’s practice of
teach language.” Content-based instruction using sentence citations to show word
proponents say, “Don’t teach a second meaning became standard for most of the
language, teach content in a second major English dictionaries. So sentences, as
language.” But language appears to be the Johnson proved, can be interesting, useful,
natural content for language teachers to and content-rich.
teach. If we are not to teach about language The centrality of L2 input as the driving
(e.g., grammar), but are to teach content force in language development is a product of

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the comprehensibility, interest, authenticity, with follow-up inquiry by language educators
and relevance of the input to the learner. (see, e.g., Christison 1998). Gardner claims
Sentences and longer texts can be judged his view of intelligence (or intelligences) is
against these criteria. Consider the following culture-free and avoids the conceptual
sentences of somewhat parallel grammatical narrowness usually associated with models of
structure in terms of these criterial attributes. intelligence (e.g., the Intelligence Quotient,
IQ testing model). The chart below shows
Gardner’s eight native intelligences and
suggests classroom activities that parallel
each of these particular intelligences.
However, most teachers cannot create
eight learning centers in their classes to
accommodate the of talents in their
The first sentence is comprehensible but students. If the only intent of such schema is
not authentic, interesting, or relevant. to raise teacher awareness of learner
Sentence two is comprehensible and and interest and to encourage teachers
authentic. Sentence three is comprehensible, to plan instructional in keeping with
authentic, and interesting (at least to me). this awareness, this goal is reasonable. But
My point is that the relationship between is it enough?
content sized words, sentences, texts, As noted, the Multiple Intelligences
courses, programs, and degrees of language Model is one of a number of models of
learning are still unknown. Until the data are student learning styles. The challenge for the
clearer, we might well follow the tenet, future consists of determining the validity of
“Every bit of content helps.” That is, every these models for LL, developing sensitive yet
use of meaningful, relevant input contributes practical means for assessing individual
to language development. This means that learning styles, and finding realistic ways in
when educators choose or create any which such information can provide more
materials for language teaching practice, effective LL experiences to the full range of
these materials need to be interestingly learners within the constraints that define
content-rich. most of the world’s ELT classes.

Multi-intelligencia Total functional response

The framework here is borrowed from I offer this somewhat tongue-in-cheek
Howard Gardner (1983), who proposed a designation for a reemerging interest in
view of natural human talents that is labeled functional foci in LT methodology. Wilkins’s
the Multiple Intelligences Model. This model (1976) earlier Notional/Functional proposals
is one of a variety of learning style models met with a number of criticisms (e.g.,
that have been proposed in general education Widdowson 1979, Long and Crookes 1993).

Intelligence Type Appropriate Educational Activities

Linguistic: lectures, worksheets, word games, journals, debates
Logical: mathematical: puzzles, estimations, problem solving
Spatial: charts, graphic organizers, drawing, films
Bodily: “hands-on,” mime, craft, demonstrations
Musical: singing, poetry, Jazz Chants, mood music
Interpersonal: group work, peer tutoring, class projects
Intrapersonal: reflection, interest centers, personal values tasks
Naturalist: field trips, show and tell, plant/animal projects
(Adapted from Christison, personal communication, 1998)

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However, new leads in discourse and genre universal than grammar patterns, and thus
analysis, schema theory, pragmatics, and some positive transfer can be expected
Hallidayan systemic/functional grammar between L1 and L2 text structure. Most
anticipate a return to the foreground of influential, however, seems to be the link
functionally based approaches to language between form and function at the text level.
teaching. The general relationship between Knowing the form of a sentence will not tell a
language functions and text genres can be person much about its meaning. Knowing the
sampled in my adaptation of a model of form of a text will tell the reader considerable
language functions proposed by Roman about the kind of meaningful material likely
Jakobson (1960) (See below). Jakobson and not likely to be included in the text.
claims that there are six elements involved in Thus, I anticipate increased attention to
any communication act and that associated language functions, genre, and text types in
with each element there is a focus function. both L1 and L2 instruction.
For example, if the focus in communication
of any message is predominantly on the Strategopedia
message sender, the function is likely to be One of the objections noted to methods as
an emotive function (how I feel about this). a focus of methodology is that methods are
One pedagogical proposal has led to a seen as too top-down and too insensitive to
widespread recasting of the first and second learner interests and needs. The most clearly
language program in Australian schools built learner-centered approach sees the learner as
around text genre. Students are taught both the initiator of the act of learning. To prepare
reading and writing within the framework of learners to assume this new role, a school of
five basic text genres identified as report, practice has developed with the purpose of
procedure, explanation, exposition, and equipping learners with appropriate learning
recount. This increased interest in strategies to take on responsibility for self-
pedagogical treatment of functional text types direction and a teaching approach directed to
is, in part, due to increased attention to top- this goal called learner training (LT). The
down processing in reading and listening. If claim for Strategopedia to be a new force in
students are aware of the type of text they are LT methodology is clearly framed by Holec
reading or listening to, they are better able to (1995:265), who maintains that “to teach the
predict text sequence and text content. It also learner to learn, that is to enable him to carry
appears that text types may be more out the various steps which make up the

COMMUNICATION ELEMENTS, FUNCTION FOCI , AND GENRES

Rodgers after Jakobson

Sender element (emotive function focus)

Genres: Valentines, Graffiti, Love/Hate Notes, Letters to the Editor

Content element (referential function focus)

Genres: Textbooks, Recipes, Encyclopedias, Atlases
Code element (metalinguistic function focus)
Genres: Grammars, Dictionaries, Thesauri
Composition element (poetic function focus)
Genres: Novels, Short Stories, Poems
Contact element (phatic function focus)
Genres: Vows, Pledges, Pep Cheers
Receiver element (persuasive function focus)
Genres: Advertisements, Sermons, Infomercials

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learning process, is considered the best way
of ensuring that learning takes place.”
A number of taxonomies of learner
strategies have been proposed, most of which
have considerable overlap, one with the
other. Oxford’s categorization was one of the
first proposed and is arguably the best
known. Oxford (1990) posits the six kinds of
strategies as shown in the diagram.
Such strategies include, at the most basic
level, memory tricks, and at higher levels,
cognitive and metacognitive strategies for
learning, thinking, planning, and self-
monitoring. Research findings suggest that
strategies can indeed be taught to language
learners, that learners will apply these
strategies in language learning tasks, and Lexical phraseology
that such application does produce
significant gains in language learning (see, Lexical phraseology is based on an
e.g., O’Malley and Chamot 1990). alternative view to the Chomskian premise
For example, the researched and highly that sentence creation is largely innovative,
successful Keyword Technique is a memory and any model of language must account for
the capacity of every human being to create
strategy that supports the learning of L2-L1
and interpret sentences that they have never
vocabulary pairs through visual imagery.
produced or heard previously. In contrast, the
Consider this L2-L1 pair: pato (Sp.) = duck
lexical phraseology view holds that only “a
(Eng.). A verbal link might be made between
minority of spoken clauses are entirely novel
the Spanish L2 item pato and the English
creations” and that “memorized clauses and
sound-alike pot. Then a visual image is
clause-sequences form a high proportion of
created that links pot with the English L1
the fluent stretches of speech heard in every
meaning duck, in this case a duck wearing a
day conversation…. The number of
pot for a helmet or a duck crying while being memorized complete clauses and sentences
cooked in a pot. Through the keyword link known to the mature English speaker
pot learners quickly associate pato = duck. probably amounts, at least, to several
Such methods tested in some 600 published hundreds of thousands” (Pawley and Syder
studies have often proved three to four times 1983).
as efficient as alternative techniques for The large-scale computer studies of
storing and retrieving L2-L1 as well as L1-L2 language corpora, such as the Cobuild study
vocabulary pairs. at Birmingham University, have examined
However, this and other strategies such patterns of phrase and clause
contradict the long-held axioms of language sequences as they appear in samples of
learning which hold that vocabulary should various kinds of texts, including spoken
be learned in context and that memory tricks samples. The Cobuild corpus comprises over
will interfere with fluency and ultimately 200 million words online. Studies of lexical
with ability to acquire advanced competence collocation based on these corpora have
in L2. Some of language teaching’s most provided hard data to support the speculative
favored commandments will quietly inquiries into lexical phraseology of
disappear in the near future in order to researchers such as Pawley and Syder
support institutionally sanctioned training of (1983). For language teachers, the results of
learner strategies, such as the Keyword such inquiries have led to conclusions like
Technique. More generally, increasing those of James Nattinger (1980:341):
emphasis on learning training in course “Perhaps we should base our teaching on
books, curriculum design, and teacher the assumption that, for a great deal of the
training suggests that Learning Training will time anyway, language production consists of
be a major methodology theme of the future. piecing together the ready-made units

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appropriate for a particular situation and that this search will be one of the major LT
comprehension relies on knowing which of enterprises of the coming decades.
these patterns to predict in these situations.
Our teaching, therefore, would center on O-zone Whole Language
these patterns and the ways they can be Whole Language has been a major theme
pieced together, along with the ways they vary of language arts (L1) instruction in United
and the situations in which they occur.” States schools for the past two decades, and
If, indeed, the mature English speaker more recently has been of some interest to
knows “several hundreds of thousands” of ELT educators (Rigg 1991) and the subject of
such ready-made expressions, what should considerable discussion. Whole Language
the language teacher and learner do in advocates appear to share the view that
response to this knowledge? Is massive language education should consider language
memorization possible or recommended? Is in its broadest, most varied sense and should
prolonged immersion in an L2 environment incorporate literary study, process writing,
the only answer? authentic content, and learner collaboration
The practical implications for language in language teaching. They feel that such foci
teaching of these observations on the make conscious attention to specific skill
repetitive habits of native speakers in their development undesirable and unnecessary.
speech and writing have only begun to be An alternative view of this phenomenon is
explored. One author proposes an “L1/L2 incorporated in the chart, “The Seven A’s.”
contrastive approach” to the study of lexical My claim here is that a more comprehensive
collocations, suggesting that “the teaching of view of language assists the language learner
lexical collocations in EFL should in grasping what language is and what the
concentrate on items for which there is no broadest goals of language learning are,
direct translational equivalence in English thereby helping the learner attain these
and in the learners’ respective mother goals. Fuller development of these ideas is
tongues” (Bahns 1993). found in Rodgers (1979).
Some ideas for grouping and sequencing Renewed interest in some type of “focus
lexical phrases and clauses for L2 study have on form” has been a major theme in second
been offered (e.g., Willis 1990; Hunston, language acquisition (SLA) research in the
Francis, and Manning 1997; Lewis 1993). last decade. Variously labeled as
However, these are preliminary proposals and consciousness-raising, noticing, attending,
do not adequately address the enormity of the enhancing input, and so forth, it asserts that
learning task that earlier-quoted students will not learn what they are not
commentaries suggest. Lexical phraseology is aware of. One approach is to bring more
language focus to bear on literary texts
ASPECTS OF LANGUAapproach
an inGsearch
GE IN LANG UA of Oa Nmethodolog
EDUC ATI (THE SEVENA y’ ,sa ) nd
through the use of parallel texts or
Aspect Instructional focus
Language as abilities
comparative translations. Comparative study
Tool skills: reading, writing,
listening, speaking of two English translations of the same short
story is an example of parallel texts. Study of
Language as art Literature, creative writing
the two translations highlights contrasts in
Language as artifact
Structure of English the linguistic choices made by the translators
History of English and the responses made to these choices by
Language as analysis Problem solving, critical
the student as reader. Ultimately, students
linguistics might compose one or more texts of their
own, which would parallel in some way the
Language as acculturation Interpersonal/intercultural
Understanding/communication
texts examined. In pairs, one student might
act as presenter/interpreter of one of the two
Language as affect Intrapersonal understanding short story translations, and a partner might
Humanistic, self-awareness
act as presenter/interpreter of the other. A
Language as activation Communication competence short example follows:
Persuasion to action Parallel Texts: Opening sentences from two
translations of a Korean short story.
1a. “Cranes” by Hwang Sun-Won
(translated by Kevin O’Rourke)

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“The village on the northern side of the much information non-verbally in
38th Parallel frontier was ever so quiet and conversations that often the verbal aspect of
desolate beneath the high, clear autumn sky. the conversation is negligible” (Brown
White gourds leaned on white gourds as they 1994a). Despite these cautions, language
swayed in the yard of an empty house.” teaching has traditionally chosen to restrict
1b. “The Crane” by Hwang Sun-Won its attention to the linguistic component of
(translated by Kim Se-young) human intercourse, even when the approach
“The northern village at the border of the is labeled “Communicative.”
38th Parallel was ever so snug under the In reflecting on the future of LT
bright high autumn sky. In the space between methodology, I have attempted to survey this
the two main rooms of the empty farm house, wider ground of human communication. The
a white empty gourd was lying against contexts for this consideration are framed in
another white empty gourd.” a diagram entitled “Communication Circles”
Examples of student activities based on that comprises a set of ten concentric circles
parallel texts. with increasingly larger circles representing
Think of the village as described in 1a increasingly more comprehensive views of
and 1b as two different villages. Which one communication phenomena.
would you choose to live in? Why? Within each circle are phenomena with
Write an opening sentence of a short story assigned communicative intent. To
in which you briefly introduce the village of understand the role of the phenomena in
1a as it might appear in winter rather than the inner rings in communication, and
autumn. particularly how these might be organized
for second language instruction, we need
Sentences A and B draw pictures of the
all the help we can get. Several 20th
positions of the white gourds in the text.
century methodologists have begun to
What language influenced the positioning of
the gourds? explore the relationship between language
and some of these other communicative
Full-frontal communicativity aspects. A major challenge will be finding
the teaching techniques and instructional
A number of commentators have
time for integrating such insights into the
reminded us that what linguists concern
LT classroom.
themselves with represents only a very small
part of human communication. John Lotz, an
early director of the Center for Applied
Linguistics, often quoted “the fact” that
language constituted only 1 percent of the
information in human speech. Lotz (1963)
identified rhythm, speed, pitch, intonation,
timbre, and hesitation phenomena as the
more important meaning-bearers in speech.
One study done in the United States showed
that in the communication of attitudes, 93
percent of the message was transmitted by
the tone of the voice and by facial
expression, whereas only 7 percent of the
speaker’s attitude was transmitted by words
(Mehrabian and Ferris 1967). Another
Language = Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, etc.
researcher noted that “teachers find it hard
Speech = Tone, Hesitation, Speed, etc.
to believe that the average American speaks Face-to-Face Communication = Expression, Gesture, Distance, etc.
for only 10–11 minutes a day, and that more Language-Based Communication = Writing, Codes, Deaf Sign Language, etc.
than 65% of the social meaning of a typical Human Communication Systems = Hula, Indian Sign Language, etc.
two-person exchange is carried by nonverbal Human Communication = Film, Music, Painting, etc.
cues” (Birdwhistle 1974). Communication = Animal Communication, Extraterrestrial Communication, etc.
Recent commentators in language Behavior = Motion, Eating, Reproducing, etc.
teaching have echoed these earlier messages. Natural Phenomena = Storms, Eclipses, Droughts, etc.
Supernatural Phenomena = Ghosts, Levitation, Mesmerism, etc.
Brown reminds us that “We communicate so
61
 2003
Conclusion Long, M., and G. Crookes. 1993. Three approach-
es to task-based syllabus design. TESOL Quar-
In this article, I have provided an terly, 26, pp. 27–55.
overview of ten potential paths that ELT Lotz, J. 1963. On speech. Word, 21, 2.
teachers might find themselves traveling in McCarthy, 1984. The 4Mat learning/teaching styles
the opening years of the new millennium. I system. New York: Learning Press.
know that teachers will be blazing many new Mehrabian, A., and S. Ferris. 1967. Inference of
trails of their own, and I encourage you all to attitudes from nonverbal communication in two
channels. Journal of Consulting Psychology,
share your experiences with your colleagues. 31, pp. 248–252.
Munby, J. 1979. Communicative syllabus design.
References Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bahns, J. 1993. Lexical collocations: A contrastive Nattinger, J. 1980. A lexical phrase grammar for
view. ELT Journal, 7, 1, pp. 56–63. ESL. TESOL Quarterly, 14, pp. 337–344.
Birdwhistle, R. 1974. The language of the body: Nunan, D. 1988. Syllabus design. Oxford: Oxford
The natural environment of words. In Human University Press.
communication: Theoretical explorations. Ed. ——. 1991. Language teaching methodology: A
A. Silverstein. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. textbook for teachers. New York: Prentice Hall.
Boorstin, D. 1992. The creators: A history of heroes O’Malley, J., and Chamot, A. 1990. Learning
of the imagination. New York: Random House. strategies in second language acquisition. Cam-
Brown, H. 1994a. Principles of language learning bridge: Cambridge University Press.
and teaching. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice- Oxford, R. 1990. Language learning strategies:
Hall Regents. What every teacher should know. New York:
——. 1994b. Teaching by principles: Interactive Newbury House/Harper Row.
language teaching methodology. New York: Pawley, A., and F. Syder. 1983. Two puzzles for lin-
Prentice-Hall Regents. guistic theory: Native-like selection and native-
Brown, J. 1996. The elements of language curricu- like fluency. In Language and communication.
lum. Boston, MA: Heinle and Heinle. Eds. J. Richards and R. Schmidt. London:
Christison, M. 1998. Applying multiple intelli- Longman.
gences theory in preservice and inservice Prabhu, N. 1987. Second language pedagogy.
TEFL education programs. English Teaching Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Forum, 36, 2, pp. 2–13.
Richards, J. 1984. Language curriculum develop-
Crandall, J. 1997. Collaborate and cooperate: ment. RELC Journal, 15, pp. 1–29.
Teacher education for integrating language and
content instruction. English Teaching Forum, Richards, J., and T. Rodgers. 1986. Approaches
36, 1, pp. 2–9. and methods in language teaching. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Freeman, D. 1992. Language teacher education, emerg-
Rigg, P. 1991. Whole language in TESOL. TESOL
ing discourse, and change in classroom practice. In
Perspectives on second language teacher education. Quarterly, 25, 3, pp. 521–542.
Eds. X. Flowerdew, X. Brock and X. Itsia. Hong Rodgers, T. 1979. Teacher training: In progress in
Kong: Hong Kong City Polytechnic. developments in the training of teachers of
Gardner, H. 1983. Frames of mind. New York: English. The British Council, ETIC Publica-
Basic Books Inc. tions, London, pp. 84–98.
Holec, H. 1995. Autonomy and foreign language ——. 1989. Syllabus design, curriculum develop-
learning. Oxford: Pergamonn Press. ment and polity determination. In The second
language curriculum. Ed. R. Johnson. Cam-
Hunston, S., G. Francis, and E. Manning. 1997.
Grammar and vocabulary: Showing the connec- bridge: Cambridge University Press.
tion. ELT Journal, 51, 3. ——. 1990. After methods, what? In Language
Jakobson, R. 1960. Linguistics and poetics. In teaching methodology for the nineties. Ed. Sari-
Style in language. Ed. T. Sebeok. Cambridge, nee Anivan. Singapore: RELC
MA: MIT Press. Widdowson, H. 1979. Explorations in applied lin-
Johnson, R. 1989. The second language curricu- guistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
lum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Wilkins, D. 1976. Notional syllabuses. Oxford:
Johnson, S. 1755. A dictionary of the English lan- Oxford University Press.
guage, in which the words are deduced from Willing, K. 1998. Learning strategies in adult
their originals and illustrated in their different migrant education. Adelaide: NCRC.
significations by examples from the best writers. Willis, J. 1990. The lexical syllabus. London:
London: W. Straham. Collins Cobuild.
Kolb, D. 1984. Experimental learning: Experience Woodward, T. 1996. Paradigm shift and the lan-
as the source of learning and development. guage teaching profession. In Challenge and
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. change in language teaching. Eds. J. Willis
Lewis, M. 1993. The lexical approach. London: and D. Willis. Oxford: Heinemann English
Language Teaching Press. Language Teaching, pp. 4–9.
Long, M. 1989. Task, group, and task-group inter- Yalden, J. 1983. The communicative syllabus: Evo-
actions. University of Hawaii. Working Papers lution, design and implementation. Oxford:
in ESL, 8, pp. 1–26. Pergamon.
62
 12 O C T O B E R 2003 E NGLISH T EACHING FORUM
Note: Technologists have been predicting the This article was originally published in the
disappearance of the textbook for almost a April 2000 issue.
century. In 1912, Thomas Edison boasted, “I
am spending more than my income [on]
getting up a set of 6,000 films to teach the 19
million children in the schools of the United
States to do away entirely with books.” Maybe
in the next hundred years it will come to pass.

63
 O CTOBER
E NGLISH T EACHING F ORUM 2003 1

64
 A Study Guide for: Methodology in the New
Millennium

Article by Ted Rodgers

Study Guide by Keneisha Murrell

From English Language Teaching Forum, 2003, Volume 41, Number 4 Retrieved 5 January 2018 from:

https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/03-41-4-a.pdf (Links to an external

site.)Links to an external site.

Glossary

• Collaboration: the action of working together to create something.

• Synergy: different things working together to create something greater.
• Curriculum: all the courses of study in a school or college.
• Functional: having a useful purpose.
• Strategy: a plan of action designed to achieve a goal.
• Lexical: relating to the words or vocabulary of a language.
• Phraseology: choice of words or phrase.
• Comparative: comparing two or more subjects.
• Communicative: relating to the exchange of information.

Overview

During the 20th century, many new teaching methods were suggested by researchers and
educators. Then, toward the end of the century there was a shift away from focusing on methods
that some describe as a period of “post-method thinking” (Woodward, 1996). As we try to predict
future trends in second language teaching methods, here are ten possible areas that educators may
focus on.

What will language teaching methods look like in the future?

Rodgers’ Ten Predictions:

1. Teacher/Learner Collaboration (Match-making):

As teachers plan instruction they will consider the role of the learner and the role of the
teacher that is seen in each method (see chart on p. 3). Then, they can simply choose the
methods that match their own teaching style and the learning styles of their students.

2. Method Synergistics:
Though different, the various teaching methods do share ideas in common. The second part of
the Big B’s of Language chart (p. 4) shows beliefs that influence the classroom. First, teachers
will choose a belief they value. Then they can join together the different methods associated
with that belief for better language learning instruction.

65
 (e.g. Biography  sharing personal stories and interests  CLT, CLL)

3. Curriculum Developmentalism:
To develop an educational curriculum all the elements of the KILA model will be considered.
K – Knowledge Points about what language is, details about the chosen content and topics, and
the expected answers students will give.
I – Instructional Points that include ideas from teachers and staff, methods, materials, programs,
scheduling, and plans for reporting progress.
L – Learner Points that include the age and proficiency level of learners in addition to their prior
learning experiences, learning styles, and other factors.
A – Administrative Points are related to the choice of models for instruction, selecting teachers
and learners, reviewing teacher performance, etc.

4. Content-Basics:
If language is learned as a result of focusing on the content or meaning of a given topic, future
teachers will have to ask the questions “What content should we focus on?” and “How much
content should we use?” More attention will be given to using literature and language as
sources of content. Even small bits of content like sentences can be useful if they are interesting
and understandable.

5. Multi-Intelligencia:
The Multiple Intelligences Model (Gardner, 1983) helps to raise teacher sensitivity of the
differences in student learning styles and to encourage the use of various instructional activities.
Future teachers will have to make decisions about the usefulness of learning style models and
how they can be used to provide improved language learning experiences.

6. Total Functional Response:

There will be an increase in attention to the function, or purpose of the language text used in
reading and listening. There are six elements of communication and each element has a function
(see chart on p.8). For example, the function of the sender element is to express emotion (e.g.
love notes). The function of the composition element is to express creativity (e.g. poems). This is
important because:
• If students are aware of the function of text they are reading or listening to, they are
better able to predict its content and meaning.

• Languages may have very different grammar patterns, but usually have similar types of
text functions (letters, recipes, stories). This similarity in function can lead to positive
knowledge transfer from L1 to L2.

7. Strategopedia:
There will be a greater focus on preparing students to take a leading role in their own learning
experience by equipping them with learning strategies. The teacher’s role becomes to teach the
learner how to learn (learner training (LT)). The Keyword Technique is an example of a memory
strategy that can be used to connect L2-L1 vocabulary pairs.

66
 8. Lexical Phraseology:
This view says that very few clauses spoken by language learners are new, but are memorized
clauses they have learned from L2 conversation. Teaching should center on these ready-made
clauses or patterns of word use and how they can be put together in new ways for different
situations. Teachers of the future will find ways to create a method from this view.

9. O-zone Whole Language:

Whole language describes the belief that language education should consider a wider
understanding of language that includes the study of literature, process writing, and using real-
life content. This wider view of language helps learners to understand what language is and
what the greater goals of language learning are, so they can achieve them. However, those who
support a “focus on form” approach believe that students will not learn forms if they do not
know they exist. Activities such as comparative translation will help teachers to bring together a
focus on literature and language form.

10. Full-frontal Communicativity:

John Lotz (1963) believed that only 1 percent of human speech is made up of language. Rhythm,
speed, tone of voice, and other elements also communicate meaning. Many teachers are
surprised to learn that in American speech, 65% of the meaning in a two-person conversation is
shared without words (Birdwhistle, 1974). A challenge for the teachers of the future will be to
find the teaching strategies and the class time to consider these other elements of
communication.

References

Birdwhistle, R. 1974. The language of the body: The natural environment of words. In Human
communication: Theoretical explorations. Ed. A. Silverstein. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Gardner, H. 1983. Frames of mind. New York: Basic Books Inc.

Lotz, J. 1963. On speech. Word, 21, 2.

Woodward, T. 1996. Paradigm shift and the language teaching profession. In Challenge and change in
language teaching. Eds. J. Willis and D. Willis. Oxford: Heinemann English Language Teaching, pp. 4–9.

67
3.4.1 Quiz: Methods and Approaches
Now that you have had a chance to learn more about language teaching methods, test your
knowledge on this self-quiz. The quiz will focus on the Lecture and the Reading from this
module.
This quiz is graded, but you can take it as many times as you want to. Your highest score will
count. Please note that you will need to earn at least 7 points to move on in the Module.
This quiz must be completed online.

68
3.5 Lecture: Language Teaching Principles
English Language Teaching in the Post-Method Era
Approaches Replace Methods
In the past, teachers used different methods to teach their students (see previous lecture under
3.3). Now teachers use different approaches that are based on their own judgement or
experience. Here are some principles that Brown identifies.

Brown’s Teaching Principles

Cognitive principles focus on the way we think. Some of the things we need to consider are
• automaticity - students become fluent if they don't overanalyze language forms
• intrinsic motivation - students also need to be motivated from inside and not just outside
(reward)
• anticipation of reward - students are better motivated if is there is a reward (good grade,
teacher compliment, etc.)
• meaningful learning - students learn new information better if it is related to previous
knowledge
• strategic investment - students need to invest time and language learning strategies in the
language learning process in order to be successful

Affective principles focus on our emotions. Some of these emotions are our
• language ego - the new language can create some confusion in some learners
• risk taking - students need to take risks and experiment with the language slightly "beyond" what
is certain to promote language growth
• language-culture connection - students need to understand cross-cultural differences
• self-confidence - students need to be confident with the new language

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Linguistic principles focus on the language. Some of these ideas include
• native language effect - students’ native language can help them learn the new language better,
but it can also slow down the learning process
• interlanguage - students go through a systematic developmental process as they become more
competent in the target language
• communicative competence - students need to be able to use the language to communicate
with other people

Brown’s Advice for Language Teaching

Based on these principles, here are some things every teacher needs to consider before starting
to teach a new group of students.
Diagnosis - What are the characteristics and needs of the teaching context?

• Country of the learning institution

• Socioeconomic and educational background of the learners
• Purpose for learning English (social, political, institutional)
• Motivation for learning English

Treatment - What learning techniques will help students meet their language goals?

• controlled practice - drills

• semi controlled practice - information gap activities
• free practice - role plays, interviews
• group work - whole group, small group, pair work

Assessment - How will we know what students know and can do? What evidence and
assessments will tell us this?

• performance-based assessments - measure students' ability to apply the skills and knowledge they
have learned from a unit
• formative assessments - obtain a picture of learning that allows for pedagogical changes during an
instructional unit
• summative assessments - evaluate student learning at the end of an instructional unit

Find a more detailed handout on Brown's Principles on the following page.

Reference:
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your
personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Brown, H. D. (2002). English language teaching in the “post-methods” era: Toward better diagnosis, treatment, and
assessment. In J.C. Richards & W. A. Renanyda (Eds.), Methods in Language Teaching. (pp. 9-18). New York, NY:
Cambridge.

70
3.5.1 Activity: Applying Language Teaching Principles

Test your knowledge on this self-quiz about different teaching methods and
assessments. The quiz will focus on the Lecture about Brown's Principles.
This quiz is graded, but you can take it as many times as you want to. Your highest
score will count. Please note that you will need to earn at least 7 points to move on in
the Module.
This activity must be completed online.

71
3.6 Culture Spotlight: Cross-Cultural Differences in
Teaching Methods

In this culture spotlight, we will focus on different norms and behaviors in American
classrooms.

American Classroom Norms and Behaviors

Directions: There are many cultural differences in both teaching and learning English. In the
United States, students might do things differently than in your own culture. Read the following
examples of cultural norms that are typical of classrooms in the United States. As you read
them, think of some of the methods discussed in this module that would be challenging to use
in other cultures (maybe even in yours). There is an optional discussion board following this
reading where you will reflect on culture and teaching methods.

Calling teacher by their name instead of "teacher"

Students commonly call the teacher by their prefix and their last name (e.g., Mr. Smith, Ms.
Gold) or their title (Dr. Smith, Professor Gold). It is viewed as impersonal to call them simply
"Teacher" or "Miss/Sir."

Facilitating the learning environment

Teachers are not always the only deliverers of knowledge in American classrooms. Students are
encouraged to share their own knowledge and experience and contribute to discussions.
Teachers often facilitate students in solving problems in small groups and pairs as a way to
move them toward independence.

Being comfortable in a mixed sex groups

Pair and group work is commonly used during classroom instruction. When creating these
groups, teachers often create mixed sex groups as students commonly interact with their
peers. Teachers don't usually have to consider student comfort level related to mixed sex
groups, except when working with adolescents (teenagers developing into adults).

72
Making mistakes
It is generally culturally acceptable to make mistakes, and students are encouraged to use them
as a learning opportunity. There is even a saying that "We all learn from our mistakes."

Making eye contact

In general, making eye contact is a sign of respect and it shows that the person is paying
attention to the speaker. Teachers and parents may say, "Look at me when I'm talking to you."
This may vary among some cultural groups within the U.S., so being culturally sensitive to
student behaviors is important.

Asking questions
Students are encouraged to ask questions in the classroom not only when they don't
understand something but also to expand their learning. It's OK if the teacher doesn't know the
answer; they can find out together.

Engaging in debates/discussions
In the US, students are usually encouraged to share their opinion, even if it is different from the
others'. Classroom teachers value critical thinking, and want students to be independent
thinkers and problem solvers. They may be asked to support these opinions with evidence, and
be willing to take some risks in sharing what they think, even if it is not "correct." Other
students may offer additional thoughts that help them further develop their opinion. Students
are also encouraged to debate and critique situations in order to find the best solution.

73
3.7 Lecture: Backward Design and Lesson Planning

“Backwards Design” by Tiera Day licensed under CC BY 4.0 (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.for use in the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the US Department of State

Lesson Planning
A lesson plan is a written outline for one class period that contains objectives for what the
students will know and be able to do at the end of a lesson. It also describes how students will
be evaluated on what was learned in the class period. The plan describes how learning will be
organized. In a successful lesson all the elements (i.e., objectives, language standards, learning
outcomes, and assessment components) are connected.
There are many reasons for planning lessons. They include:

“Reasons for Planning Your Lessons" by University of the Maryland Baltimore County is licensed under CC BY 4.0 Links to an external site.for use in the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State.

74
In our lecture above we looked at several elements of a good lesson plan and discussed that
good lesson plans should include. Lesson planning should start with identifying desired
outcomes. Good lesson plans should include measurable objectives, tasks/activities and
methods, and assessments/evaluations.

Remember - it is important to make sure that your objectives are SMART objectives!
To make sure that happens, answer the following questions for each objective:

• What do you want to accomplish?

• How are you going to accomplish it?
• What steps and activities will you take to accomplish your objective?
• How will you facilitate students' learning?
• How you will measure your objective(s)?
• What evidence will you have to demonstrate that learning has taken place?

Next, let's discuss your lesson evaluation or how to make sure your lesson's objectives were
achieved and that your lesson was successful.

Lesson Evaluation
It is important to evaluate your lesson and reflect on it to make sure that your lesson:

• Your lesson reached its objectives

• Your students gained desired outcomes
• Your tasks and activities were relevant and appropriate.

To successfully evaluate your lesson, consider asking yourself what, when, why, and how to
evaluate your lesson.

What to evaluate?

75
 Why evaluate your lesson?

When should you evaluate the lesson?

How to evaluate your lesson?

1) You can evaluate your lesson by asking yourself some of the following questions:

Reflect on your Lesson Plan Reflect on your Lesson Reflect on your Students' Gains

Did most of the students reach your

Were you able to follow your lesson Which tasks/activities worked well lesson's objectives? Did they learn
plan? and which did not?
what you planned for them to learn?

Did the teaching methods and

Did students have challenges with
Did you have to make unplanned strategies you used work well (e.g.,
learning? If so, what were they? Why
changes? pair/group work, fluency circles,
did they have those challenges?
etc.)?

Were the parts of your lesson (i.e., What tools did you use to assess your
Were most of your students
objectives, tasks/activities, students? Were those tools effective?
engaged? If not, then why?
assessments) well aligned? Were they outcome driven?

Would you use the similar tools to

How would you plan your lesson better Was the lesson well paced? Did you assess students in the future or will
next time? have enough time for everything?
you revise them?

76
2) You can also evaluate your lesson by asking your students to reflect on your
lesson. To do that, you can end the lesson with specific questions for students:

• What was today’s lesson about?

• What part was easy?

• What part was difficult?

• What changes would you suggest to make learning better?

Train students to tell you what they learned in class today. It will give your feedback and
information on how your lesson went, it will give your students opportunities to think and
reflect, and it will also further help your students develop their cognitive and metacognitive
skills/
Remember:
"The success with which a teacher conducts a lesson is often thought to depend on
the effectiveness with which the lesson was planned.” (Richards, 1998)

Additional Resources:
Visit the American English Teaching Corner for additional information on "Backwards Design
and the Alignment of Assessments"
You will find the summary of this article and its full version on the following pages.

References (Copyright):

This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Richards, J.C. (1998). Beyond training. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Pesce. C. (n.d.). ESL Teachers Ask: How Can I Evaluate if my Lesson was a Success? Retrieved
from Busy Teacher https://busyteacher.org/20364-successful-lesson-how-to-evaluate-esl-
teachers-ask.html (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

77
 86

BACKWARD DESIGN AND ALIGNMENT OF ASSESSMENTS

Great teachers spend a lot of time preparing for class. We examine our curriculum and plan our lessons,
being sure to incorporate activities that will engage our students and motivate them to learn. We gather
materials and even think about the exact words we will say in front of our class. We spend a lot of time
thinking about how a lesson will unfold, how to make the content relatable to our students, and who will
be doing what tasks in our classrooms. All of these things help us stay organized and keep learners on
task, but they do nothing to answer our most important question as educators: Are my students learning
what I am teaching?

PLANNING WITH THE END IN MIND

As educators, we have to know where we are taking our students, and we have to be sure we keep them
on track to get there. In order to really set a purpose for a lesson, we have to work backwards. When we
start planning, our first step must be to think about what our students should be able to do at the end of a
class, a lesson, or a unit. What will they be able to do after we have finished teaching? What skill should
they be able to demonstrate? What content should they prove that they retained?

The task or activity we use to measure this final goal is called a summative assessment. Summative
assessments are given after a set time period of instruction and aim to determine students’ mastery of
content (Cabral et al. 2007, 202). Setting a final, overarching goal and measuring it with a specific
assignment or task helps us be sure the activities we include along the way will help students meet that
goal. It also gives us a way to collect data that we can use to determine if our teaching was effective and if
our students learned what they were supposed to learn during a unit of study.

Let’s examine the following scenario. You are teaching your primary school students about the water
cycle in an English medium science class. At the end of the unit, you want your students to demonstrate
understanding of the five steps of the water cycle. How will you know for sure that your students have
learned this content?

Lesson planning that aims to collect data and prove that students have mastered content starts with a
plan for summative assessment. For more information about effective lesson planning, view the Shaping
the Way We Teach English Webinar Lesson Planning 101: Mapping Activities for a Clear Path to Learning.

americanenglish.state.gov

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 ALIGNING SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS WITH LESSON GOALS

What will your students do at the end of this unit to show that they have, indeed, learned the five steps of
the water cycle and know what happens during each one? Let’s take a look at some possible ways of
assessing what they learned. As you read these, remember the goal and decide which summative
assessment does the best job of measuring whether students have met the goal.

● A. Draw an example of part of the water cycle you see in your own life. Write a few sentences to
tell what is happening and which part of the cycle it is.
● B. Label the steps of the water cycle on a worksheet with illustrations.
● C. Write a paragraph about why the water cycle is important and at least five different ways you
use water in your life.
● D. Arrange illustrations of each step of the water cycle correctly on a poster and label all of them.
Write a paragraph to explain the cycle, telling what happens in each step.

If we look back at the goal, “Demonstrate understanding of the five steps of the water cycle,” we can
analyze each of these potential assessment activities to see if they really measure what students were
supposed to learn. If we examine the wording of the goal, we can determine that the word demonstrate
means that students should produce or do something. The word understanding implies that they must do
more than simply remember the steps; they instead must show that they know what happens during each
of the five steps.

While activity A encourages students to recognize the water cycle in the context of their own lives, it does
not ask them to recall five steps or show that they know what happens during each one. The labeling
exercise in activity B only measures whether students remember vocabulary, not what takes place in the
steps of the water cycle. Activity C asks students to list ways they use water and why the cycle is
important, which does not show that they know the steps or how the cycle works. Activity D requires
students to correctly arrange the cycle, label it with vocabulary and then explain, in writing, what happens
in the cycle. If students can successfully complete activity D, it will prove that they have learned the
material and understand what happens in the five steps of the water cycle. Because it is aligned with the
goal, activity D is the best summative assessment task to determine whether students have learned the
content.

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This is one example of a summative assessment activity that fits with a particular scenario. Many school
districts, curriculum publishers, or education departments also create summative assessments, which are
often tests. While tests can certainly provide valuable numerical data about student learning or areas for
improvement, there are some more authentic tasks that also allow students to demonstrate their
knowledge. Next week, we will take a look at some more ideas for summative assignment tasks, using
rubrics to score them, and aligning the remainder of your lesson activities with your lesson goals.

Reference
Cabral, Robin, Socorro G. Herrera, and Kevin G. Murry. First ed. Boston: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007.

Summary of Backwards Design and Alignment of Assessments and Lesson Planning 101

Source: https://americanenglish.state.gov/resources/teachers-corner-collecting-and-using-data#child-1997

Study Guide by Yuliya Schmaltz

Overview. The most important thing in teaching is to make sure that students are learning
what
teachers are teaching them. In other words, we need to always make sure that students are
meeting the lesson objectives that teachers set for them. This short article examines lesson
assessments and the importance of connecting these assessments to lesson goals.

Planning with the End in Mind. Teachers are responsible to taking students through
instructional process, keeping them on track, and assessing what they learned. What and
how students learn is determined by the objectives of the lesson or a unit. Objectives define
what the students will know by the end of learning, or they define desired outcomes.
Therefore, it is important to start planning a lesson with the end goal in mind or with first
considering the outcomes. To do that, ask yourself the following questions:

• What will my students be able to do after we have finished teaching?

• What skill should they be able to demonstrate?
• What content should they prove that they retained?

We use summative assessments to measure our lesson, unit or course outcomes. Summative
assessments are used after students were able to spend some time studying the lesson
material. Such assessments determine if students learned or mastered the concepts and skills
taught in a lesson. Several in between (or formative) assessments can be used prior to the
final or summative assessments. Such formative assessments help us gain information on how
our students are doing and what improvements can be done our lessons and lesson planning.

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The authors offer this learning scenario to demonstrate how summative assessments can be
set up with lesson goals in mind.

The lesson involves elementary school students in a science class that is taught in English. The
topic is water cycle. The teacher’s learning goal for students is to demonstrate understanding
of five steps if the water cycle. How can the teacher make sure students have learned what he
or she taught them?

Aligning Summative Assessments with Lesson Goals

Here are some possible ways to ensure that the students have learned what their teacher taught them.
Teachers can ask students to:

• Draw a diagram of the water cycle they experience in their own or daily lives. Students can also
write what happens in each stage of this water cycle.
• Provide students with a worksheet which contains a diagram of the water cycle. Ask students to
label steps of the water cycle.
• Ask students to write a paragraph about the importance of the water cycle. As part of the
paragraph, ask them to list 3-5 ways they use water in their daily lives.
• Cut up the stages of the water cycle and ask students to line them up in order and provide a
description for every stage.

If you look back at the lesson goal, which was ‘Demonstrate understanding of five steps of the water
cycle’, you can see how each of these tasks and activities measures what your students are supposed to
learn. By doing these assessments, students should be able to demonstrate that they did not just
remember the steps of the water cyle, but that they also understand what happens in each step, why it
happens, and why it is important.

Reference

Cabral, Robin, Socorro G. Herrera, and Kevin G. Murry. First ed. Boston: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon,
2007.

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 3.7.1 Optional Reading: A Ten-Step Process for
Developing Teaching Units
Please read this optional article if you would like to learn more about developing teaching units.

"A Ten-Step Process for Developing Teaching Units"

For a study guide of the Butler, Heslup and Kurth article click here.
To better address student needs, teachers are encouraged to use a backward-design approach
when developing curriculum. Rather than creating the curriculum with first selecting a
textbook, teachers are encouraged to think about what they want students to be able to do by
the end of the course. This design approach is a ten-step process and can be used for all types
of classes of any size.
Please read and reflect on this article. Consider how it might connect to your own teaching
context.
Bulter, G., Heslup, S., and Kurth, L. (2015). A Ten-Step Process for Developing Teaching
Units. English Teaching Forum, 53(3),2-12. (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

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 GEOFFREY BUTLER, SIMON HESLUP, AND LARA KURTH
United States and Qatar

A Ten-Step Process for

Developing Teaching Units

C
urriculum design and implementation can be a daunting process.
Questions quickly arise, such as who is qualified to design the
curriculum and how do these people begin the design process.
According to Graves (2008), in many contexts the design of the curriculum
and the implementation of the curricular product are considered to be two
mutually exclusive processes, where a long chain of specialists including
policy makers, methodologists, and publishers produce the curriculum in a
hierarchical process, at the end of which lies the teacher.

The teacher’s role is to implement the teachers (Richards 2001) to the extent that
course and use materials received from the they may be too expensive for their target
specialists. One weakness of this specialist audience (Mack 2010). What, then, can
model of curriculum design is a misalignment teachers do when faced with a mass-market
between materials and the classroom in which coursebook not specifically tailored to their
they are eventually implemented (Graves teaching context or possibly no coursebook
2008). Common examples of these sorts at all? The answer, based on our experience,
of materials are the coursebooks that many is that teachers in either situation can act as
English as a foreign language (EFL) schools curriculum designers themselves.
and institutions rely on as the sole basis of
their course syllabus (Cowling 2007). While There has been a movement in recent
coursebooks can fit this role adequately when years by teacher-practitioners to exert
they are a suitable match for the context greater agency over curriculum analysis and
and meet student needs, issues of alignment design (El-Okda 2005; Jennings and Doyle
arise when they do not meet the needs of 1996). Kumaravadivelu (2001) advocates a
the students and the goals of the institution postmethod pedagogy where teachers “acquire
(Cowling 2007). and assert a fair degree of autonomy in
pedagogic decision making” (548). He argues
Mass-market coursebooks may not be a for a pedagogy that “is responsive to and
suitable match for a given classroom. Teachers responsible for local individual, institutional,
may supplement such coursebooks with their social and cultural contexts in which learning
own materials for a variety of reasons, among and teaching take place” (Kumaravadivelu
which are concerns about methodology, 2003, 544). While teachers should be aware
content, language, or the balance of skills of principles and practices from the field,
necessary to meet learning outcomes “they rely mostly on context-sensitive
(Cunningsworth 1995). Coursebooks may local knowledge to identify problems, find
also place a financial burden on students and solutions and try them out to see what works

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and what doesn’t in their specific context” that was created and revised using the process.
(Kumaravadivelu 2003, 544). According to We write this article in the hope that this
Kumaravadivelu (2003), teachers would not tool and our experiences using it may help
only have agency to create curriculum, but guide other educators who wish to design
would be in a better position to address the their own teaching materials or units, either
concerns of the students and the institution to supplement an existing curriculum or as
than would an international publisher. the foundation for a new, completely teacher-
generated curriculum.
From September 2011 to the present, a group
of teachers at the language center of a national MAIN ELEMENTS OF THE TEN-STEP
university in Seoul have embraced their role PROCESS TO CREATE AND REVISE
as curriculum developers and collaborated on TEACHER-GENERATED MATERIALS
the creation, implementation, and ongoing
development of a wholly teacher-generated The ten-step process to generate materials
backward-designed curriculum that targets (1) is intended for use by teachers themselves
our students’ collective needs. The curriculum to facilitate the creation of teaching units,
is teacher-generated in that we have created (2) incorporates a backward-design model,
all our teaching materials without the use of and (3) assumes the importance of reflection
traditional coursebooks, and it is backward- in teaching.
designed in that we began by identifying needs
and learning outcomes before making all The ability of teachers to create
other curricular decisions. In the process of their own materials
implementing and continuing this project, we Teachers are fully capable of developing their
have devised a ten-step development process own course curriculum (Graves 2000; Jennings
(Butler, Heslup, and Kurth 2014), based on and Doyle 1996), and it is preferable for them
a backward-design approach to curriculum to determine what does and does not work
design, to facilitate the creation and revision through direct study of the classroom itself
of five-week teaching units for our practical (Kumaravadivelu 2001; Kumaravadivelu 2003;
English conversation courses. Nunan 2004). At our language center, teachers
found that our coursebooks would meet some
As Kumaravadivelu (2001) suggests, needs well, some needs poorly, and some
experimentation is part of teaching. It can, needs not at all. We saw a mismatch between
however, be frustrating if one lacks a means the perceived needs of our students and the
with which to process classroom experience coursebook content. Since the coursebook
and use those experiences for curriculum content was not a perfect match for our
development. Reflection allows teachers students, we were often forced to supplement
to avoid making decisions based on mere heavily with our own materials. Sheldon (1988,
intuition, impulse, or routine (Richards 238) suggests that teacher-generated material
1990; Farrell 2012). For this reason, we “potentially has a dynamic and maximal
incorporated elements of the experiential relevance to local needs” when compared to
learning cycle into our ten-step process. mass-market publications. Indeed, we were
Without it, we would not have been able to already supplementing heavily and were
learn from our successes and mistakes and effectively creating much of the material used
make informed decisions on how to revise and in courses at our language center.
improve our completed teaching units.

The purpose of this article is to describe We saw a mismatch between the

the concepts that guided the creation of perceived needs of our students
the process, to provide a description of the
process as applied to our teaching context, and the coursebook content.
and to offer examples from a teaching unit

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 A further advantage of creating our teaching “issues related to the content of instruction”
units and materials was the belief that “people were resolved (Richards 2013, 8). Because a
support what they help to create” and will primary concern of the curriculum project was
be more invested when they participate in the needs of all students, we moved from this
the design and creation of the curriculum forward-design model to a backward-design
(Jennings and Doyle 1996, 171). We feel that a model. According to Wiggins and McTighe,
lack of investment in and satisfaction with the backward design calls for us to
coursebooks (upon which the curriculum of operationalize our goals or standards in
any given semester was based) made teachers terms of assessment evidence as we begin
at the language center adopt and discard them to plan a unit or course. It reminds us
on a regular basis. This led to teachers having to begin with the question, What would
to develop a new curriculum at the beginning we accept as evidence that students have
of each academic year, or even at the start attained the desired understandings
of each semester (Butler, Heslup, and Kurth and proficiencies—before proceeding to
2014). At the language center, the hope was plan teaching and learning experiences?
that allowing teachers to create their own … Greater coherence among desired
teaching units and materials would increase results, key performances, and teaching
teacher investment, with the result of a more and learning experiences leads to better
stable curriculum. student performance—the purpose of
design. (1998, 8–9; italics in the original)
Teacher-generated curriculum and
materials also can be tailored to the goals Our backward design began with (1) the needs,
of the institution. For a language program’s then proceeded to (2) learning outcomes based
curriculum to grow and flourish, there on those needs, followed by (3) test tasks
needs to be a dynamic dialogue between the based on the outcomes, and finally (4) content
stakeholder groups of administrators, teachers, based on the language skills necessary to
and students (Brown 2001). At the language accomplish those tasks. This is certainly not
center, student feedback prompted the director an uncommon approach, as backward design
to request teachers to develop curriculum. She “is a well-established tradition in curriculum
also provided guidance regarding university design in general education and in recent years
expectations in regard to testing and ultimately has re-emerged as a prominent curriculum
approved the project for wider implementation development approach in language teaching”
(Butler, Heslup, and Kurth 2014). While (Richards 2013, 20). Because a main goal of the
the development of the teaching units was curriculum project was to enhance and provide
guided by collective student needs, the process measurable learning outcomes for students’
was also open to input by administrators. In oral skills communication, the backward-design
different teaching contexts, other stakeholder model fit in well with the ten-step process.
groups might be involved.
The significance of reflection in teaching
The application of a backward-design model Reflection is the third main element of the
Another main element of the ten-step process process. We were inspired by Kolb’s (1984)
is its backward-design approach to materials experiential learning cycle of concrete
and curriculum development. Prior to the experience, reflective observation, abstract
curriculum project, teachers would (1) agree conceptualization, and active experimentation.
on a coursebook before the beginning of a We integrated Kolb’s cycle into a process
semester, (2) select which chapters to teach, of reflection on teaching, evaluation of
(3) decide the learning outcomes based on the the reflections, and revision based on our
chapters, and (4) create test tasks based on experiences. As Farrell (2012) stated when
those outcomes. In this way, we were following discussing the origins of reflective practice,
a forward-design model where “decisions about the purpose of reflection is for teachers “to
methodology and output” had to wait until make informed decisions about their teaching”

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that were “based on systematic and conscious focus on “Small Talk,” as it was one of the first
reflections rather than fleeting thoughts about of the units created using the ten-step process
teaching” (11). It is our belief that teaching and has undergone multiple revisions. Although
units take time to come into their own and the examples provided here follow the creation
should be viewed as a work in progress over and revision of one small part of a five-week
multiple semesters until they best match unit, we believe that this process is effective in
students’ collective needs. We further believe the development of teaching units of virtually
that a system of reflection provides teachers any size.
new to the teaching unit with a voice in the
process and increases their investment in the Step 1: Student needs
process of materials development. Reflection The process begins with student needs, in
therefore allows for informed decisions over accordance with the principles of backward
time and greater investment in the outcome design. If needs have not been identified,
of the teaching unit. Furthermore, we have or if they need to be reidentified, teachers
found that structured reflection allows for may execute their own needs assessments
improvement over time. Instead of leading (Tarone 1989) by using one or more of
teachers to develop a curriculum once, only the available methods of needs analysis.
to start over again several years later, the West (1997) suggests that a variety of
ten-step process uses its built-in reflection to methods—among which are questionnaires
allow for manageable and organic curriculum and structured interviews—be employed
development (Butler, Heslup, and Kurth 2014). to analyze student needs. Key components
of a successful analysis are that it is learner
centered, related to the real world, repeatable,
TEN STEPS FOR DEVELOPING
TEACHING UNITS and prioritized.

The ongoing curriculum project has resulted The curriculum project strove to address
in a ten-step process (see Figure 1), which the shared needs of all students enrolled in
continues to be used for creating and revising the course. Teachers were requested by the
five-week teaching units. This process was language center director to proceed with
used to supplement a coursebook in the first
semester of the project, and after that to
entirely replace the coursebook. The ten-step 1. student
process was not defined prior to the start of the needs
project; rather, it developed organically out of
discussions and as teaching units were created,
reflected upon, and revised over time.

The following is a brief description of each of

the ten steps, how they were implemented, and
how they led to the creation of several five-
week units of instruction. The units included
“Hot Spots,” where students described and
provided directions to local places of interest;
“Conversation Strategies,” where students
employed language to develop and continue
small-group conversations; “Problem Solving,”
where small groups of students discussed and
solved common problems at their university;
and “Small Talk,” where students role-played
first-time encounters with someone from Figure 1. A ten-step cyclical process of course generation and
another country or culture. In this article, we revision (Butler, Heslup, and Kurth 2014)

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all possible haste and were not provided apply the appropriate formality in greetings,
with financial support for a thorough closings, and choice of language. Students
needs analysis. The initial needs analysis were also introduced to small-talk topics
was conducted by brainstorming in faculty which were, as decided by teachers, generally
meetings. The subsequent list of student needs safe for first-time conversations and would
was based on two major factors: (1) teacher lead to successful encounters.
observation of classroom behavior and
(2) student feedback gathered through Step 3: Test tasks
informal conversations with teachers. A The third step involves the creation of the
compiled list of needs was then made language task to assess students’ performance
available to all teachers. in relation to the specific objectives and
broader goal of the teaching unit. Van den
Teachers and students both identified the Branden (2012) states that task-based
learning need of Small Talk (ST). Students learning—rather than having students learn
themselves informed teachers that they language and try to translate their learning
did not know how to approach or initiate into spontaneous language use—exposes
and continue a first-time conversation with students to “approximations and simulations of
a non-Korean stranger. Teachers had also the kinds of tasks they are supposed to be able
observed that their students were often to perform outside the classroom and learn
unable to conduct a successful first-time about relevant forms of language while trying
conversation in English outside class, despite to understand and produce the language that
such conversations often being the focus of these communicative tasks involve” (134). As
the first lesson of the semester (as presented with all aspects of testing, the test task will
by the coursebook at the time). The teachers be limited by available resources. Rough test
then proceeded to create the ST unit based on materials, including a rubric, may be created
those student needs. at this point and then revisited during the
materials creation phase (see Step 6). The
Step 2: Goals and objectives tasks need not be limited to an in-class oral
The second step is to create goals and communication test. Alternative assessments
objectives to define learning outcomes based such as a project or presentation are possible
on student needs. According to Graves (2000), as well.
goals state the broader aims of what the
teaching unit is meant to address, while the In the case of ST, the test task was for students
objectives break down the goals into statements to conduct a three-minute conversation
that are teachable, learnable, and specifically simulating a first meeting, with one student
measurable. If students meet all the objectives, playing the role of himself or herself and
they will therefore also meet the goals. another student playing the role of a foreigner.
Students then switched roles with their
In the case of ST, teachers defined the goal as partner for a second conversation. Students
being able to conduct a successful first-time were provided with contexts in which each
conversation with a foreigner in a variety of of the meetings was imagined to be taking
situations. More specific objectives within that place. Teachers felt that this would be the
goal were a specific length of the conversation most effective way to simulate the conditions
and an ability to grasp the situation and necessary to use the skills covered in ST.

Teachers defined the [Small Talk] goal as being able

to conduct a successful first-time conversation with
a foreigner in a variety of situations.

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Step 4: Language and skills was used to revisit past lessons and practice
For the next step, teachers volunteer to
pilot the test while other teachers record the
explicit language and sociolinguistic skills used
to complete the task. We recommend that
the teachers who pilot the test be different
from those who designed the test, in order to
bring to light unanticipated problems in the
test design (and possibly in the teaching unit)
prior to the creation of the entire teaching
unit. Teachers creating the teaching units may
then use the test responses to determine the
language and skills to be taught in the unit.
This list is then modified based on perceived
overall usefulness to the students and available
instructional time. Further factors are
teachability and learnability—that is, the ease
with which the language or skill can be taught
by the teacher or acquired by the student
(Thornbury 1999).

When performing the ST test task, teachers

immediately identified that language choices
were heavily influenced by the context in
which the conversation was supposed to be
taking place—for example, the lower-register
“Hey, how’s it going?” and the higher-register
“Good morning/afternoon/evening.” From
teachers’ performance of the role plays,
language thought to be most useful to students
was selected.

Step 5: Sequence
The next step is to order the selected language
and skills into a sequence. Once the order is
determined, a number of smaller objectives may
be created to contribute to meeting the original
unit objectives. Teachers should now consider
the amount of time available for instruction.
Should it appear that too much or too little
language has been selected, teachers may revisit
Step 4 to change the language selection, Step 3
to modify the test task, or even Step 2 to make
modifications to the unit objectives.

At the time that ST was created, teaching

units were five weeks long. The first three
lessons (weeks) were devoted to helping
students develop the skills necessary to meet
the goals and objectives. The fourth lesson
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for the test. Finally, the fifth During the initial semesters of curriculum
lesson was used to administer development, materials
the test. In the case of ST, the were shared in person or via email. By the
greetings were introduced in second semester of the project, a website for
the first lesson and were students and teachers was in place. We used
practiced in a variety of the website’s online forums to facilitate the
situations as the unit went on. sharing of lesson materials, conduct online
discussions, and provide feedback.
Step 6: Materials
Teachers then use the lesson One example of ST teaching material was
objectives to create in-class a PowerPoint presentation. We collected
activities, homework, and photographs from open-source websites as well
quizzes to help students as some taken by teachers in places on campus
develop the language and where students might encounter non-Koreans,
skills to succeed in the unit. such as at a park or a coffee shop. We chose
Once the materials are created, places and situations familiar to students in
they are sequenced into a order to help them visualize common contexts
logical order for each lesson and to tie the unit to their own personal
(with some activities and even experience. The presentation was then used
language being moved as the in a pre-task activity where students worked
lessons are created), and lesson together in groups to brainstorm relevant
plans are created for each topics of conversation for each context. We
lesson. Final versions of the used this presentation in our lesson because it
test materials can also be (1) supported student learning in preparation
created. for the final test task and (2) elicited language
from students that resembles real-world use,
At this point in the process, we a goal of language tasks (Ellis 2003). Teaching
found it useful to meet, share does not, however, need to be limited by
ideas, and receive feedback technology. Should teachers find themselves
from colleagues regarding without access to a computer or photographs,
materials in development.

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they could just as easily describe different the same target language using
settings to their students. the same handouts, assigned
the same homework and in-
Step 7: Teaching class quizzes, administered the
Following materials creation, the next step is same end- of-unit test, and
to teach the unit. Teachers conduct the lessons used the same assessment plan
and utilize the materials that were generated to assign grades. Those teachers
prior to the beginning of the teaching unit. It is who prepared the materials
important at this stage for teachers to not only also provided a
conduct the lessons but also take careful notes basic lesson plan as an aid to
of student reactions, behavior, and performance teachers who were new to the
in relation to the objectives of each lesson and curriculum. Teachers in our
the overall goal of the unit. These notes will be program were not bound,
important in subsequent steps of the process. however, to the provided
lesson plans. The lesson plans
At the outset of the curriculum project, were intended to support
the language center director had instructed teachers, not to restrict them.
teachers to standardize the learning outcomes Teachers were encouraged to
and test tasks. In compliance with the modify and experiment with
director’s instructions, all teachers introduced the lessons, and then to report
89
 the outcomes of their modifications. As Moran (2001) noted when discussing
Successful modifications could then be experiential learning, in reflective observation
recorded into future versions of the lesson the participant “pauses to reflect on what
plans, sometimes replacing the original happened in order to describe what happened,
activities and sometimes providing optional staying with the facts of the experience” (18).
activities, which teachers could use to Following classroom instruction, teachers return
accomplish the same objectives. to their notes and make reflective observations
based on their experiences. We recommend that
Step 8: Reflection teachers suspend interpretation and first express
Reflection is employed to make sense of the their observations of what they saw, heard, and
concrete experience of teaching the unit. felt during instruction. While we recommend
that reflection occur throughout the process,
it is most important after student completion
of the test tasks so that teachers can look back
at the teaching unit as a whole. Evaluation and
decision making for revisions will come from
end-of-unit reflection.

We met each week, after teaching the week’s

lessons, for one hour to share our observations
and discuss what we perceived to have gone well
and what needed improvement for each lesson.
At the meetings, a designated teacher recorded
feedback directly on an electronic copy of the
lesson plan for future revisions. In the case of ST,
one such observation recorded through group
reflection was that the greetings alone did not
always match the provided situation and led to
awkward or inauthentic conversations.

Step 9: Evaluation
In this step, the teachers not only reflect on the
unit but also evaluate it and make suggestions
for the next round of revisions. It is important
to separate observation from analysis and
interpretation to avoid jumping to conclusions
about the success of the teaching unit. As
Moran (2001) notes, reflective observation is
followed by abstract conceptualization where
the teacher “assigns meaning to the experience
by developing explanations or theories” (18).
It is recommended that the teacher keep the
initial student need in mind when evaluating
the efficacy of the teaching unit. We have found

It is important to separate observation from analysis

and interpretation to avoid jumping to conclusions
about the success of the teaching unit.

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that it is easy to be distracted by later elements time available to them. We would recommend
of the process, such as the end-of-unit test that teachers take an “if it ain’t broke, don’t
task. It is entirely possible to spend too much fix it” approach to revisions. That is, not every
time on designing a test task that is not well aspect of the unit will require change and
aligned with the targeted student need. fixing. It is important that teachers take time
to prioritize the changes that need to be made
In response to the observation that some of the before embarking on revisions so that necessary
student conversations in the ST unit seemed changes can occur within a realistic time frame.
inauthentic, we revisited how students would
begin the role play of a first-time conversation After the end-of-unit reflection meeting,
with a foreigner or stranger. Rather than tasks were divided among teachers. Different
opening with a simple greeting, teachers teachers took different items to revise and
suggested that students be taught how to use kept in contact with each other as revisions
the context to generate an icebreaker. were made. Prior to the beginning of the
semester, all revised materials were collected
In addition, as part of the evaluation of the by a point person to make certain that
unit, student feedback was gathered formally, everything was in order and ready to be taught
through confidential online surveys, as well for the next teaching cycle.
as informally, through conversations between
teachers and students. Students agreed that The icebreaker concept was incorporated
the teaching unit met their need. For example, into revisions during the following round of
in a future semester students reported development. It was incorporated into the
having used the unit content to successfully objectives, the test task, the syllabus, and
meet foreigners. A representative from the the lesson materials. These newly developed
language center administration also reviewed materials included a handout for students,
our materials and provided feedback from an revised PowerPoint presentations, and new
administrator’s perspective. That feedback role-play activities. Table 1 provides a summary
was useful because it provided teachers with of the creation and revision of the ST teaching
guidance on the broader goals and vision of unit through the ten-step process.
the university. For example, it ensured that
the curriculum met certain requirements for FURTHER SUGGESTIONS
international accreditation, a matter of great
importance to the university administrators. Based on our experiences working with
this process since 2011, we would make the
Step 10: Revisions following additional suggestions. Collaboration
The final step is actually a return to the first played a major role in the creation and
step in the process and is included to emphasize implementation of our ten-step process.
the cyclical nature of the ten-step process. Indeed, we have described it elsewhere
Active experimentation follows abstract as one of our guiding principles in the
conceptualization in the experiential learning defining of this process (Butler, Heslup, and
cycle and is the stage when the teacher Kurth 2014). We recommend that teachers
“prepares to reenter experience by devising consider collaborating closely with their
strategies consistent with personal learning peers whenever possible. Other studies have
goals, the nature of the content, and the form of shown that curriculum reform can falter
the experience” (Moran 2001, 18). At this point and fail without collaboration and discussion
in the process, the teachers meet to discuss among teachers (Wang and Cheng 2005).
revisions and to formulate strategies on how Additionally, one major drawback to creating
best to revise and improve the teaching unit. It your own materials can be the time and energy
is our recommendation that teachers go through required (Cunningsworth 1995; Graves 2000;
the feedback once again and discuss what aspects Richards 2001). We have found that balancing
of the unit are possible to revise within the the workload in small groups of three or four

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 Step Application in the Small Talk teaching unit*

1. Student Needs Students approached teachers with questions about how to start a
conversation with a foreigner. Students reported struggling with first-
time conversations in English.

2. Goals and Objectives Students will be able to initiate a first-time conversation with a
foreigner, using context-appropriate register and language.

3. Test Tasks Students will conduct a role play with a classmate wherein a student
playing himself or herself initiates a short first-meeting conversation
in English (using language and skills from the module) with a student
playing the role of a foreigner in a specific context.

4. Language and Skills Two greeting phrases were generated in the Test Task practice:
“Hey, how’s it going?” (lower register)
“Good morning/afternoon/evening.” (higher register)

5. Sequence Lesson 1 – Students will distinguish between and practice high- and
low-register greetings and responses.
Lesson 2 – Students will begin to apply the language learned to
different possible situations and contexts outside the language
classroom.
Lesson 3 – Students will begin to shift among a wider variety of high-
and low-register contexts and integrate them into complete role plays.
Lesson 4 – Students will review and practice role plays in formal and
informal situations for the end-of-module test.
Lesson 5 – Students will take the end-of-module test.

6. Materials Handouts were created to provide language support. A PowerPoint

presentation was created to provide example situations in which to
practice the language.

7. Teaching Students practiced initiating conversation with greetings in Lessons

1–4. They began practicing in role plays with classmates in Lesson 2
and continued through Lesson 4, with varying situations and partners.

8. Reflection Teachers observed that the greetings taught did not always match the
provided situation and led to awkward or inauthentic conversations,
resulting in unsuccessful first-meeting conversations.

9. Evaluation It seemed that students needed to be introduced to the concept of

beginning with an icebreaker based upon the context. Students also
needed to understand what would be a more or less appropriate or
natural icebreaker in a given situation.

10. Revisions A new handout was created to introduce the concept of icebreakers,
and the presentation was revised to provide more opportunities to
practice icebreakers.

*In the interest of brevity, only one small aspect of the Small Talk module is presented here.

Table 1. The ten-step process with examples from Small Talk

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92
teachers keeps the labor manageable while simplification to illustrate the steps clearly and
keeping discussions and debate productive. to indicate the cyclical nature of the process. The
process of curriculum development is a holistic
A further observation is that the cyclical nature one, with each element influencing nearly all
of the ten-step process has allowed us to the others (Graves 2000). As described in Steps
complete time-intensive tasks over the course 3 and 5, there were many instances where a
of multiple semesters. As a result, we can do change made in a later step led to a modification
further research to help define student needs in a previous step or steps. Also, while we
and accompanying goals and objectives. The ST engaged in formal reflection and evaluation
unit contains several examples of how language following teaching, informal reflection and
and culture content, English language teaching evaluation were ongoing throughout all steps
approaches, and materials creation have been in the process. With this in mind, we still find
informed over time by teacher research during it helpful to think of the process as progressing
reflection and revisions. in order, especially when creating timelines and
setting goals and deadlines.
For example, we began with a concept,
based on English as a second language More-prescriptive language programs might
principles, of “appropriate” first encounters require teachers to closely follow provided
but gradually revised our ST goals to support coursebooks and syllabi. If teachers are not free
greater awareness of the role of English as to create their own units, there is precedent
an international language. Our guidance for for modifying content that does not suit the
this change came from research in the field of target students (Graves 2000; Richards 2001).
EFL. In this way, we continued to follow the The ten-step process could be used to modify
experiential learning cycle in that we began coursebook content to meet student needs. The
with a concrete experience, followed up on process could be used to identify a gap between
that experience by performing reflective the content and students’ needs and to assist
observation, sought out sources in the field to teachers in generating activities and materials
help with our abstract conceptualization of the to work within their prescribed curriculum.
experience, and finally began revisions for the For example, instead of creating an end-of-unit
next semester in the active experimentation assessment, teachers could use the test task
phase. By following the experiential learning to create an activity that would assess student
cycle over several semesters, we have been learning at the end of a lesson rather than at the
able to make informed curricular decisions. end of a unit.

We have also had an opportunity to improve CONCLUSION

our materials over time. During the first
semester, much of what we produced for As we have outlined above, curriculum design
students tended to be rougher than the material and evaluation is not a matter for specialists
we used in later semesters. As Sheldon (1988) alone. The specialist model produces a variety
notes, one downside of teacher-created of curricular policies, materials, and products,
materials is that the glossier materials provided among which is the mass-market coursebook.
by publishers can be more alluring to students Teachers may find that their coursebook is not
even if those materials are of poorer pedagogic a suitable fit for their students. Rather than
value. Our materials got better as we tested waiting for an outside entity to fill the gap or
them out and made them work, but that fix a problematic element, teachers can utilize
improvement required time, commitment, and their own experience, knowledge, and skills
patience from all stakeholders. to better meet student needs.

While this article has presented the process as After establishing who is qualified, the next
a series of ten discrete and sequential steps, it natural question is how to do it. We had the
is important to note that this description is a same question when we began in 2011. The

americanenglish.state.gov/english-teaching-forum 2015 ENGL IS HTEACHINGFORUM 11

93
 ten-step process has proven to be our answer practice. Boston: Heinle and Heinle.
to that question. It has offered us a means to Nunan, D. 2004. Task-based language teaching.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
create teaching units over time and allowed
Richards, J. C. 1990. The language teaching matrix.
us to make informed curricular decisions that Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
are responsive to our students’ needs. We
–––––. 2001. The role of textbooks in a language
hope that it will be of equal use to educators program. RELC Guidelines 23 (2): 12–16. www.
who find that their present curriculum is not professorjackrichards.com/wp-content/uploads/
meeting the needs of their students. role-of-textbooks.pdf
–––––. 2013. Curriculum approaches in language
REFERENCES teaching: Forward, central, and backward design.
RELC Journal 44 (1): 5–33.
Brown, H. D. 2001. Teaching by principles: An interactive Sheldon, L. E. 1988. Evaluating ELT textbooks and
approach to language pedagogy. 2nd ed. White Plains, materials. ELT Journal 42 (4): 237–246.
NY: Longman. Tarone, E. 1989. Teacher-executed needs assessment:
Butler, G., S. Heslup, and L. Kurth. 2014. Development Some suggestions for teachers and program
of a teacher generated curriculum at a Korean administrators. MinneTESOL Journal 7: 39–48.
university. In KOTESOL proceedings 2013: Exploring the Thornbury, S. 1999. How to teach grammar. Harlow, UK:
road less traveled—from practice to theory, ed. D. Shaffer Pearson Education.
and M. Pinto. Seoul: Korea TESOL. Van den Branden, K. 2012. Task-based language
Cowling, J. D. 2007. Needs analysis: Planning a syllabus education. In The Cambridge guide to pedagogy and
for a series of intensive workplace courses at a leading practice in second language teaching, ed. A. Burns and
Japanese company. English for Specific Purposes 26 (4): J. C. Richards, 132–139. Cambridge: Cambridge
426–442. University Press.
Cunningsworth, A. 1995. Choosing your coursebook. Wang, H., and L. Cheng. 2005. The impact of
Oxford: Macmillan Education. curriculum innovation on the cultures of teaching.
Ellis, R. 2003. Task-based language learning and teaching. Asian EFL Journal Quarterly 7 (4): 7–32.
Oxford: Oxford University Press. West, R. 1997. Needs analysis: State of the art. In
El-Okda, M. 2005. A proposed model for EFL teacher Teacher Education for LSP, ed. R. Howard and G.
involvement in on-going curriculum development. Brown, 68–79. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Asian EFL Journal Quarterly 7 (4): 33–49. Wiggins, G., and J. McTighe. 1998. Understanding by
Farrell, T. S. C. 2012. Reflecting on reflective practice: design. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision
(Re)Visiting Dewey and Schön. TESOL Journal 3 (1): and Curriculum Development.
7–16.
Graves, K. 2000. Designing language courses: A guide for
teachers. New York: Heinle and Heinle. Geoffrey Butler began his teaching career as a Peace
–––––. 2008. The language curriculum: A social Corps volunteer in 2003. He holds an MA in TESOL
contextual perspective. Language Teaching 41 (2): from the SIT Graduate Institute and has taught in
147–181. Kyrgyzstan, Costa Rica, Japan, and Korea. He worked at
Jennings, K., and T. Doyle. 1996. Curriculum innovation, SeoulTech from 2011 to 2015 as an assistant professor.
teamwork and the management of change. In Challenge
and change in language teaching, ed. J. Willis and D. Simon Heslup holds an MA in TESOL from the
Willis, 169–177. Oxford: Heinemann. University of Birmingham. He has previously taught
Kolb, D. A. 1984. Experiential learning: Experience as the in Japan and Korea, and is currently teaching English
source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: for Academic Purposes at the University of Calgary in
Prentice-Hall.
Qatar. His professional interests include testing and
Kumaravadivelu, B. 2001. Toward a postmethod
teaching writing.
pedagogy. TESOL Quarterly 35 (4): 537–560.
–––––. 2003. A postmethod perspective on English
language teaching. World Englishes 22 (4): 539–550. Lara Kurth holds an MA in TESOL from the SIT
Mack, K. 2010. Perspectives on criteria for an ESL Graduate Institute. She has taught in Spain, Costa Rica,
textbook appropriate for Japanese university students. Japan, and Korea. She worked at SeoulTech from 2011
Komyûnikêshonbunka [Communication in Culture] 4: to 2015 as an assistant professor. Her interests include
34–44. reflective practice, world Englishes, and intercultural
Moran, P. R. 2001. Teaching culture: Perspectives in communication.

12 ENGLISHTEA CHINGFORUM 2015 americanenglish.state.gov/english-teaching-foru

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 An AE E-Teacher Study Guide for:
A Ten-Step Process for Developing Teaching
Units Article by Geoffrey Butler, Simon Heslup
and Lara Kuth

From English Language Teaching Forum, 2015, Volume 53, Number 3 Retrieved 12
February 2018 from:
https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/02
_etf_53-3_2_butler_heslup_kurth.pdf

Overview

Designing a curriculum can be a daunting process because it involves teachers, policy

makers, specialists, and more many. Because of this, the designed curriculum can often
mismatch with the materials in the classroom and the needs of the students. To add,
textbooks present difficulty in the classroom because they may not meet content needs
and they could be very expensive for students. Recently, teachers have been
encouraged to understand their
classroom contexts in terms of students, administration, materials, etc., and then
create lessons according to their own particular classroom contexts. This way, teachers
are helping to address the concerns of students individually.

It is recommended that teachers engage in a backward-design approach to curriculum

development. This means teachers should first identify the learning outcomes and
needs of the students, then make decisions about the curriculum. In this process, there
is room for experimentation, or the ability for instructors to reflect on their process
and make improvements in the future.

The Main Elements of the Ten-step Process To Create Your Own Material

Element 1: Teachers can create their own materials

The needs of the students and the contents of the textbook may not match. To
prevent from oversupplementation of materials, or the use of extra resources to
teach, teachers can create their own materials. This is also beneficial because teachers
will be more invested in what they teach since they will be more satisfied with their
own creations as opposed to the activities in the textbook. Teacherdeveloped
curriculum can also be developed based on the goals of the school. Administration can
work together with teachers to create a curriculum where students can learn the
most.

95
Element 2: Backwards Design Approach

Normally, teachers agree on a textbook first, then select the chapters to teach, then decide the
learning outcomes and create activities to match. This is a forward design approach. In a
backwards-design approach, teachers decide the learning outcomes of the course first. They
ask themselves what students should be able to do by the end of the course. Teachers begin
thinking about the needs of the students. Then they think about the learning outcomes. Next
they match the outcomes to different activities and lastly think about the content of the course.

Element 3: The Importance of Reflection in Teaching

Teaching units should take time and is a work in progress over many semesters until they best
match the students’ needs. By offering time for teachers to reflection on their curriculum
creations, they are making more informed decisions about their teaching and have more
investment into their students and their learning process.

This ten-step process can make any class of any size can more effective.

The Ten-step Process

Step 1: Think of Student Needs

Identify the needs of students by conducting surveys and interviews. Based on what the
students say they want to learn, create a curriculum that addresses the shared needs of the
students. (Ex. in previous classes, the instructor asked students what they wanted to learn
through class observations and discussions. Students said they wanted to learn small talk.
Therefore, teachers created a unit on small talk.)

Step 2: Identify Goals and Objectives

Create goals that define objectives of the course. These goals should be the bigger aims of the
course. (Ex. Because the students wanted to learn small talk, teachers created this goal: to be
able to have a first time conversation with a foreigner in different situations.)

Step 3: Create tasks

Teachers should now think about different tasks that would allow the students to practice the
language skill creating more relevant language use. At this point in the process, rubrics can now
be created as well as presentation and project prompts. (Ex. for the Small Talk class, the task
was to engage in a threeminute conversation simulating a first meeting. One student would
play his or herself and another student would play the role of a foreigner. Then, the students
would switch roles.)

96
Step 4: Develop language and skills
Now, teachers should test the activity with other teachers. They act as the students and think
about all of the natural language they would use in this type of situation. This language
becomes the key vocabulary for the unit. (Ex. In the Small Talk class, the teachers identified
language and were able to think about different situations where they would use that language.
“Hey, how’s it going?” would be used in informal situations and “Good morning” would be used
in more formal situations.

Step 5: Develop a Sequence

Put the skills and language in order of how students should learn them. Teachers should
consider class time when designing the order. (Ex. in the five-week Small Talk Course, the first
three lessons were dedicated to helping students learn the skills to meet the goals and
objectives. The fourth class was devoted to practice and the fifth lesson was for the Small Talk
test.)

Step 6: Create Materials

Teachers now create quizzes, activities, homework, etc. for the course. They should be put in
order for the lesson as well. Lesson plans should also be created in this step as well and
collaboration among teachers is encouraged for feedback. (Ex. the teachers in the Small Talk
class collected photos to create a PowerPoint presentation.)

Step 7: Teach the Unit

Teachers should teach the lessons that they created, but also take notes of the activities that
worked and those that didn’t work. (Ex. the Small Talk class teachers were all given the same
lesson plans and materials but were not required to teach the materials exactly the same way.
They taught the course, took notes about the effectiveness of the course and reported back
with their results.)

Step 8: Reflect on Your Curriculum

Teachers should report their notes and discuss the parts of the curriculum that worked and
parts that need improvement. Reflection should occur throughout the course, but it is most
important at the end once students have completed everything and you can report about all of
the activities. (Ex. in the Small Talk course, teachers met, designated a note taker, and
discussed all of their thoughts on the course.)

Step 9: Evaluation
Teachers make suggestions for the next run of the course and keep the needs of the students
in mind as opposed to smaller parts/tasks within the course. (Ex. the Small Talk teachers

thought one activity seemed inauthentic, so they thought about the role that the student
should play in that activity along with the activity itself.) In this phase, teachers should review
students’ feedback from surveys or evaluations.

97
Step 10: Revisions
Teachers develop strategies to improve the course’s content and experiences. Teachers should
focus on revising contents that need improvement and not revising contents that worked for
students. (Ex. the Small Talk course teachers divided the course improvements and each
teacher revised sections of the course to ensure that everything was ready for the next
teaching cycle.

Further Suggestions

In the ten-step process, teachers are also encouraged to…

• collaborate with other teachers as much as possible.
• divide work into groups to save time and energy.
• do research on how to fulfill student needs.
• modify textbooks based on the process.

Conclusion

Both curriculum design specialists and teachers should be involved in designing curriculum for
students. Teachers can use their own experience and knowledge to find solutions to their
classroom problems. Overall, this process helps address students’ needs.

References (Copyright):
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Brown, H.D. 2001. Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. 2nd
ed. White Plains, NY: Longman.

Butler, G.S. Heslup, and L. Kurth. 2014 Development of a teacher generated curriculum at a
Korean university. In KOTESOL proceedings 2013: Exploring the road less traveled – from
practice to theory, ed. D. Shaffer and M. Pinto. Seoil: Korea TESOL

Cowling, J.D. 2007. Needs analysis: Planning a syllabus for a series of intensive workplace
courses at a leading Japanese company. English for Specific Purposes 26 (4): 426-442.

Cunningsworth, A. 1995. Choosing your coursebook. Oxford: Macmillan Education.

Ellis. R. 2003. Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

El-Okda, M. 2005. A proposed model for EFL teacher involvement in on-going curriculum
development. Asian EFL Journal Quarterly 7 (4): 33-49.

Farrell, T. S. C. 2012. Reflecting on reflective practice: (Re)Visiting Dewey and Schön. TESOL
Journal 3 (1): 7-16.

Graves, K. 2000. Designing language courses: A guide for teachers. New York: Heinle and
Heinle---. 2008. The language curriculum: A social contextual perspective. Language Teaching
98
41 (2): 147-181.

Jennings, K., and T. Doyle. 1996. Curriculum innovation, teamwork and the management of
change. In Challenge and change in language teaching, ed. J. Willis and D. Willis, 169–177.
Oxford: Heinemann.
Kolb, D. A. 1984. Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Kumaravadivelu, B. 2001. Toward a postmethod pedagogy. TESOL Quarterly 35 (4): 537–560. ––

–––. 2003. A postmethod perspective on English language teaching. World Englishes 22 (4):
539–550.

Mack, K. 2010. Perspectives on criteria for an ESL textbook appropriate for Japanese university
students. Komyûnikêshonbunka [Communication in Culture] 4: 34–44.

Moran, P. R. 2001. Teaching culture: Perspectives in practice. Boston: Heinle and Heinle.

Nunan, D. 2004. Task-based language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Richards, J. C. 1990. The language teaching matrix. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. –––
––. 2001. The role of textbooks in a language program. RELC Guidelines 23 (2): 12–16. www.
professorjackrichards.com/wp-content/uploads/ role-of-textbooks.pdf–––––. 2013. Curriculum
approaches in language teaching: Forward, central, and backward design. RELC Journal 44 (1):
5–33.

Sheldon, L. E. 1988. Evaluating ELT textbooks and materials. ELT Journal 42 (4): 237–246

Tarone, E. 1989. Teacher-executed needs assessment: Some suggestions for teachers and
program administrators. MinneTESOL Journal 7: 39–48. Thornbury, S. 1999. How to teach
grammar. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education.

Van den Branden, K. 2012. Task-based language education. In The Cambridge guide to
pedagogy and practice in second language teaching, ed. A. Burns and J. C. Richards, 132–139.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

‘Wang, H., and L. Cheng. 2005. The impact of curriculum innovation on the cultures of teaching.
Asian EFL Journal Quarterly 7 (4): 7–32.

West, R. 1997. Needs analysis: State of the art. In Teacher Education for LSP, ed. R. Howard and
G. Brown, 68–79. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.

Wiggins, G., and J. McTighe. 1998. Understanding by design. Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.

99
 3.7.2 Quiz: Using Backward Design

“Untitled” by Tumisu is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

Quiz Instructions

Now that you have had a chance to read and reflect on the Backward Design Model and identify
key concepts of lesson planning, test your knowledge! It is time for another fun quiz!

This quiz is graded, but you can take it as many times as you want. Your highest score will count.
You must earn at least 11 points to move on to the next Module.

This quiz must be completed online.

100
3.8 Reflection: Cascading New Knowledge Survey
Now it is time to reflect on the unit! Some of the questions in this survey are open-ended, meaning that
they require a full answer, using your own knowledge or feelings. You are encouraged to draft your
answers somewhere else, so that you can save them and revisit your thoughts later. Then, you can copy/
paste or type in your responses to the survey. This will give you a chance to take some time to reflect on
the answers.

The purpose of this activity is for you to reflect on your own. This survey is graded. You will receive 4
points after you submit it. You will not receive personalized feedback from an instructor on this
assignment.

This survey must be completed online.

101
Module 3 Check
Quiz Instructions

Please answer one question to verify that you have completed all activities in Module 3. You
must choose "yes" in order to move on in the course. This quiz will count as 1 point toward
your grade.
This quiz must be completed online.

102
MODULE 4: INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING
READING, WRITING, AND VOCABULARY
Table of Contents

4.1 Introduction to Module 4 .................................................................................................2

4.2 Warm Up Discussion: Think and Write ............................................................................4

4.3 Lecture: Strategies for Teaching Reading.........................................................................7
4.3.1 Lesson Activity Development: Reading Strategies ........................................................16

4.4 Lecture: Strategies for Teaching Writing .........................................................................40

4.4.1 Lesson Activity Development: Writing Strategies .........................................................49

4.5 Lecture: Strategies for Teaching Vocabulary ...................................................................54

4.5.1 Lesson Activity Development: Vocabulary Strategies ...................................................58
4.6 Lecture: Feedback ............................................................................................................64
4.6.1 Quiz: Giving Feedback ...................................................................................................84
4.7 Reflection: Cascading New Knowledge ……………………………………………………………….. 87

1
© 2020 by the University of Maryland, Baltimore County. Module 1: Teaching English across Cultures for the Online
Professional English Network (OPEN), sponsored by the U.S. Department of State with funding provided by the U.S.
government, and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License,
except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
4.1 Introduction to Module 4

"Untitled (Links to an external site.)" by mohamed_hassan (Links to an external site.) is licensed by a Pixabay (Links to an external site.)License. It is free to use and share.

Welcome to Module 4: Teaching Reading,

Writing, and Vocabulary
Please view the introduction video. You can download the transcript here .

Video Transcript:

Hello Everyone and welcome to Module 4. This is the second to last two module of our course, and it will
focus on instructional strategies for the four different skills. This week we will discuss reading, writing, and
vocabulary. Like the previous ones, this module is also packed with a lot of fun activities, and we hope that

you continue having fun working through each one of them.

This week has many interesting components. First, we are going to focus on strategies for teaching reading,
writing, and vocabulary to our students by examining each of these strategies one by one. You will get
familiar with some ideas that can make it easier for you to design activities targeting these skills.
Next, we are going to talk about digital citizenship and the importance of being responsible writers and
readers when it comes to online content. In today’s world, it is vital that students be aware of the

2
possibilities, but also the dangers, the internet can provide. We will discuss ways we can make our students
aware to become responsible digital citizens.
Finally, we will spend some time on feedback and error correction, both of which are essential parts of
learning a language. Teachers should make sure that students understand that making mistakes is part of
the learning process.
Before we begin this module, take a moment and reflect on the importance of reading, writing, and
vocabulary in the overall language learning process. Do you think one is more important than the other? If,
so, why? Keep thinking of this question as you work through the module. You might change your mind by
the end!
As before each previous module, take a minute and set some goals for yourself for this week.

• Do you want to learn about different strategies for teaching reading, writing, and vocabulary?

• Do you hope to take some of these strategies and apply them in your own classroom?

• Do you want your students to be more aware of some of the questionable content found on the
internet?
Great! We hope that you will find this module just as useful as the previous ones, we are very excited to
keep working with you in this course. Let's get started.

Module 4 Task List:

The module should take 4-5 hours to complete.

1. Participate in the Warm-Up discussion (15 minutes)

2. Read the Lecture: Strategies for Teaching Reading (30 minutes)
3. Do the Lesson Activity Development: Reading Strategies actives (15 minutes)
4. Read the Lecture: Strategies for Teaching Writing (30 minutes)
5. Do the Writing Strategies activities (15 minutes)
6. Read the Lecture: Strategies for Teaching Vocabulary (30 minutes)
7. Do the Vocabulary Strategies activities (15 minutes)
8. Complete the Giving Feedback quiz (15 minutes)
9. Complete the Reflection: Cascading New Knowledge Survey (30 minutes)

3
The Module 4 Packet includes all materials you need for the module. You can download it here .
Module Requirements

• Each page of the module should be viewed and read

• All quizzes require 7 points to pass
• Discussions need to be reviewed but posting is optional
• Cascading New Knowledge Surveys should be completed at the end of each module
• Completion of the previous module is always a prerequisite for the subsequent module

4
5
 4.2 Warm-Up: Think and Write

Warm-up
1. Think about the following questions (you don't need to submit the answers):

• What do you do when you read?

• How can you help your students learn those skills?

2. This activity will help you consider the reading strategies you use when you read. You can
also use this checklist with your students. Complete the MARSI Reading Strategies checklist on
the next page.

MARSI Reading Strategies Checklist

You do not have to turn this in. This activity is not graded. This is a chance to activate your prior
knowledge (think about what you already know).

4
5
 Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory

School name: Teacher name:

Student name: Date:

Directions: Listed below are statements about what people do when they read academic or school-
related materials such as textbooks or library books.
Five numbers follow each statement (1, 2, 3, 4, 5), and each number means the following:
• 1 means “I never or almost never do this.”
• 2 means “I do this only occasionally.”
• 3 means “I sometimes do this” (50% of the time).
• 4 means “I usually do this.”
• 5 means “I always or almost always do this.”
After reading each statement, circle the number (1, 2, 3, 4, or 5) that applies to you using the scale
provided. Please note that there are no right or wrong answers to the statements in this inventory.

Strategy
1 I have a purpose in mind when I read. 1 2 3 4 5
2 I take notes while reading to help me understand what I read. 1 2 3 4 5
3 I think about what I know to help me understand what I read. 1 2 3 4 5
4 I preview the text to see what it’s about before reading it. 1 2 3 4 5
5 When text becomes difficult, I read aloud to help me understand what I read. 1 2 3 4 5
6 I summarize what I read to reflect on important information in the text. 1 2 3 4 5
7 I think about whether the content of the text fits my reading purpose. 1 2 3 4 5
8 I read slowly but carefully to be sure I understand what I’m reading. 1 2 3 4 5
9 I discuss what I read with others to check my understanding. 1 2 3 4 5
10 I skim the text first by noting characteristics like length and organization. 1 2 3 4 5
11 I try to get back on track when I lose concentration. 1 2 3 4 5
12 I underline or circle information in the text to help me remember it. 1 2 3 4 5
13 I adjust my reading speed according to what I’m reading. 1 2 3 4 5
14 I decide what to read closely and what to ignore. 1 2 3 4 5
15 I use reference material such as a dictionary to help me understand what I read. 1 2 3 4 5
16 When the text becomes difficult, I pay closer attention to what I’m reading. 1 2 3 4 5
17 I use tables, figures, and pictures in the text to increase my understanding. 1 2 3 4 5
18 I stop from time to time and think about what I’m reading. 1 2 3 4 5
19 I use context clues to help me better understand what I’m reading. 1 2 3 4 5
20 I paraphrase (restate ideas in my own words) to better understand what I read. 1 2 3 4 5
21 I try to picture or visualize information to help me remember what I read. 1 2 3 4 5
22 I use typographical aids like boldface and italics to identify key information. 1 2 3 4 5
23 I critically analyze and evaluate the information presented in the text. 1 2 3 4 5
24 I go back and forth in the text to find relationships among ideas in it. 1 2 3 4 5
25 I check my understanding when I come across conflicting information. 1 2 3 4 5
26 I try to guess what the material is about when I read. 1 2 3 4 5
27 When the text becomes difficult, I reread to increase my understanding. 1 2 3 4 5
28 I ask myself questions I like to have answered in the text. 1 2 3 4 5
29 I check to see whether my guesses about the text are right or wrong. 1 2 3 4 5
30 I try to guess the meaning of unknown words or phrases. 1 2 3 4 5

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4.3 Lecture: Strategies for Teaching Reading

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On the next page, you can view videos of sample activities discussed in the
presentation.

15
4.3.1Lesson Activity Development: Reading
Strategies
Before Reading
Before reading, a successful reader will think about the assignment and use different strategies
to prepare for the task. Look at some of these pre-reading strategies and think about which one
would best fit for your students.

Preview Texts:
Previewing a text helps readers prepare for what they are about to read and set a purpose for
reading. Please watch this video to get familiar with different previewing strategies.

Below is the transcript of this video.

16
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Ask Questions:
Questioning is a skill that students should use before, during and after they read. There are
different reasons for asking questions before, during, and after reading. Please watch this video
for examples of questioning strategies.

Below is the transcript of this video.

19
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Complete a KWL Organizer:
KWL charts are graphic organizers that help students organize information before, during, and
after a unit or a lesson. They can be used to engage students in a new topic, activate prior
knowledge, share unit objectives, and monitor students' learning. Here is an example of a KWL
chart:

What I Know What I Want to Know What I Learned

During Reading
A successful reader will read actively, noting their questions, connections and comprehension
breakdowns. They can talk with partners to share their thinking and help clarify what they
understand. Completing graphic organizers can support their comprehension and be a tool that
is used later for writing.

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After Reading:
Summarizing:

27
4.4 Lecture: Strategies for Teaching Writing

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4.4.1 Lesson Activity Development: Writing Strategies

PRE-WRITING
Writing is a creative process and it is almost impossible to write well without doing planning
ahead of time. There are many ways we can encourage students to prepare for a writing
task. Look at some pre-writing strategies and think about which one would best for your
students.

DRAFTING
Drafting is getting all your ideas on paper without worrying about mechanics (spelling,
punctuation, or word choice).

REVISING/EDITING
The revision process is an essential part of writing and it is very important that students build in
time for it before submitting their written work. Revision is stepping back and looking at
the paper as a whole and asking the question: Do I say what I wanted to say?
Editing is essentially proofreading the paper: correcting grammar, punctuation, or spelling
errors.
Watch this video on peer review using the C.A.R.E.S Model (a 5-step model for giving peer
feedback), which is an effective part of the revision process.
Below is the C.A.R.E.S. handout (Peer Review Feedback Form).

Below is the transcript for this video.

49
C A R E S Peer Review Feedback Form
Perhaps the most helpful tool in developing logical, readable drafts is a peer review session. Peer
Review is effective for both the writer and the reviewer. Depending on the writing assignment, adult
readers will review class content, as well as strengthen vital writing and close reading skills. Writers
will recognize that good writing communicates effectively with diverse readers.

To remember while viewing:

Note: The least helpful comment to receive from a peer reviewer is "It looks good to me."

• First attend to Higher Order Concerns: thesis, audience, purpose, organization, development (support)
• Then attend to Lower Order Concerns: sentence structure, punctuation, word choice, spelling
• Make comments in spirit of helpfulness. Take comments in spirit of helpfulness.

Writer: Reviewer:

What does the writer do well in this assignment? (List one or more aspects.) Also, please write the writer's main
C claim or focus (thesis) according to what you have read. (It may not be the last sentence of the first paragraph -
the traditional place for the thesis.)
Congratulate

What part(s) of the essay were a bit confusing? Why?

A
Ask
clarifying
questions
What specific suggestions (3 or fewer) do you have for revising the unclear parts of this writing? *

What would you like to know more about the topic that can enhance the essay and that supports the thesis?
R
Request
more

What specific detail(s) do not work with the essay (e.g. doesn’t support the thesis) or can be moved within the
E essay?
Evaluate
its value

Overall, what new information have you learned or how are you thinking differently after this reading
S
Summarize
C A R E S Peer Review Feedback Form
Page 2

* You may use the list below for ideas.

(Please identify the paragraph for your suggestion)

• Thesis needs to better identify the main point of the essay

• Topic sentence(s) needs to identify the main point of this paragraph

• Paragraph(s) needs one overall idea (needs more specific evidence, needs more writer's commentary)

• Words: repeating words, repeating ideas, repeating sentence structure

• Using vague language, using slang, transition words needed

• Proofreading: punctuation, spelling, grammar

• Sources (if used) need to be clearly identified

• Proper intext / reference format needed

52
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PRACTICE
See if you can put the writing process steps in the correct order.

This activity is for practice and will not be graded.

54
4.5 Lecture: Strategies for Teaching Vocabulary

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4.5.1Lesson Activity Development: Vocabulary Strategies
VOCABULARY STRATEGIES
Vocabulary plays an important part in learning to read. Learners cannot understand what they
are reading without knowing what the words mean. Therefore, the ability to read effectively
requires a strong vocabulary. Look at these different strategies and tools for improving
students' reading vocabulary.
CONTEXT CLUES
A context clue is a word or phrase in the same sentence or a nearby sentence that can help the
reader determine the meaning of an unfamiliar word.
There are many types of context clues:

58
WORD PART CLUES
When you are reading on your own and you come to a word that you do not understand, you
can try to break the word into parts. You can look at prefixes, suffixes, and root and base words
for some help with the meaning.
Watch this video to learn more about word part clues.

Below is the transcript for this video.

59
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4.6 Lecture:Feedback
Learner Feedback
It is very important to provide learners with continuous feedback throughout a course. We call
this feedback formative. Watch this video about formative feedback.

Below are the transcripts for Part 1, Part 2 and Part 3 of the video.
Following the transcripts, you can also access the accompanying handout.

61
 Transcript
Shaping the Way We Teach English Part 1
Narrator: Module five, Learner Feedback. Module focus, introduction. One important distinction to
make when giving learner feedback is that a formative versus summative evaluation. Formative
evaluation is a way of giving students feedback along the way. It is the answer to the questions; how am
I doing so far and how can I improve?. Summative evaluation includes those kinds of evaluation that
summarizes a student’s overall performance. For example, the final grade for a course. In this module,
we’ll look at some do’s and don’ts for formative learner feedback and some specific techniques for
giving feedback on work that students have produced when the primary focus is on oral skills and on
writing skills.

Number 1. Viewing points: general do’s and don’ts. Some general guidelines for feedback are to
understand why the error has happened. For example, it was a guess, it was a careless mistake. Or, it
actually showed an error in the student’s understanding of the rules or use of language. When it is an
actual language error, analyze what kind of error it is. For example, a vocabulary, grammar,
pronunciation, or a pragmatic error. Choose a feedback techniques that fits both the error type and the
context in which it occurred. Ask yourself what are the important errors in this context. Did the error
prevent us from understanding and what errors are worth overlooking in the interest of fluency,
continuity, overall communication and so on.

Teacher instruction.

Narrator: Whenever possible, use feedback mechanisms so that the students can self-edit and self-
correct with a peer or in groups. Above all, encourage rather than discourage. Use positive feedback
over negative. Students are more likely to engage with the language when they feel motivated,
confident, and successful.

Video segment number one: observe the following video segments at two different teachers describe
their approaches and techniques for dealing with feedback. What techniques did the teacher use? What
is the relationship between classroom atmosphere or tone and student performance?

Video Segment One (Teacher speaking): I have everything from barley can speak a word to are almost a
native speaker. So, and you see that in the interaction with the children, as you know some of them are
really bold but about mid-year I had a real huge transition as I conference with the parents and, and
really encouraged. The parents do encourage their students to participate more in class. It made a huge
difference, like seventy-five percent difference. I had more almost the majority of my kids participating
during English language time, compared to five kids really participating. So that was a huge shift for me
and something really exciting to see with the culture that I’m working with in my classroom all of them
came to their conferences and literally the next week it was a complete shift of kids being more
involved. My teaching didn’t really change, we didn’t have no curriculum or anything, it was just a

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). Shaping the Way We Teach English Part 1:Transcript for the
AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of State and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed
under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and
delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
matter of it’s okay we learn by making mistakes and if you don’t practice you’re never going to learn or
you’re going to learn a lot more slowly, and they all really want to be good English speakers and because
we have, because of our language model here in our classroom, we only have a limited time in English
and they really need to take advantage of it.

Video Segment 2 (Teacher speaking): They were working according to their learning styles. We’re going
to assign them different topics. The topics they started last year, and they have to develop some
activities, like exercises, something like that, according to the linear learning styles. Then they will switch
the activities and the other groups are going to sell their activities…you know what I mean, their
activities for example Group A prepares different the other groups are going to solve the activities, so
the exercises and after that the original group will collect the activities and they, they will check them.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI

360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
 Transcript
Shaping the Way We Teach English Part 2
Narrator: Summary, in both cases, the teachers have created a classroom atmosphere where it is okay
to make mistakes. Making mistakes and using trial and error process for learning counts as a positive
student behavior. Students help each other, correct each other and even design activities for each other.

Number two viewing points: Feedback on oral production. There are many reasons for students to
engage in speaking tasks. From a simple almost formulaic level, for example, greeting other, asking for
directions, shopping, or telling or retelling a story. On up to a more complex level stating a point of view,
synthesizing information and reporting on it, debating performing in a play and so on.

Video Segment Number Two. Observe the following video segments as the teacher offers some on-the-
spot feedback. In what ways are the feedback techniques a good match for the activity and the
situation?

Teacher asking students questions: How long did they go for their canoe ride? And so, and what did
they do? Migeul? They caught the fish? Uh-huh? And Pedro? What did they, what did they find? Could
you give a sentence?

Pedro: The girl caught the fish.

Teacher; Who can give me the first sentence? Maria, very good? Now, can you give the next one? When
did they go.

Student: Oh, they go through the lake.

Teacher: No when, did they go on Monday?

Student: Oh, the girl and the boy went on the weekend.

Class: On Saturday and Sunday.

Teacher: Oh, thank you, we’re gonna give that one to Pedro.

Pedro: They went to a large house and rented a canoe.

Teacher: They went for a canoe ride. How long did they go for a canoe ride?

Student: For two hours? And they caught fish.

Teacher encourages conversation amongst students.

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). Shaping the Way We Teach English Part 2:Transcript for the
AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of State and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed
under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and
delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
 Transcript
Shaping the Way We Teach English Part 3
Narrator: Summary, here we saw examples of students helping retell a story about a canoe ride and
catching a fish with a million dollars in it. The teacher used a blend of Correction, Reformulations, and
asking for clarification techniques. She and the other students also use gestures to help the speaker
continue. On-the-spot correction techniques are useful for giving feedback while a student is
performing. Examples include using gestures or silent mouthing, offering a quick correction,
reformulating and asking for clarification or of repetition. Delayed correction techniques avoid
interruptions and allow students to speak or write with fluency and cohesion. In this case, observers
note errors and give individual, group, or whole class feedback. Afterwards the feedback can be oral or
written. Teachers can also record or videotape students. Students can then self-reflect, get feedback
from others and/or receive feedback from the teacher.

Number Three Viewing Points: Feedback on Written Production: As with oral productions, there are
many purposes for writing. For example, stating a point of view, telling or retelling a story, synthesizing
information and reporting on something, applying for a job, making a request, planning for the future,
writing a letter and so on. A teacher can support the writing process and help with effective feedback by
providing models. By making available student self-edit checklists and resources by focusing first on
fluency and overall comprehension instead of mechanical mistakes and by allowing time and making
resources available for students to self-correct and to receive formative feedback and peer feedback
along the way.

Module focus: Summary. The focus in module five has been on providing appropriate learner feedback
in the classroom. Some questions to ask ourselves in order to provide students with helpful feedback
include the following: Is the mistake or error really wrong or could it be my imagination? I can always
ask for clarification or a repetition. Is this a mistake that several students are making? Should I pull back
and redirect the group or the whole class instead of the individuals? Does the mistake or error affect
communication? Are we concentrating on accuracy at the moment? Would on-the-spot or delayed
feedback or even ignoring it all together be more appropriate from a cultural perspective? From a
cultural perspective is it likely to offend or irritate someone? Is it the first time the student has spoken
for a long time? Could that the student react badly to my correction? What is themost supportive way to
offer feedback?

Teacher: Remember what we’ve been learning about?

Narrator: Anticipating mistakes and errors that students are likely to make, diagnosing them when they
happen, and then providing a feedback technique that’s a good match and that encourages students to
keep going; this is what defines effective learner feedback.

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). Shaping the Way We Teach English Part 3:Transcript for the
AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of State and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed
under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and
delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
Teacher: Good, we have a capital letter at the beginning of a sentence and a period at the end of a
sentence.

Narrator: See the manual for readings and for more information on this and other topics related to
learner feedback.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI

360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
 Module 5
Learner Feedback

Approaches to Languag e Teaching: Foundations

Video Length: Approximately 13 Minutes
Notes to the Trainer

For best results, have participants go through the readings for this module prior to viewing the
video. As you work through this module, use pairs or groups whenever you think it might be effec-
tive. After each group activity, debrief the answers and use them for further discussion of various
points. Refer back to the main points when appropriate. The primary goal is for participants to begin
thinking positively and creatively about types of learner feedback they can find and adapt to their
own local teaching situations.

See Appendix A for additional handouts that can be used for general observation and discussion
tasks with any of the modules.

Before Viewing

Ask participants to think of a situation or story about a time when they gave feedback to someone;
e.g., a student, a child, a friend, or someone else. The feedback may have had either a negative effect
(the person was angry or sad) or a positive effect (smiles all around; the “Aha!” effect as the student
finally understood a language point). Then, have participants think about a situation or story from a
time when they received feedback from someone. What was the effect in this case?

Debrief

Have participants get into pairs or small groups and share their stories. As they tell their experi-
ences, they could include such information as:
• Their relationship to the person.
• Why they gave or received the feedback.
• When, where, and how they it happened.
• The result.

In addition, they can reflect on whether they wish anything had happened differently.

Finally, have groups compile their feedback and sort items into three columns or categories or
piles: + (plus / positive), - (minus / negative), and not clear. Give them these discussion questions:
• How were feedback examples distributed within the group? Across all of the groups?
• Did any clear patterns emerge?
• What conclusions might you draw from this?
• What further questions or issues come to mind?
• What is the relationship to this activity and types of feedback in your class(es)?

Page 45
This work is a derivative of “Shaping the Way We Teach English” by the University of Oregon via American English, used under Public Domain This derivative is licensed under under CC BY 4.0 by
the University of Maryland Baltimore County for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State.
 Module 5: Learner Feedback
Preview Vocabulary

Terms Definitions
Canoe A small, narrow, open boat.
Diagnose To determine exactly what kind of mistake or error the student is
making and what might be the cause of the error.
Error Language production that is not correct. In applied linguistics re-
search, it refers to patterns in production that shows incomplete
or incorrect learning.
Feedback; Information which lets learners know how they are doing or
error correction whether their production is correct.
Formative feedback Feedback used to check on learner progress during the period
of learning, to determine what has been learned so far and what
still needs work.
Formulaic Structures or communication patterns that are predictable and
usually the same, such as greetings, shopping dialogues, etc.
Mistake Generally, a mistake is incorrect language production. In research,
as opposed to the specialized meaning of “error” (see above), a
mistake is the result of inattention or carelessness, rather than
incomplete learning.
Negative feedback Informing learners directly when their work is incorrect. May use
negative wording such as “no” or “don’t.”
Positive feedback Techniques that help learners discover their own mistakes and
self-correct. Avoids the use of negative wording.
Pragmatics Social and cultural aspects of language use.
Reformulate To write or say something again, differently.
Self-reflect To reflect on or think about your own learning or teaching.
Summative feedback Feedback that takes place at the end of a learning period to mea-
sure what has been achieved by the learners.;
Synthesize To combine ideas in a way that creates a whole that is new or dif-
ferent from the separate ideas or that encompasses the separate
ideas under a more holistic idea.
Trial and error Learning by trying new or different language, taking risks, and
learning from errors or mistakes.

Now start the video. Listen to the introduction. Complete the guided observation and reflection
tasks for each of the video segments. The next part of the manual is for trainees and is available on
separate pages for ease of copying.

Page 46 Shaping the Way We Teach English

Approaches to Language Teach ing: Foundations
Module 5, Learner Feedback

Introduction, Expanded Narrative

Appropriate feedback is necessary for effective and efficient learning. Incorrectness is not the only
standard teachers can use to assess learning. This module considers learner feedback in these three
domains:
1. Feedback can be linguistic in nature and relate to the actual use of the language.
2. It can also focus on communication, which concerns the task or the content of the message.
3. And, finally, feedback can be affective, encouraging learners’ attempts to communicate and to
use the language. The purpose of affective feedback is to build confidence.

There are several important aspects to consider when giving feedback:

• Both positive and negative feedback are needed for the most effective learning. Negative feed-
back is direct error correction or drawing attention to error. Positive feedback can be affective, can
reward for correct or successful communication, or can provide the opportunity for self-correction.
• Feedback can be oral, written, or non-verbal; it can be given to individuals, groups, or the entire
class.
• Feedback can be given immediately or delayed, depending on which would be most effective for
the task or situation?
• Feedback can be either formative or summative. Formative feedback isn’t usually graded and is
given at all stages throughout the learning period. Summative feedback is given at the conclusion of
a unit, a project, or a period of learning. This can be a grade or a final report on students’ work.
• It is important to understand the nature of an error in order to determine whether and how to
use corrective feedback.

Module Focus

The focus in this module is formative feedback. Formative feedback is continuous, and it can
encourage or discourage the learner. Teachers need to learn how to use techniques that encour-
age learners and that give them confidence. He or she need to learn how to avoid techniques that
discourage learners, that embarrass them, or make them feel “stupid.”

Some general guidelines on what to do, and what not to do:

• Understand why the error occurred. Did the student not know how to produce the correct lan-
guage, or did they make a careless mistake?
• Determine the type of error. If it was a language error, what kind of error was it? Grammar? Vo-
cabulary? Pragmatic in nature (inappropriate usage)?
• Make the feedback fit both the kind of error and the context in which it occurred. Avoid trying
to correct every error. The teacher must decide whether the error is important enough to correct,
whether it prevents understanding, or whether fluency is more important for this task, so some errors
can be overlooked.
• Avoid over-correction and too much negative feedback. Whenever possible, use feedback tech-
niques that allow learners to self-correct, either individually or in groups.
• Above all, encourage student learning through positive feedback. Tell students that making
mistakes helps them learn. Help students to be successful and confident. Use positive feedback tech-
niques that help to create a comfortable atmosphere in which students see making mistakes as part
of the learning process.

Shaping the Way We Teach English Page 47

 Module 5: Learner Feedback
Video Segment #1, General Dos and Don’ts: Observation Guide
[Read before viewing.]

The first two video examples will focus on oral production and the third one will focus on written
production. Watch the video as many times as needed.

At a general level, look for examples of the following items in this first video segment. Describe
what you see, and try to interpret what you think is happening. (See Module 4 for an explanation of
the Describe, Interpret, Evaluate process).
• Classroom atmosphere.
• Trial-and-error processes at work in the classroom.
• Students supporting and correcting each other.

At a more detailed level, look for the next set of items below. Once again, describe what you see,
and try to interpret what you think is happening. Be prepared to summarize, analyze, and evaluate
your findings as part of the discussion for this module.
• Pay attention to how the first teacher increased student participation in class.
• Listen for comments on how the classroom atmosphere relates to student performance.
• Listen for the first teacher’s description of a trial-and-error process.
• Listen for the group process that enables students to help each other and give peer feedback.

Reflection
[Read and answer after viewing.]

1. Who did the teacher give feedback to in order to increase student participation? Is this some-
thing you could do in your own situation? Why or why not? What techniques do you use to get learn-
ers to participate actively?
2. This teacher discussed two ideas related to classroom atmosphere. One was something she did,
and one was a characteristic of the students. What were they? How are they related to giving feed-
back? How did the teacher’s beliefs and behavior encourage a trial-and-error process?
3. With a partner, write the step-by-step procedure that the second teacher followed in using
groups. Do you believe the feedback in the procedure can be effective? Why or why not? Could you
use this procedure for feedback in your own situation? If not, try to adapt this idea. How could you
use peer feedback in your own situation?

Video Segment #2, Feedback on Oral Production,

On-the-spot vs. Delayed Feedback: Observation Guide
[Read before viewing.]

Some focus points for this video segment are:

• On-the-spot feedback.
• Delayed feedback.
• Relevance of the feedback to the task.

Some suggested observation tasks follow.

1. Before watching this segment, review the definitions of negative and positive feedback in the
Introduction. Make two columns on your paper, one labeled “positive” and the other “negative.” As
you watch, list the types of feedback you see in the appropriate columns.
2. Determine what the task is and decide if the feedback given is appropriate for the task.
3. Look for things in the lesson to which the teacher does not draw attention that might be
appropriate for delayed feedback.

Page 48 Shaping the Way We Teach English

Approaches to Language Teach ing: Foundations
Reflection
[Read and answer after viewing.]

1. Compare the notes in your positive and negative columns with a partner or others in your
group. Add techniques you missed to your own columns. Are there more negative or more positive
techniques? Put a check next to the ones that you already use. Make a circle or highlight those that
you would like to try.
2. What student task(s) did you observe? Was the teacher’s feedback appropriate? Did it match the
situation? Did it meet the students’ needs?

Video Segment #3, Feedback on Written Production: Observation Guide

[Read before viewing.]

Watch for feedback on written production in this video segment.

1. List the different writing activities that you see students performing or hear listed on the video.
2. Listen for feedback techniques that can be used with writing activities.

Reflection
[Read and answer after viewing.]

1. Compare your list of writing activities with a partner. Together, add to your lists.
2. After each activity, write one or two techniques that might be effective ways of giving feedback
on the activity. These may be feedback techniques that you observed on the video, or they may
come from your own experiences or reading.

Shaping the Way We Teach English Page 49

 Module 5: Learner Feedback
Now You Try It—An Action Plan

Step 1
You can read some of the articles on the topic of contextualizing language (see Module 5 Readings
plus the List of Additional Readings and Resources in Shaping the Way We Teach English: Readings and
Resources). Using the video, you have seen a few examples and ideas from other teachers’ classes.
Now, think about your own classes. Here are some suggestions for classroom issues that you may
want to consider. Talk about your ideas with others in your group.

Affective Domain
• Increase your students’ willingness and ability to use or produce language.
• Create a positive atmosphere for risk-taking, so students feel comfortable trying to use the language.
• Create opportunities for peer correction and positive feedback.

Linguistic Domain
• Determine what the student’s problem really is.
• Create opportunities for positive feedback.
• Maintain student focus on the language goal of the session or activity.
• Help students learn to self-correct in order to make them more independent learners.
• Deal with errors the whole class is making and deal with individual errors.

Step 2
By yourself or with a peer, design a portion of a lesson that incorporates a new feedback technique
that you would like to try.

Step 3
Share your plan with others in your group. Explain how feedback might be given during this lesson
to improve the class atmosphere and student performance. Get their ideas and feedback.

Step 4
Change your design, as needed. Try it with your class. Share your results with others, as applicable. If
you are not teaching, ask the trainer or another experienced teacher for feedback.

Page 50 Shaping the Way We Teach English

Approaches to Language Teach ing: Foundations
Answer Key to Module 5, Learner Feedback;

Module 5, Video Segment #1, Classroom Techniques

Here are some suggested directions for answers to the questions for this module. Actual answers
may vary depending on local context and the kinds of experience that viewers bring to the task of
interpreting and applying video and text concepts.

Video Segment #1, General Dos and Don’ts

1. The first teacher wanted more participation from her students, but wasn’t able to get it in class.
In this case, she gave feedback to the parents in parent conferences. The parents then told their
children to participate. This was a successful delayed feedback technique (more on this in Video
Segment #2).

2. The teacher told her students directly that making mistakes was part of the learning process. By
saying this, she set up an atmosphere of acceptance, so the children would feel comfortable making
mistakes. This relaxed atmosphere led to more and better practice. For this technique to be effective,
the teacher’s behavior and the way she gives feedback must support the statement that mistakes are
necessary and natural. If she gives a lot of negative feedback, frequently correcting students, they will
not believe her original statement.

3. Motivation was the learner characteristic discussed. The teacher said that the students wanted
to be good English speakers. This also contributed to a positive class atmosphere, a willingness to try
to use the language and accept feedback. This fact, too, led to better student performance. Positive
feedback can ensure that students stay motivated; too much negative feedback, especially if it em-
barrasses students or makes them feel bad, can cause students to become less motivated.

4. The second teacher used a group process. Her students were grouped according to learning
styles. In the groups, they created activities and distributed them to other student groups in the class.
As each group finished doing the activities, the original group collected the work and checked it.
This check was peer feedback. Peer feedback can reduce overall anxiety about making mistakes and,
at the same time, cause students to focus and figure out for themselves what was correct and what
wasn’t. It is important that the teacher monitors such work closely to ensure that the feedback is
both correct and helpful.

Video Segment #2, Feedback on Oral Production,

On-the-Spot vs. Delayed Feedback

1. Below are some possible positive and negative feedback techniques the teacher in the class
used. Both can be appropriate, depending on the context. You may have seen others or have listed
these differently.

This teacher used more positive feedback than negative feedback. She used gestures, indirect cor-
rection, restatement, and requests for clarification or repetition. Although she did use some negative
feedback, she never said,“No, that isn’t right.” Instead, she quickly gave an answer, gave quick
commands, or used humor.

Shaping the Way We Teach English Page 51

 Module 5: Learner Feedback

Positive Negative;

• Asking direct questions to stimulate speaking. • Giving the next phrase when a speaker
• Asking students to restate for clarification. can’t remember it.
• Using questions as cues to help students • Giving joking criticism; e.g.,“Oh, come on.
continue. You can do better than that.”
• Using question words to cue response • Telling students to wait.
(“When,”“Where,” etc.).
• Clapping for student performance.
• Using words and vocalization of approval;
e.g.“Very good,”“Uh huh,”“Good.”
• Thanking students.
• Repeating after students to make
response clear.
• Using rapid gestures to encourage response.
• Using words to encourage more response;
e.g.,“Keep going.”

2. The task is retelling a story. Sometimes the two students at the front act out the story and the
others respond with a sentence from the story. Sometimes the students in class give a sentence and
the students in front respond by acting it out. The teaching/ learning focus is on retelling the story
for content. However, for the students in front, it is also a listening task. They have to comprehend
well enough to act out each utterance. The students sitting in class have to speak comprehensibly
enough that the actors can understand them and respond accurately.

The feedback in this case is a natural communicative one. If the actors understand, they respond
appropriately. The speakers then know whether they were understood, even without additional
teacher feedback.

The teacher feedback was appropriate to the task. All of her feedback was focused on the main
point of the language practice, retelling the story. Her feedback was primarily used to encourage
students to complete that oral task and reward them when they did. She did not interrupt them to
correct details of pronunciation or grammar. Likewise, she did not give many instructions to the
actors, except at the end to encourage a more enthusiastic response.

3. The teacher could take notes during the session and use delayed feedback to correct individual
pronunciation and grammar errors. If many students had the same language problem or were
making mistakes on one part of the content, the teacher could have the whole class work on it after
the activity was completed. She could audio- or video-tape the session and then have students
review it to find and try to correct one or two patterned errors. Note: You might have some other
answers to this question.

Page 52 Shaping the Way We Teach English

Approaches to Language Teach ing: Foundations
Video Segment #3, Feedback on Written Production

Here are some possible answers to the reflection question. Ideas for feedback techniques will vary
according to the local educational setting.

Writing Activities Possible Feedback Techniques

Purpose: Accuracy (A) or Fluency (F)

1. Writing the alphabet 1. Provide models; when finished, a partner

compares it to the model. (A).
2. Copying 2. Provide models; read the finished copy aloud
to a partner, who is reading along with the
model. (A).
3. Writing a letter 3. Provide correct letter format; send the fin-
ished letter to another student for a response.
(A & F).
4. Writing a story you heard or read 4. Provide guidelines that tell students how you
will be evaluating the story; correct only those
points listed in the guidelines. (Focused A & F).
5. Making a request 5. Provide a format for making requests. An-
other student responds to the request. (A & F).
6. Synthesizing information for a report 6. Provide guidelines for writing a report; pro-
vide a checklist of errors for self-checking the
report. (A).

Shaping the Way We Teach English Page 5

P-Q-P Peer Feedback
The praise-question-polish is a great way for students to provide constructive peer feedback to
each other. Let's look at in more detail what each of these words mean.
PRAISE:
• Say one or two specific things you like about the writing.
• Explain why you like it.
• Offer specific examples from the writing.

For example:
I like the part where...
You did a great job when you said/wrote....

QUESTION:

• Ask for more information about something specific in the writing.

• Ask for clarification on a topic that wasn’t explained well enough for you to
understand it.
• Ask why the writer made the choice to write certain ways or certain ideas.
For example:
I'd like to know more about...
Can you give more examples?

POLISH:

• Suggest a specific way to improve the writing.

• Explain why you think your suggestion will improve the writing.

For example:
Can you use more academic words in paragraph 2?

I got confused in the part about......

Could you add more to the conclusion because.........

83
 4.6.1Quiz: Giving Feedback

Quiz Instructions

Now that you have had a chance to read about giving feedback, test your knowledge! It is time for
another fun quiz!

This quiz is graded, but you can take it as many times as you want. Your highest score will count.
You must earn at least 7 points to move on to the next Module. This quiz must be completed online.

84
85
86
4.7 Reflection: Cascading New Knowledge Survey

Now that you have had a chance to read and reflect on teaching reading, writing, and vocabulary
skills, try and match concepts with their meaning. Take the quiz to test yourself!

This quiz is graded, but you can take it as many times as you want. Your highest score will count.
You must earn at least 7 points to move on to the next Module. This survey must be completed
online.

87
88
89
90
91
92
Table of Contents
5.1 Introduction to Module 5 …………………………………………………………….. 2

5.2 Warm Up Reflection: Accuracy vs. Fluency ………………………………………… 4

5.3 Lecture: Focus on Listening …………………………………………………………. 5

5.3.1 Lesson Activity Development: Teaching Listening ……………………………….. 34

5.3.2 Reading: Practical Tips for Increasing Listening Practice Time ………...………… 44

5.4 Lecture: Focus on Speaking …………………………………………………………. 61

5.4.1 Lesson Activity Development: Teaching Speaking ……………………………….. 73

5.4.2 Reading: Reciprocal Teaching: A Useful Tool for Increasing Student Talking
Time ………………………………………………………………………………… 78

5.5 Quiz: Teaching Listening and Speaking Skills ………………………………………. 89

5.6 Lecture: Error Treatment …………………………………………………………….. 90

5.6.1 Quiz: Error Treatment ……………………………………………………………… 100

5.7 Culture Spotlight: Interaction in the EFL Classroom ………………………………… 101

5.8 Optional Discussion: Communicative Activity ………………………………………. 103

5.9 Reflection: Cascading New Knowledge Survey ……………………………………… 104

5.10 Course Wrap Up …………………………………………………………………….. 105

Module 5 Check …………………………………………………………………………… 106

1 © 2020 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County. Module 5: Instructional Strategies for Teaching Listening and
Speaking for the Online Professional English Network (OPEN), sponsored by the U.S. Department of State with
funding provided by the U.S. government and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
5.1 Introduction to Module 5

“Untitled (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.” by Gerd Altmann (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.
via Pixabay (Links to an external site.) is licensed It is free to use and share.

Welcome to Module 5: Teaching Listening

and Speaking
Hello Everyone, and welcome to Module 5!
This is the last module of our course, and it will focus on instructional strategies for the two
oral skills: listening and speaking. This module we will discuss listening, speaking, and
spoken error treatment. Like the previous ones, this module is also packed with a lot of
interactive activities, and we encourage you to continue being engaged and work through
each one of them!
First, we will discuss the importance of teaching speaking and listening skills to our
students. We will review the different techniques that instructors can use to teach speaking
and listening. We will also look deeper into specific communicative language teaching
methods and share our own teaching methods with each other. We will also examine
different ways to treat spoken errors and discuss various strategies for how to best select
your error correction methods. Finally, we will share our favorite activities with each other.
Before we begin this module, we would like you to take a moment and reflect on the
importance of speaking, listening and error treatment in the overall language learning
process. Do you think one is more important than the other? If, so, why? Keep thinking of
this question as you work through the module. You might change your mind by the end!
As before each module, take a minute and set some goals for yourself for this module.

2
• Do you want to learn about different strategies for teaching listening and speaking?
• Do you hope to take some of these strategies and apply them in your own classroom?
• Do you want to be able to use the most appropriate error treatment methods and
customize it to your students’ needs?

Great! We hope that you will find this module informative and, we are very excited to keep
working with you in this course.

Module 5 Task List:

The module should take 4-5 hours to complete.

1. Complete the Warm Up Reflection on Accuracy vs. Fluency (15 minutes)

2. Read the Focus on Listening lecture (30 minutes)
3. View different examples of classroom activities to practice listening (15 minutes)
4. Read about practical tips for increasing listening practice(50 minutes)
5. Read the Focus on Speaking lecture (30 minutes)
6. View different examples of classroom activities to practice speaking(15 minutes)
7. Read about ways to increase student talking time(30 minutes)
8. Take the quiz on teaching listening and speaking skills (15 minutes)
9. Read the Error Treatment lecture (15 minutes)
10. Take the quiz on error treatment (10 minutes)
11. Read Cultural Spotlight: Interaction in the EFL Classroom(15 minutes)
12. Participate in the optional discussion called Communicative Activity (60 minutes)
13. Review what we covered in this module by taking the Cascading New Knowledge
Reflection Survey(30 minutes)

The Module 5 Packet includes all materials you need for the module. You can download it
here.

Module Requirements

• Each page of the module should be viewed and read

• All quizzes require 7 points to pass
• Discussions need to be reviewed but posting is optional
• Cascading New Knowledge Surveys should be completed at the end of each module
• Completion of the previous module is always a prerequisite for the subsequent module

3
5.2 Warm up: Reflection on Accuracy vs.
Fluency

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pixabay (Links to an external site.) is licensed under a Pixabay License (Links to an external site.). It is free to use and share.

Accuracy is when learners can produce sentences correctly. This includes the correct use
of grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, etc. Fluency is when learners can speak freely
(without a lot of stops). Their sentences might have some errors, but overall they can share
their message clearly.

Think and Write

1. Think about your experiences in different classroom environments and answer the
following question:

Is it more important to be accurate (correct) or fluent (without frequent pauses to think

about the right word) when speaking a language?

2. On a piece a piece of paper or in a word doc, write some notes on your answers to these
questions. Use this opportunity to think about what you already know.

You do not have to submit this. This activity is not graded. This is a chance to activate your
prior knowledge (think about what you already know). Spend about 5-10 minutes on this
activity.

4
5.3 Lecture: Focus on Listening

“Untitled (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.” by Gerd Altmann is licensed via Pixabay (Links to an external site.) is licensed under
a Pixabay License (Links to an external site.). It is free to use and share.

Introduction
By engaging students in active listening activities, teachers allow learners to more
effectively practice the English language and also retain the information for later use.
Listening has its own functional uses in daily language and it is important that teachers
utilize these functions as goals in the classroom in order to design the most appropriate
activities for students.

The Three Modes of Listening

Students can engage in listening activities in three different ways. Look at the three modes
of listening below and various classroom activities that correlate with each mode.
Bidirectional: Exchanges of information include two or more people

• Have students engage in discussions where each student has to ask at least one
question during the time limit.
• Have students engage in Skype conversations with students in a class in a different
country.
• Instruct students to interview people in their community about the class topic.
• Assign a presentation where learners have to interact with audience members
throughout the presentation.
• Read a question of the day and allow students to share their answers. Have students
ask each other follow-up questions about their answers.

5
• Have students engage in a Scavenger Hunt where they “Find someone who” has a
certain quality in the classroom.
Unidirectional: Input comes from other sources and is taken in by the listener

• Have students listen to a podcast and answer comprehension questions about it.
• Play a song or movie clip and have students fill-in-the-blanks with the missing words
that they heard.
• Create a study guide for your lecture and have students fill in the notes (including
titles, key words, dates, names, etc.) by listening.
• Instruct students to listen to a news show and identify various parts of spoken
language including fillers, intonation, stress, etc.
• Give students a category (birthdays, height, shoe size, etc.). Students listen and
arrange themselves from highest to lowest by listening to their classmate’s answers.

Autodirectional: Our internal self-dialogue and self talk where the listener listens to his or
her own thoughts.

• Have students sit in silence for a period of time. After they, write down all of their self
talk thoughts. They keep a self-talk journal.
• Play four corners: assign each corner of the room as an answer to a question. Have
students move to different corners based on their answers to the question.
• Have students brainstorm a topic by making a mind map individually.
• Instruct students to think about a topic for one minute. Students can draw out their
thinking on a poster.

Types of Listening Skills

Teachers can also teach the six types of listening skills to students in different activities.
These listening skills are:

• reactive (listen and repeat)

• intensive (listen for specific sounds and features of English)
• responsive (listen and respond briefly)
• selective (listen for particular items in a longer stretch of discourse)
• extensive (listen for global comprehension)
• interactive (authentic 2-way communication

For examples of classroom activities to practice the six listening skills, go to 5.3.1.

Conclusion
Teachers should take into account the goals of the lesson to teach listening. What do you
want students to focus on? What should they master by the end of the lesson? By
understanding the objectives, instructors can design activities to allow students to directly
practice listening skills.
 6

References (Copyrighted)
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public
use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

• Brown, H.D. (2007). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language

pedagogy (3rd Ed.). White Plains, NY: Pearson Education.
• Davies, P. (2008). Success in English teaching. London: Oxford University Press.
• Morley, J. (2002). Aural comprehension Instruction: principles and practicies. In M.
Celce-Murcia. Teaching English as a second or foreign language, 3rd Edition. Boston,
MA: Longman.
• Richards, J.C. (2008). Teaching listening and speaking: From theory to practice. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
• Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: some roles of comprehensible input and
comprehensible output in development. In Gass, S. and Madde, C. (Eds.), Input in SLA.
Newbury House.
7
 Focus on Listening

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). Learning Styles and Strategy-Based Instruction PPT, sponsored by the U.S Department
of State, with funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
 In this presentation, we will discuss the
listening including its functions and processes.
Then, we will focus on activities and practices that
teachers can use in the classroom to teach listening
skills.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
The Functions of Listening
It is important to understand ways we use listening
in English. They include:

• Transactional function: focuses on the message

Examples: giving instructions, giving
directions, academic classroom language
for procedures

• Interactional function: focuses on the listener

Examples: small talk, completing tasks in “Untitled” by by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed under
a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

whole group, small group or pair work

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Three Modes of Listening

Bidirectional Unidirectional Autodirectional

Our internal self-

dialogue as speaker
Communication Input comes from
and listener to our
includes 2 or more other sources (such
own thoughts.
people over a platform as the radio, lectures,
(telephone, Skype, Learners engage
TV, etc.) to one
social media). There is with the
listener. There is no
some listener control metacognitive skill
listener control.
overtime. Listener
mediated.
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
 • Discussions where each student has to ask
at least one question during the time limit.
• Skype conversations with students in a
class in a different country.
Bidirectional • Interviews with people in their community
about the class topic.
• Presentations where learners have to
Listening interact with audience members.
• Question of the day each student shares
Activities their answers. Ss ask each other follow-up
questions.
• Scavenger Hunts where they “Find
someone who” has a certain experience or
characteristic in the classroom.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
 • Podcasts Ss listen to and answer
comprehension questions about it.
• Songs or movie clips students fill-in-
the-blanks with the missing words that
Unidirectional they heard.
Listening • Study guides for your lecture and
have students fill in the notes
Activities (including titles, key words, dates,
names, etc.) by listening.
• News show Ss listen and identify
various aspects of spoken language
including fillers, intonation, stress, etc.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
 • Self Talk Journal students sit in
silence for a period of time. After
they, write down all of their self talk
thoughts.
• Four corners assign each corner of
the room as an answer to a
Autodirectional question. Have students move to
different corners based on their
answers to the question.
• Mind maps Ss share their own
thoughts in English by organizing
them on a map or drawing

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Types of Classroom Listening Skills
• Listen and repeat
• Example Activities: repeating sentence drills;
reciting a song or chant at the beginning of every
Reactive class to help students remember common
questions and vocabulary; play Simon Says
where students perform the instruction that they
hear (i.e. touch your head, etc.)
• Listen for specific sounds, discourse markers,
intonation and patterns)
• Example Activities: Listen to various media for
Intensive reductions, sentence fillers, intonation, etc.; mark
transcriptions of audio text with various symbols
to identify spoken sentence patterns; students
hold up different cards based on the vowel sound
they hear.
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Types of Classroom Listening Skills
• Listen and respond briefly
• Example Activities: Ask one minute questions
where students respond to a question in one
Responsive minute; teacher cuts up a listening script into
parts and students arrange themselves into the
order in which they hear their part;

• Listen for particular items in a longer stretch of

discourse
• Example Activities: listen to a text and identify
Selective the main idea and details; identify key words
and phrases in a song; students have a written
script and have to correct the mistakes from an
audio file
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Types of Classroom Listening Skills
• Listen for global comprehension
• Example Activities: students listen to audio
files outside of class and keep a journal about
their thoughts on the topic; students are
Extensive assigned a news source and each week the
students summarize the news from each source;
students create a story chain where they listen
to the student’s story before them to create the
next part of the story.

• Authentic 2-way communication

• Example Activities: engage in discussions; hold
Interactive debates, have classroom conferences where
students are trying to solve a problem together;
students

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Teaching Tips for Listening Skills
• Help students prepare for listening by asking what they know
and building on that knowledge
• Offer multiple listening attempts
• Supplement textbook listening text with real audio clips that
are also related to the topic.
• Encourage students to respond to the content of a listening
text, not just the language.
• Match different listening stages with appropriate listening
tasks.
“Good teachers exploit listening texts to the fullest!”
(Harmer, 2007)
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
How Do We Listen to Incoming Messages?
Top-down Processing
• We listen and understand the general
knowledge and relate it to life experience
(content schema)
• We listen to situational routines (textual
schema)
• Driven by the listeners’ expectations,
understanding of the topic, context,
knowledge of the world, prior knowledge

Bottom-up Processing
• We listen for vocabulary, grammar and
sounds “Untitled” by Clker-Free-Vector-Images via pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.

•
It is free to use and share.

Driven by sounds, phrases, syllable stress,

intonation patterns, etc.
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
How Do We Design Active Listening Activities?
• Include both top-down and bottom-up
techniques
• Include different modes of listening
• Encourage the development of
listening strategies that learners use…
• Pre-listening
• While listening
• Post-listening
“ ” via pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.
I t

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
 by FHI 360

Pre-Listening Activities

• Discuss a relevant picture

• Discuss relevant experiences
Pre- • Associate vocabulary with the
topic
listening • Predict information about the topic
• Write questions about the topic

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
 by FHI 360

While Listening Activities

• Gather the gist of the topic

• Identify supportive details about the
While topic
• Answer questions
Listening • Complete sentences
• Complete a chart, map, graph, notes
page, etc.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
 by FHI 360

Post-listening Activities

• Give opinions (using English

language functions)
Post- • Relate similar experiences
• Role-play a similar interaction
listening • Write a brief report
• Write similar text
• Debate the topic

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
 by FHI 360

In the next section of this module, we will look at sample

activities that you can do in your classrooms to teach
listening.
 This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360

References (Copyright)
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

• Brown, H.D. (2007). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy (3rd Ed.). White
Plains, NY: Pearson Education.
• Brown, G., and Yule, G. (1983). Teaching the spoken language, Cambridge..
• Davies, P. (2008). Success in English teaching. London: Oxford University Press.
• Harmer, J. (2007). How to teach English. Edinburgh: Pearson Longman.
• Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible
output in development. In Gass, S. and Madde, C. (Eds.), Input in SLA. Newbury House.
• Morley, J. (2002). Aural comprehension Instruction: principles and practicies. In M. Celce-Murcia. Teaching
English as a second or foreign language, 3rd Edition. Boston, MA: Longman.
• Nunan, D. (Ed.) (2003). Practical English language teaching. McGraw Hill.
• Mubarak A.T.Z. (2009). Helping teachers increase student talking time. In S. Borg (Ed.) Understanding
English language teaching and learning in Oman, p. 73-80. Sultanate of Oman: Ministry of Education.
 This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
5.3.1 Lesson Activity Development: Teaching Listening

“Untitled (Links to an external site.)” by Gerd Altmann (Links to an external site.)via Pixabay (Links to an external site.) is licensed under a Pixabay License (Links to an external site.). It is
free to use and share.

Overview
Teaching listening skills does not only happen while students are listening, but rather the learning process occurs before, during and
after any listening activity. Richards (2015) makes it clear that teachers should plan their listening courses around the goals and levels
of the students while also teaching students strategies for listening to English both in class and in the real world. Lets take a look at
examples of classroom activities that teachers can implement for students to practice listening.

Activity 1: Drawing Dictation

This activity allows learners to practice listening to their peers speak English and immediately engages them in an activity to test their
listening skills.

34
Step 1: Split the class into pairs.

Step 2: Give partner A a picture. Partner A describes the picture aloud in as much detail as possible to partner B.

Step 3: Partner B draws what they hear.

Step 4: The partners switch roles and practice with a different picture.

Example:

“Untitled” (Links to an external site.) by Mohamed Hassan (Links to an external site.) via Pixabay (Links to an external site.) is licensed under a Pixabay License (Links to an external site.). It is free
to use and share.

Partner A: "There is a man. He is wearing a white t-shirt, a burgundy jacket, blue pants, white socks and black shoes. He is laying on
the grass. He is in front of a house. There is a tree to the left of the house. The house is a tan color with the green roof. In front of the
house is a fence. There is a dog to the left of the man. The dog has a stick in its mouth, etc..."

Drawing Dictation Alternatives:

35
 • The instructor can give more advanced prompts and pictures based on the content of the lesson.
• The instructor can give specific criteria for stating the descriptions (ex. state the location of objects using prepositions of
place., etc.)

Activity 2: Listen and Point

This activity is for beginner learners who are listening for key vocabulary words or phrases.

Step 1: The instructor give students a picture with many objects, or several pictures.

Step 2: The instructor states a vocabulary word aloud and instructs the students to point to the object or picture that matches the word.

Step 3: The students point to the object or picture

"Groceries" (Links to an external site.) by Mittmac (Links to an external site.) via Pixabay (Links to an external site.) is licensed under a Pixabay License (Links to an external site.). It is free to
use and share.

36
Example:

Teacher: "Point to the carrots."

*Students point to the carrots in the bottom right corner*

Teacher: "Where are the bananas?"

*Students point to the bananas in the upper-right hand corner.*

The game continues until students have learned the vocabulary.

Listen and Point Alternatives:

• After identifying the fruits and vegetables, the teacher may ask students to practice "numbers" and the language of "how
many." For example, "how many mushrooms are there?" "Are there two or three apples?"
• The instructor can put the vocabulary words or images on large posters on the board. The students can come to the board and
point to the pictures in a speed game.
• The students can get into groups using one handout. Students can practice asking each other to listen and point.
• The instructor can put vocabulary pictures all around the room. The instructor calls out a vocabulary word and the students
have to run to the correct picture.

Activity 3: Simon Says

This activity is for to get students moving while also practicing listening skills for classroom instructions.

37
 “Untitled” (Links to an external site.) by Robin Higgins (Links to an external site.)v ia Pixabay (Links to an external site.) is licensed under a Pixabay License (Links to an external site.). It
is free to use and share.

Step 1: The teacher gives the students instructions while also modeling the instructions (ex. touch your head, touch your nose, look up,
look down, sit down, stand up).

Step 2: Without speaking, the students listen to the instructions and complete the action.

Step 3: If students complete an incorrect action, they have to sit down and are out of the game.

Step 4: The last student to continue standing is the winner.

Simon Says Alternatives:

• Instead of the teacher giving instructions, the students can come to the front one-by-one and give instructions.
• The class cane be divided into groups. Each group has a winner. The winners of each group complete against each other until
there is only one winner remaining for the class.
• The teacher can give directions without modeling to test students' listening and vocabulary skills.
• The instructor can assign different actions to different grammar points (i.e. touch your head for a verb, touch your nose for a
noun, touch your feet for an adjective). The teacher can call out different words and students can categorize them by assigning
them to actions as they hear them.

38
Activities for Different Parts of a Listening Lesson
Teachers can also design activities to help student understand listening before, during and after listening to audio sources.

Choosing Audio Sources

It is important for teachers to choose between the

use of authentic sources and non-authentic sources
of materials in order for students to reach their
Choosing Audio Sources learning goals. When choosing the type of material
your students will work with, many factors need to
be taken into account.

Skills learners use when listening to different

Teachers can:
audio sources:

39
 • Create your own listening practices using their
own voices or the voices of others.
• Record your own voicemail message for
• Differentiating between various accents and
students to call to practice listening skills.
dialects within the English language.
• Have advanced students record role-plays or
• Understanding the use of pauses and rhythm.
videos for beginner level students.
• Realizing the importance of pitch, intonation
• Use extracts from the media including news
and stress with regard to different contexts
stories, radio, TV or the Internet.
and situations.
• Play movies excerpts which are suitable to the
• Understanding context and the nuances of
level of students.
English in different situations.
• Invite guest to deliver a presentation.
• Use audio books for practice.

Pre-Listening Activities
In this phase, teachers should provide essential
background information such as, vocabulary or
Pre-Listening Activities content information that students wouldn't be able
to guess from context.
Skills learners use when engaging with the
Teachers can:
listening before actually listening:
• Understand the context of the text . • Group students to brainstorm as many words
• Reflecting on their experiences with the text. as possible related to the topic.

40
• Familiarizing themselves with unknown • Help students predict the words that may be
words and/or phrases that they might hear heard during a listening based on the topic.
while listening. • Discuss a picture that relates to a topic that
students will hear about.
• Generate a list of questions that could be
asked about a topic.
• Have students build a story from a list of
action verbs that they are given about a text.
• Allow students to choose a strategy to use
when they are listening to a text (i.e. Should
we listen for the main idea? Should we listen
for the details?, etc.)

During Listening Activities

This process is essential because it allows learners
to engage with the actual listening. It is important
During Listening Activities that teachers design activities that allow students
to process the meaning of the the text as opposed
to distract them with other tasks.
Skills learners use when engaging with the
Teachers can...
listening while listening to a text:
• Practicing intensive listening
• Have students listen to the first part of a story
• Developing strategies to improve listening
and predict what happens next.
(i.e. listening for key words, guessing words
• Instruct students to number a series of events
from context, etc.)
that occur.
• Processing the meaning of text

41
• Completing a series of tasks while listening • Create true and false sentences for students to
check while listening.
• Tell students to match pictures to sentences
while listening.
• Stop the audio just before a key word and ask
students which word they think they will hear.
• Allow students to fill in a gap fill sheet with
the missing words that they hear during a text.
• Have students listen and check the predictions
that they previously made to mark if they were
true or false.
• Ask students to complete a chart or graph as
they listen.

Post-Listening Activities
In this phase, teachers can check
learners' comprehension and where they made
Post-Listening Activities mistakes. Now, teachers will help students analyze
the text on a much smaller level and engage in
follow-up activities.
Skills learners use when engaging with the
Teachers can...
listening after listening to a text:
• Recognizing spoken features of the English • Replay the text to check comprehension
language such as reductions, links, ellipses, problems.
etc. • Design a follow up activity using another
• Responding to the context of the text. language skill to the content that they learned

42
 • Making links to other skills and/or contexts. about (i.e. write a letter to the character, make a
• Returning to the text to examine other public service announcement video for the
structures such as grammar, vocabulary, etc. radio to address a problem they heard about).
• Expanding overall language awareness. • Have students examine a transcript of the
listening to identify language structures learned
in class.
• Instruct students to read a text on the same
topic and compare information.
• Ask students to use words heard in the text to
in a gap-fill exercise.
• Allow for students to prepare a summary of
what they heard in the text.

Previous Previous: 5.3 Lecture: Focus on Listening Nex

43
5.3.2 Reading: Practical Tips for Increasing Listening Practice
Time
Read this article published by American English (Links to an external site.). A study guide is provided below.

For a study guide of the McCaughey article click here.

While it's often assumed that learners are effectively learning by using pre- and post-listening activities and listening to the
teacher talk, it is recommended that teacher dedicate time for students to practice simply listening to text without answering
comprehension questions before or after. By listening to short audio files, students can better understand the many aspects of
the English language and the teacher can also see if the students are understanding what they are learning.
Please read and reflect on this article. Consider how it might connect to your own teaching context. You will discuss these
ideas and your own connections in the Module 5 discussion.
McCaughey, K. (2015). Practical Tips for Increasing Listening Practice Time. English Teaching Forum, 53(1),2-13.

44
 An AE E-Teacher Study Guide for:
Practical Tips for Increasing Listening Practice Time
Article by Kevin McCaughey

From English Language Teaching Forum, 2015, Volume 53, Number 1 Retrieved 28 January
2018 from:
https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/forum_article - mccaughey -
_listening.pdf

Overview

It is often assumed that students get listening practice when they listen to the teacher.
However, it is important to reconsider listening tasks and provide time specific for practicing
listening. With particular tasks that help manage the classroom and activities during listening
activities, more learning can take place.

The Concept of ‘Not-Listening’

McCaughey recalls notes from a classroom observation where students engaged in more pre-
listening and post-listening activities instead of actual activities. Because these pre- and post-
activities overtook the listening activity itself with more practice on vocabulary, grammar and
writing, there was very little listening practice. He notes that scaffolding for more difficult
listening activities is actually anti-listening because students can only be successful in listening
tasks if they complete activities where they are not listening. Neither vocabulary and grammar
review, nor games during the listening, count as a listening activity because students are more
focused on skills other than listening.

Listening-Specific Goals

The first goal of a listening activity should be listening just to practice listening. Usually,
teachers play an audio and have students answer comprehension questions after they listen.
However, this method only acts as a memory test for students and doesn’t address the listening
process. With listening specific goals, teachers allow students to understand various aspects of
the speech including utterances, differences in speech patterns, pauses, speed, accents, etc.
Students are able to understand the reality of language as opposed to only understanding the
message. Practicing this way will ultimately lead to students’ ability to process the language
automatically and understand authentic English.

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). An AE E-Teacher Study Guide for: Practical Tips for
Increasing Listening Practice Time for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of State and
administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted.
To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and
delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
Five Tips for Increased Listening Practice

Here are five ways teachers can setup and conduct effective listening activities:

1.) Students Do During: students react immediately to audio.

a. Have students respond to the audio while it is playing instead of after. Pause the
audio and have students respond immediately.
b. Picture Dictation: Students draw a picture based on instructions. After each
instruction, students draw a part of the picture. They must listen to instructions
correctly to draw the correct picture.
c. Sound-clip Dictation: Students write sentences as they listen to an audio or
sentences from the teacher. The sentences can be played again and again.
d. Single-sentence Gap Fill: To practice different features in speech such as
reduction, students can fill in the gaps to complete sentences that they hear.
2.) See It: build activities that allows teachers to see if students understand the material or
not
a. Follow the Map: Teachers give students directions on a map. Students find the
correct places on the map based on the instructions.
b. Seeing Answers: Distribute “Yes/No” or “True/False” cards to students instead of
asking them to raise their hands. This was everyone takes part in the listening
and teachers can see who understands the question. The cards can be
substituted for movements such as stand up, or remain seated.
3.) Keep it Short: Work with short audio files to make short activities, which require little
preparation and allow students to pay more attention.
4.) Play It Again: Play audio as many times as learners need, despite the general rule of
playing audio only twice or three times. Learners can engage in fill-in-the-blank activities
while listening.
5.) Change It Up: Use a variety of audio files for class.
a. Recorded audios from online sources and also the teacher’s recorded voice also
work for listening activities.
b. Use non-authentic texts for learners to understand audio files with limited
vocabulary. Use authentic texts for learners to practice natural communication.
All levels can use authentic texts, however, it is important to shorten the texts
for lower-level students.
c. Use scripted (pre-written) texts such as TV shows or movies. Teachers can also
use unscripted (free speaking) texts to show examples of natural English.
d. Use audio files with both native and non-native speakers to introduce students
to the various dialects and accents around the world.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI

360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
Conclusion

Implementing these tips does not have to be difficult. Overall, make the audio files small and
short to be the most effective. To overcome technical challenges, teachers can record their own
voices or bring in a guest. Students can even use their own cell phones to listen to audio. Of
course, teachers can always practice other language skills together with the listening activities,
but no matter the technique, it is important to give students time to practice simply listening.

References (Copyright):
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Brown, J. D. 2006. Authentic communication: Whyzit importan’ ta teach reduced forms? In

Authentic communication: Proceedings of the 5th Annual JALT Pan-SIG Conference, Shizuoka,
Japan, 13–24. jalt.org/ pansig/2006/HTML/Brown.htm

Brown, J.D., and K. Kondo-Brown. 2006. Introducing connected speech. In Perspectives on

teaching connected speech to second language speakers, ed. J. D. Brown and K. Kondo-Brown,
1-16. University of Hawai’i at Manoa: National Foreign Language Research Center.

Buck, G. 2001. Assessing listening. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cauldwell, R. 2014. Grasping the nettle: The importance of perception work in listening
comprehension. Developing Teachers.com. www. developingteachers.com/articles_tchtraining/
perception1_richard.htm

Field, J. 1998. Skills and strategies: Towards a new methodology for listening. ELT Journal 52 (2):
110–118. –––. 2002. Listening in language learning. In Methodology in language teaching: An
anthology of current practice, ed. J. C. Richards and W. A. Renandya, 242–247. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

Graddol, D. 2006. English Next. British Council. www. britishcouncil.org/learning-

researchenglish-next.pdf

Lewis, M., and J. Hill. 1985. Practical techniques for language teaching. 2nd ed. Hove: Language
Teaching Publications.

McCaughey, K. 2010. What makes a great listening task. Shaping the way we teach English
webinar 1.1. U.S. Department of State: Office of English Language Programs.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI

360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
Nunan, D. 2002. The changing face of listening. In Methodology in language teaching: An
anthology of current practice, ed. J. C. Richards and W. A. Renandya, 238–241. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

Richards, J. C. 2005. Second thoughts on teaching listening. RELC Journal 36 (1): 85–92.

Rost, M. 2002. Teaching and researching listening. New York: Pearson Education ESL.

Scrivener, J. 2005. Learning teaching: A guidebook for English language teachers. 2nd ed.
Oxford: Macmillan.
Ur, P. 1984. Teaching listening comprehension. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI

360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
 KEVIN McCAUGHEY
Ukraine

Practical Tips for Increasing

Listening Practice Time
Now I will do nothing but listen ...
–Walt Whitman, Song of Myself

L
earning a language—like learning to dance ballet, weave carpets,
or play the saxophone—takes time and practice. In general, it’s safe
to say that the more practice you get, the better you will become.
That’s how I feel about understanding a foreign language, too. The more
listening practice you get, the better you understand the language.

The problem is that students get little language—many other articles cover that—
dedicated listening practice in their classes— but on the practical business of setting up and
and in some cases, they get almost none. The “class-managing” listening activities in order to
reasons are many. Teachers lack materials give students more practice.
or equipment. They think their classrooms
are too noisy or crowded. They value Implementing new listening tasks is easy if we
speaking, reading, grammar, or vocabulary keep in mind five tips:
over listening. Their curricula are driven
by standardized tests without a listening 1 . Students Do During
component. 2 . See It
3 . Keep It Short
But the main reason is a perception of what
listening practice is and is not. In a poll of 254 4 . Play It Again
teachers from 40 countries, 84 percent felt that 5 . Change It Up
“any time the teacher is speaking to students
in English it is a listening task” (McCaughey Before we advance to a detailed explanation
2010). Now, it is true that students will get of these tips, we need to examine a slippery
exposure to English through teacher talk. But it notion, one that you may have objected to when
begs the question: If teachers assume students you first read it a few paragraphs above: that
get listening anyway, why bother to design “students get little dedicated listening practice
listening-specific activities? in their classes—and in some cases, they get
almost none.” Unfortunately, as I will explain
This article will, I hope, help teachers of next, there is a lot of not listening happening.
English reconsider how we think about
listening tasks. It will provide guidance for NOT LISTENING
increasing classroom listening practice through
short, dedicated listening tasks. The emphasis The last teacher-training workshop I attended
is not on the science or theory of processing on the subject of listening actually provided a

2 E NGL I S H T E A CHI NG F O RU M 201 5 americanenglish.state.gov/english-teaching-forum

good illustration of not listening. After a lecture You might contend that the other tasks
on pre-listening, while-listening, and post- supported the central listening segment.
listening, the trainer offered a demonstration. Maybe. But those tasks did not target
He played the role of teacher while we listening practice. Or you might argue that
participants were students. The notes I wrote on there were elements of listening in Steps 1
the structure of the lesson appear in Figure 1. and 2 of the pre-listening portion of the
lesson because students would need to
1. Introduction: Teacher asks the understand the teacher to form responses.
class if they like animals. Students And maybe there were some listening
volunteer answers. elements. But what if students did not
understand? There was no provision for
2. Teacher presents several riddles
about animals. Students guess
that. The teacher took verbal answers from
Pre-
answers. volunteers and moved on. The teacher could
listening not gauge exactly who understood or identify
3. Teacher brings out a bag. Inside or help those who did not.
are stuffed animals that students
can’t see. Students ask questions If the participants of this demonstration lesson
until they determine what animals had been students and not teachers, perhaps
are inside.
the trainer might have played the audio two
4. Students receive a handout or three times. That’s an improvement, but
with three True/False statements. even so, pre-listening and post-listening time
While-
They listen to a recorded dialogue dominated the lesson.
listening
about animals and tick True or
False. They listen once. The question is: How much preparation does
a 65-second audio warrant? If our goal is to
5. Students check answers. increase listening practice, the answer should
Post- be “Very little.” Usually, even within portions
listening 6. Students create follow-up of class devoted to listening, actual listening
questions about animals. The gets short shrift.
teacher writes these on the board.

Figure 1. Listening demonstration lesson

Figure 3 is a quiz of sorts that you and fellow
language teachers can take individually
and then discuss. In the quiz, you will see
At first glance, this looks like a classic descriptions of activities. Decide whether
listening lesson, well-organized and varied. each activity offers true listening practice
Participating teachers enjoyed it, too. The or whether it requires students to spend
topic of animals was appealing. We were
not overburdened with grammar. And the
1. Introduction 4 minutes
guessing game, featuring the realia of toys in
a bag, was a fun surprise. Neither participants Pre-
16 minutes 2. Riddles 3 minutes
nor trainer doubted that the primary focus of listening
this lesson was listening. After all, the while- 3. Guess the toy 9 minutes
listening task took a central position.
While- 1 minute, 4. Listen to recording: 1 minute,
I had a stopwatch, too, and timed each listening 5 seconds True/False 5 seconds
segment of the lesson. The result, shown in
Figure 2, offers a different picture of what 5. Check answers 1 minute
Post-
actually happened during the lesson. 7 minutes
listening 6. Follow-up questions 6 minutes
One minute of listening was supported by
23 minutes of not listening activities. Figure 2. Timed segments of the listening demonstration lesson

americanenglish.state.gov/english-teaching-forum 2015 EN GL I SH T E ACHING F ORU M 3

 most of their time on some other skill such if, in the middle of an audio, you encounter
as vocabulary, grammar, or writing. Discuss the natural surfacing of the past perfect
answers with colleagues and think about how progressive tense—something you had just
you give students listening practice in your introduced to your class the week before?
classes. My answers to the quiz appear in the Isn’t that the perfect opportunity to review?
Appendix, though you are free to disagree. Maybe. But then you are no longer focused
on listening skills. The common goals of
PREPARING FOR THE LISTENING TASK pre-listening—“activating prior knowledge,
making predictions, and reviewing key
I have heard experienced trainers say that “No vocabulary” (Richards 2005, 87)—are
listening exercise is too difficult if there is valuable in supporting listening activities, but
enough pre-listening.” What they mean is that, they are not listening practice themselves.
with enough scaffolding and language support
prior to listening, learners can understand And yet, in a poll of 118 teachers from more
difficult or long audio texts. It’s a sensible than 25 countries, 31 percent considered
dictum—but sneakily anti-listening. It tells us that in a listening task, the largest chunk
that students succeed at listening tasks if they of time should be devoted to pre-listening
have lots of not listening. (McCaughey 2010). Another 9 percent chose
post-listening. A significant 40 percent, then,
Is vocabulary preparation critical for did not consider while-listening the most
understanding an audio text? Sometimes. important part of a listening task!
But vocabulary preparation is not listening.
What about a game that uses core ideas from As some have pointed out (Cauldwell 2014;
the listening text? Not listening, either. What Field 2002), teachers often see listening as

Does each activity provide a lot of listening practice? Yes Sort of No/Not
really

1. Four students, one in each corner of the room, are reading a

list of their ten favorite foods and drinks. The remaining students
move to each corner, in any order they want, to listen and write
down each reader’s list.

2.The teacher describes a scene: a park with trees, people, and

benches. Students draw the scene as the teacher describes it.

3. Students in pairs do a vocabulary matching activity on a

handout. The vocabulary comes from the audio text they just
listened to.

4. Students listen to a song several times. They have a copy of the

lyrics with some of the words missing—a gap-fill or cloze activity.

5. Students in pairs read a dialogue from the textbook out loud,

each student taking on one role.

6.The teacher tells the class about something that happened on the
way to school that morning.

7.After students listen to an audio, the teacher asks the whole

class comprehension questions. Students volunteer answers.

Figure 3. A “quiz” for discussion on what constitutes real listening practice

4 E NGL I S H T E A CHI NG F O RU M 201 5 americanenglish.state.gov/english-teaching-forum

serving other language-learning goals. That happening. They can deal with utterances,
idea prompted Nunan to refer to listening specifically tackling differences in oral
as the “Cinderella skill ... all too often ... and written language like hesitations, false
overlooked by its elder sister—speaking” starts, pauses, background noise, variable
(2002, 238). speed, and variable accent (Rost 2002,
171). Our dedicated listening tasks might
We need to think in terms of listening for also draw attention to reduced forms and
the sake of listening practice. We must not connected speech that occur naturally when
label a segment of the English class listening speakers drop consonants (Wednesday =
just because the teacher talks in English. We Wenzday), leave off endings (going = goin),
should realize that when we use a listening or blend sounds together (that will =
text as a springboard for activities we are that’ll). Brown and Kondo-Brown (2006,
more comfortable with, like discussions, 2) have identified nine of these processes:
vocabulary practice, writing, or grammar, “word stress, sentence stress and timing,
students are not getting the actual listening reduction, citation and weak forms of words,
practice they may need. elision, intrusion, assimilation, juncture, and
contraction.” There’s no reason that most
LISTENING-SPECIFIC GOALS students—or even most teachers—need to
know these terms or how to differentiate
A dedicated listening task focuses on listening between the processes. But students will
goals. A goal might be understanding the benefit from repeated exposure to examples.
text—in part or as a whole. It might be They will see that words are often not
focusing on global gist or on discrete elements pronounced the way they are spelled and
like single phrases. We do not need to follow that their pronunciation changes at times,
up with writing or speaking in order to justify even when spoken by a single person. The
the listening task. Listening for the sake of language teacher—like any teacher—
practice is a reasonable goal. shouldn’t shelter students from reality.

When I observe a listening activity in a For instance, in my classes I have used an

classroom, it usually follows this pattern: audio recording of my father telling a story. In
students listen to a complete audio text and the first sentence, he uses the word probably.
afterwards answer comprehension questions Except he doesn’t actually say probably.
posed by the teacher. (In the past, I did listening He says prolly. Sometimes students have
tasks this way, too.) This model is probably to listen a few times to hear this, and they
based on how we use written texts for reading express surprise that a word can lose two
comprehension: read the article and answer separate “b” sounds and one full syllable, yet
the questions. But listening texts, unlike the still be comprehensible. And if one speaker
written word, do not remain unmoving in pronounces a word one way once, it doesn’t
front of our eyes; listening texts move past our mean the same speaker will pronounce it
ears in real time. The student doesn’t have the the same way the next time. Most English
opportunity to go back, review a sentence, or students are familiar with gonna, a reduced
look up a word in the dictionary. Answering blend of “going to.” (Gonna appears often in
comprehension questions after an audio is writing.) My wife, a non-native speaker of
mostly a test of memory. The focus is on English, pointed out to me that when I say
outcome, on “product rather than process,” and “I’m going to,” it comes out as “I’m unna” [ajm
ignores the specific difficulties students may ¨n\], with the “g” disappearing entirely. And
have experienced during the actual listening yet teachers should not get the idea that they
phase (Field 1998, 111). are promoting slang or dialects in pointing
out features of connected speech, for “it is
Listening-specific goals can address commonly used in all registers and styles.
difficulties of understanding as they are Even the most formal pronunciation of a

americanenglish.state.gov/english-teaching-forum 2015 EN GL I SH T E ACHING F ORU M 5

 language will typically contain some aspects of FIVE TIPS FOR INCREASED LISTENING
these phenomena” (Brown and Kondo-Brown PRACTICE
2006, 5).
At this point, we should have two key ideas
Is it any wonder that students express foremost in our minds:
difficulty in understanding English speech
outside their classroom environments? • First, many activities we do in the course of
a listening lesson are actually not listening.
Pointing out the aberrations of spoken
language—or better yet, letting students • Second, we can increase listening practice
discover them through our guidance—is a by including simple activities with listening-
shortcut toward understanding authentic specific goals.
speech:
The five tips below will make the design and
When second-language learners setup of listening practice in the classroom
learn some new element of a easy and effective.
language, at first they have to pay
conscious attention and think about 1. STUDENTS DO DURING
it; that takes time, and their use of
it is slow. But as the new element A good listening task is one with “active
becomes more familiar, they responses occurring during, or between
process it faster, with less thought, parts of, the listening passage, rather than at
until eventually the processing of the end” (Ur 1984, 4). In fact, a great model
that element becomes completely for a listening task is the children’s game
automatic. (Buck 2001, 7) Simon Says. In Simon Says, one person (in a
classroom setting, usually the teacher) gives
Many activities we do commands:

Simon says, “Put your hands on your

in the course of head.”

a listening lesson are Simon says, “Lower your hands to your

sides.”
actually not listening. Simon says, “Lift your left leg.”

We want to put our students on the road to Students follow these commands bodily. They
that automatic processing. Is it frustrating for do this while listening, or to be more precise,
students that language doesn’t conveniently in those spaces between spoken commands.
bend to the rules written in their textbooks? The actions are an immediate response to
It might be. But according to Brown (2006), the spoken word. I call this kind of task a
students enjoy learning about reduced forms “do-during” task because students need to do
because it’s new information. In my own something during the listening portion of the
experience, I’ve found that students treat activity. (Full instructions for how to play Simon
the discovery of, say, an elision or glide that Says can be found in a video at www.howcast.
suddenly makes two words comprehensible com/videos/258347-How-to-Play-the-Simon-
as a kind of secret key to unlocking mysteries Says-Game.) Many audio texts—especially
of the language and putting them ahead in those where the teacher’s voice is the audio
the learning game. And the bottom line is source—can easily be paused or segmented,
that students feel good about understanding so that students respond immediately. Take, for
authentic English. example, a picture dictation.

6 E NGL I S H T E A CHI NG F O RU M 201 5 americanenglish.state.gov/english-teaching-forum

Picture dictation audio many times is not a problem—it’s just
Each student, working with a blank piece of three seconds long—and students may need
paper, has a pencil or colored pen or marker. the repetition to figure out what’s missing,
The teacher dictates instructions one by one, especially since the missing words do not
and students draw accordingly: sound the way they look in writing.

Teacher: We are going to draw a The missing words are (1) It’d and (2) we
monster. We just learned the word could. (Who says only one word can be
lopsided, right? Draw a big lopsided missing in a blank?) In this authentic audio,
circle near the top of your paper. ... (1) It’d is pronounced [ˆd\d] to rhyme
Okay, give your monster two big eyes. with lidded, and (2) we could is pronounced
... Give your monster two large ears. [wik\d].
... Now put an earring in his left ear.
… Good. Let’s give our monster very Many students, even advanced students, are
curly hair. ... not aware of the contraction it’d. But after
this short listening task, they will be, and
We can sense the natural pauses here as the catching it in a natural conversation will start
teacher walks around the room, observing the to become automatic.
progress of every student. Again, students are
responding immediately, during the listening 2. SEE IT
activity.
In the above activities, the key is that Students
Sound-clip dictation Do During: whether they are moving their
This Students Do During principle also applies bodies, drawing, writing, or gap-filling,
to writing or dictation that is based on students react immediately to the listening
listening. In the following case, I’ve taken a text. The great advantage to this arrangement
single sentence, one of the most famous lines is that no matter what the students are doing,
in American film, spoken by the actor Marlon the teacher can See It every step of the way. The
Brando in 1972’s The Godfather: teacher sees exactly who understands and who
doesn’t, which groups are fast and which are
I’m gonna make him an offer he can’t slow, who is struggling and who needs an extra
refuse. challenge, and what everyone understands and
perhaps what no one understands. The teacher
The teacher can voice the sentence, of course, can actually discern student comprehension and
but such authentic sound bites are easy to measure progress in real time.
find online (onYouTube.com, for instance, or
search for “movie sound clips”). And with a Let’s return to Simon Says to test whether
recording, you can play it again and again as a the See It principle applies. The teacher
loop, giving students lots of exposure to the says, “Simon says, ‘Stand on one leg.’” The
language. Students write while they listen. teacher can see who in the class understands
because those students are standing on one
Single-sentence gap fill leg. The game features built-in discernible
Using another single-sentence text, you could comprehension. True, some students look at
pinpoint attention on reduced speech. Write others and imitate what they are doing, but
the following gap fill on the board: the teacher sees that, too. (Fix that problem,
by the way, by having students wear blindfolds
(1) be great if (2) or close their eyes.)
get it done early this year.
Follow the map
Next, play a recording of the sentence or read For another example, let’s take a map activity.
it as many times as necessary. Repeating the Students receive a handout of a simple city

americanenglish.state.gov/english-teaching-forum 2015 EN GL I SH T E ACHING F ORU M 7

 map and have it in front of them. Each student asking them follow-up questions. A large
gets a paper clip or some other small object to number of “I’m not sure” squares are a
represent his or her car. The teacher gives oral signal that students need to listen to the
instructions: text again.

You are in the parking lot on Monkey The See It tactic works with all sorts of
Street. ... Turn left on Javelina Street. questions, not just Yes/No questions. Try
… Go two blocks to Giraffe Park. … asking personal opinion questions to the entire
class, with each student signaling an answer
The teacher walks around the room while through movement.
giving the instructions and can see whether
students’ cars are at the right place at every Teacher: Stand up if you like ice cream.
stage, thus being able to help those who need Sit down.
it. And if all students seem to be following Stand up if your favorite color
instructions with ease, the teacher can add is blue.
a little more challenge, speeding up the Sit down.
language or offering more complex Stand up if you drank tea this
directions: morning.
Sit down.
Now make a U-turn, go two blocks,
and turn right. Do you see the Little Try Yes/No questions the next day. Tell
Cat Café? Don’t stop there; keep students to stand up for a “Yes” answer.
going until you get to Old King
Mighty Food—it’s a huge grocery Teacher: Are you 38 years old?
store right before the river. Is today Tuesday?
Am I wearing glasses?
Seeing answers Do you like eating snakes?
You can improve any question-and-answer Do you like rainy weather?
task by applying the See It idea—for instance, Are the windows open?
when you ask questions about an audio text Is Shanghai the capital of
or about a reading text, or even when you China?
ask for students’ opinions. Resist the
temptation to ask students to raise their The next day, mix things up: tell students to
hands to answer. This tends to give an artificial stand up for a “No” answer.
picture of student participation. The same
students tend to answer, and we have no idea You can even practice grammar forms in
how to gauge whether those who don’t raise listening. Here is an example where students
their hands understand. are required to understand and differentiate
between events associated with certain
Instead, distribute to each student two times—in this case, present perfect vs. simple
small squares of paper, one green and one past structures. A warning, though: avoid the
red. Ask Yes/No questions or give True/ trap of naming or explaining the grammar.
False statements. For each Yes/No Once that happens, you are no longer doing a
question, every student responds by listening activity.
raising one of the colored papers: green
for “Yes” and red for “No.” Adding a third Who has had coffee before?
paper, a white square to mean “I’m not
sure,” is even better. It allows students to Who bought a coffee somewhere
take part while admitting they do not have yesterday?
an answer yet. The teacher can spare these
students stress by not calling on them or Who had coffee this morning?

8 E NGL I S H T E A CHI NG F O RU M 201 5 americanenglish.state.gov/english-teaching-forum

 Who hasn’t had any coffee this week? during the activities. But often, you will want
to use recordings, too. The Internet offers a
Who has tried iced coffee? practically unlimited source of audio files,
Who has never had iced coffee? many of which are free.

It’s best to work with very short audios.

Who had iced coffee this morning? By “short” I mean from a few seconds
in length up to a minute. What are the
Who didn’t have iced coffee this advantages of using short audios? Short
morning? audios mean short activities. Short activities
require little preparation. You don’t need to
We can also introduce variability into make handouts. You can write a gap fill on
student responses. Write guidelines on the board. You can dictate. Short activities
the board: are easy to squeeze into the class schedule.
And there’s even a benefit to classroom
Yes No Sometimes discipline. Short audios get students to quiet
down and focus. They shush each other so
Stand up Remain seated Wave your as not to miss the beginning. They are like
arms 50-meter sprinters, bracing themselves and
cocking their heads to hear the starting gun.
And we can easily go beyond Yes/No They know that there is little chance that a
questions. Here is a guideline for responding ten-second audio will bore them.
to questions of “How often ... ?”:
All these benefits make short audios low-
How often do you brush your teeth in the risk, too. If an activity based on a 20-second
morning? audio goes wrong, there’s little harm done.
But if a long-audio activity (say, one that is
How often do you go swimming on based on a ten-minute speech) goes wrong,
weekends? the teacher has wasted a lot of time—
the teacher’s own and the students’. For
How often do you see monkeys on your Scrivener (2005, 176), “[t]wo minutes of
way to school? recorded material is enough to provide a lot
of listening work,” while Rost (2002, 145)
Always Often Sometimes Never reminds us of the “well-known limitations to
short-term memory that occur after 60 to 90
Jump Hold a Put one hand Put your seconds of listening.” Lewis and Hill (1985)
up book in in the air hands put the concentration of lower-level students
the air over your
at about 20 seconds. For the average teacher,
eyes
this is great news: preparing short audio
takes very little time.
These simple tasks, led by the teacher and
with virtually no preparation, can considerably Some secondary-school students may be
increase student listening time. Students give preparing for university classes where they
responses during listening, and teachers can will listen to long lectures in English. Your
discern who understands throughout. short activities will help them, too. Just
increase the level of difficulty by finding
3. KEEP IT SHORT audios that are faster or that contain more
complex vocabulary. These activities will
For most of the above activities, the teacher is build confidence, give students practice with
the source of the audio. Thus, the teacher can authentic spoken language, and increase
provide pauses for students to do something students’ awareness of reduced forms.

americanenglish.state.gov/english-teaching-forum 2015 EN GL I SH T E ACHING F ORU M 9

 4. PLAY IT AGAIN Longer audios can—as we’ve mentioned—
always be segmented, turned into short
In the summer of 2003, I was studying audios. These segments can be played over
Russian in the United States. My teacher and over. All the while, students should
played a Russian song in class one day. have specific tasks, something to do during
She had prepared a gap fill with about 12 the audio, and that enables the teacher
words missing. It was exciting because as a to monitor progress and comprehension.
teacher myself I had used songs hundreds of Everybody wins.
times, but this was, amazingly, my first time
experiencing a gap-fill song as a learner. 5. CHANGE IT UP

I wrote down missing words as the song Increasing the variety of our audio sources
played. But I couldn’t write them all; there will make bringing more listening to the class
just wasn’t time. When the song ended, we easy. Below are some of the choices you will
checked answers. The teacher called on me make when selecting an audio.
once. That was for a word I just didn’t happen
to catch—one of the two words I’d missed. Recorded audios or teacher’s voice?
Somehow that didn’t feel fair. The teacher— The teacher’s voice is a great audio source.
who was actually wonderful—had decided Give your students a do-during task, and
to play the song only once, perhaps because then provide them with content: read a
it was four minutes long and playing it again newspaper headline, recite a short poem, or
might have seemed like a waste of class time. sing a song. Audio recordings work well, too,
Playing the audio just once, though, was a and thousands are available for free on the
mistake. It meant that none of us had a chance Internet. Sources for freely downloadable
to succeed at the task as it was designed, to audible content include American English
understand and fill in all the missing words. It (americanenglish.state.gov), English Teachers
is too bad we didn’t repeat the song, perhaps Everywhere (www.etseverywhere.com),
playing it in segments and repeating certain BBC Learning English (www.bbc.co.uk/
lines multiple times. worldservice/learningenglish), and sources
mentioned in the sections below.
Most trainers and course books recommend
playing an audio two or three times. Non-authentic or authentic texts?
Sometimes that’s enough. But a better rule Non-authentic texts are designed for learners
of thumb is to play the audio (or speak it) as of English, not for native speakers. Voice
many times as the students need in order to of America’s Special English recordings
succeed at the task. That is another benefit of (learningenglish.voanews.com) are read at
keeping it short: you can play or speak the audio two-thirds normal speed and are, thus, not
again and again, and students can succeed authentic. When a teacher reads a dictation
at the task, without a huge investment of to the class, this is also non-authentic. It is
class time. not a natural form of communication; it is
an exercise to learn English. However, non-
authentic recordings are useful: their clarity
Students should have specific tasks, and limited vocabulary allow students to
understand large chunks of English.
something to do during the audio,
and that enables the teacher to Outside the classroom, authentic texts
are much more common. These are real,
monitor progress and comprehension. natural communications, intended for
Everybody wins. purposes beyond English learning. A radio
advertisement to sell soap is authentic because
the goal is to sell a product, not to teach

10 E NGL I S H T E A CHI NG F O RU M 201 5 americanenglish.state.gov/english-teaching-forum

English. A conversation in English in a café is
also authentic. Give students variety.
Teachers should not avoid using authentic Expose them to a wide range of
texts just because they have low-level students English. Let them understand
or because they think authentic texts are too
difficult. The teacher’s task is to design the that English does not have
listening activity so that students will succeed, one single correct form.
whatever the text. Keeping that text short will
almost always help.
practice from non-native-speaking sources.
Scripted or unscripted texts? Even more than a decade ago, in 2004, 74
We can make a further distinction among percent of 750 million international travelers
authentic texts. Some are scripted (or were non-native English speakers traveling
written), while others happen spontaneously. to non-English-speaking countries (Graddol
The dialogue in a TV show or film is usually 2006). What does that tell us about sticking
scripted. So are the lyrics to songs. These only to native English models of speech?
scripted texts are still authentic, though, since
they are created for entertainment and not for Furthermore, native English itself is full
language learning. of dialects. Give students variety. Expose
them to a wide range of English. Let them
Unscripted language develops spontaneously, understand that English does not have one
like the conversations you have every day with single correct form. This exposure may have
friends and family. Interview responses are the added benefit of letting students realize
usually unscripted. The interviewee may have that their own variety of English is perfectly
a general plan but is not reading the answers. legitimate and has a rightful place in the world
It is in unscripted language where we find the of communication.
most examples of reduced speech, and so it
is important that we provide our students the OVERCOMING BARRIERS
opportunity to experience and decipher these
potential points of frustration. A good source I hope I have convinced you that adding
for free unscripted audios is the English listening activities to the class hour need not
Language Listening Lab Online (elllo.org). be difficult. But I realize that for many, there
are obstacles. The curriculum, for instance, is
Native speakers or non-native speakers? packed. Teachers may have little time to add
Listen to CNN or BBC news and you will anything. In this case, think small; think short.
hear reporters from Scotland, Abu Dhabi, Reminder: an audio text can be a few seconds
South Africa, and Argentina, among other long. Dictate a single sentence now and then.
places. Your students, if they travel, are
more likely to encounter other second- For other teachers, the problem is technical.
language English speakers than native English They have no audios, no CD player or cassette
speakers (Graddol 2006). Non-native English player—or they have one, but the class is
speech can be as authentic as native English just too huge and noisy for students to hear
speech. Students need to hear a variety of the audio. There are possible solutions here.
English accents and dialects. They do not Use your voice as the audio source. Bring
need repeat-after-the-audio drills, though; in a guest. Is there a video player at school?
reproducing dozens of accents is not the goal. Use that for audio only. Ask your school to
Instead, listening practice that leads toward purchase an MP3 player, or borrow one from
understanding the broad array of 21st- somebody. Take the students to the computer
century Englishes is the goal. If anything, we lab. Or use your phone; today many cell
as teachers should probably increase listening phones can play audio files. Of course, they

americanenglish.state.gov/english-teaching-forum 2015 EN GL I SH T E ACHING F ORU M 11

 won’t be audible to the whole class, so change Brown, J. D., and K. Kondo-Brown. 2006. Introducing
the arrangement: bring the students to the connected speech. In Perspectives on teaching connected
speech to second language speakers, ed. J. D. Brown and
audio source. Create a listening station in the
K. Kondo-Brown, 1–16. University of Hawai‘i at
corner of the class where a few students at M -anoa: National Foreign Language Research Center.
a time rotate in to listen. Whatever solution Buck, G. 2001. Assessing listening. Cambridge:
you find, keeping the audios short and making Cambridge University Press.
sure students have a task to complete when Cauldwell, R. 2014. Grasping the nettle: The
they listen are the keys to productive listening importance of perception work in listening
practice. comprehension. DevelopingTeachers.com. www.
developingteachers.com/articles_tchtraining/
perception1_richard.htm
CONCLUSION
Field, J. 1998. Skills and strategies: Towards a new
Many students of English eventually travel methodology for listening. ELT Journal 52 (2):
abroad, where they are shocked to discover 110–118.
–––. 2002. Listening in language learning. In
how unprepared they are for understanding
Methodology in language teaching: An anthology of current
real speech—whether native or non-native
practice, ed. J. C. Richards and W. A. Renandya, 242–
English. A teacher who attended one of my 247. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
training workshops had had that experience: Graddol, D. 2006. English Next. British Council. www.
“After studying English for many years,” britishcouncil.org/learning-research-english-next.pdf
she said, “I was able to understand only my Lewis, M., and J. Hill. 1985. Practical techniques for
teachers, nobody else.” language teaching. 2nd ed. Hove: Language Teaching
Publications.
Comments like that one are evidence that McCaughey, K. 2010. What makes a great listening
students are not getting the listening practice task. Shaping the way we teach English webinar
they deserve. So often, we are sidetracked 1.1. U.S. Department of State: Office of English
from listening goals and drift back towards Language Programs.
Nunan, D. 2002. The changing face of listening. In
the familiar safety of teaching vocabulary and
Methodology in language teaching: An anthology of current
grammar. We need more listening for the
practice, ed. J. C. Richards and W. A. Renandya, 238–
sake of listening. We need to give students 241. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
practice. We need to give them while-listening Richards, J. C. 2005. Second thoughts on teaching
practice. And it can be easy to do. Keep audios listening. RELC Journal 36 (1): 85–92.
short. Let listeners respond right away. Make Rost, M. 2002. Teaching and researching listening. New
sure their responses are visible; make sure that York: Pearson Education ESL.
you can discern how much they understand Scrivener, J. 2005. Learning teaching: A guidebook for
and can measure the progress they make. Take English language teachers. 2nd ed. Oxford: Macmillan.
advantage of the huge variety of listening texts Ur, P. 1984. Teaching listening comprehension. Cambridge:
available on the Internet. Cambridge University Press.

Keep in mind how important it is to have

your students “do nothing but listen.” You can, Kevin McCaughey is a Regional English Language
of course, keep teaching vocabulary, writing, Officer based in Kyiv and covering Ukraine, Moldova,
reading, and speaking. But don’t let those Belarus, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. He has
activities steal from the listening portion of class. traveled to 100 countries and trained teachers in more
than 20. He records songs and audio games in English
to increase the variety of listening activities. And he has
REFERENCES
a new accordion that he’s very proud of.
Brown, J. D. 2006. Authentic communication: Whyzit
importan’ ta teach reduced forms? In Authentic
communication: Proceedings of the 5th Annual JALT
Pan-SIG Conference, Shizuoka, Japan, 13–24. jalt.org/
pansig/2006/HTML/Brown.htm

12 E NGL I S H T E A CHI NG F O RU M 201 5 americanenglish.state.gov/english-teaching-forum

APPENDIX
Answer Key to “Quiz” on What Constitutes Real Listening Practice

Note: These answers are the opinion of the author and are not definitive.

1 . Yes. It’s a type of dictation. Students are writing down words that they hear. Writing
is involved, but the primary emphasis is on listening. It sounds like fun, too! Besides,
students will need to practice listening while there’s lots of noise around. That happens
in real life. This task might not be the greatest listening task ever invented, but it’s worth
doing now and then. We like variety.

2 . Yes. This is a picture dictation. Students must listen and understand, and they
immediately draw. It’s a useful comprehension task.

3 . No. Students are working on vocabulary. They are not actively engaged in any listening.

4 . Sort of. Students listen closely and write the missing words simultaneously. I say “sort
of ” here because when there is a lot of text, students are likely to rely primarily on their
reading skills. Sort-of listening activities are okay sometimes—as long as we have a lot of
variety and are also doing true listening activities.

5 . No.This is reading and enunciation practice. Does one student truly listen (and do
something) while the other reads? I say no.

6 . Sort of. Students may get some listening practice here. Or they may understand almost
nothing. It really depends on how the teacher speaks. And does the teacher provide some
“do-during” tasks? Natural, spontaneous talk is helpful now and then, but it should not
entirely replace well-designed do-during activities.

7. No. Answering comprehension questions does not really constitute listening. Yes, students
have to comprehend the teacher’s questions, but the audio text is no longer playing. This is
more of a memory test. Students can remain quiet and hope the teacher does not call on
them. Very little listening is going on at this stage.

americanenglish.state.gov/english-teaching-forum 2015 E N GL IS H T EACHING F ORUM 13

5.4 Lecture: Focus on Speaking

“Untitled (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. (Links to an external site.)” by Kristin Baldeschwiler (Links to an external site.) Is
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Introduction
Speaking is a complex process of creating meaning that combines receiving, processing and
producing information (Burns & Joyce, 1997). The form and the meaning of speaking
depends on many factors. Such factors as speaker's purpose, environment, experience and
shared collective experiences influence the form and the meaning of speaking.
To be able to speak, or produce the language, and to communicate learners need to
have linguistic competence (i.e., vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation) and socio-
linguistic competence (i.e., when, why and how to produce language).
Adding to the complexity of speaking skill acquisition, to be able to speak well learners
need to be aware of and be good at the following aspects of oral proficiency:

61
• Sound system (pronunciation)
• Grammar (structure)
• Vocabulary
• Fluency and rate of speech
• Cultural and social appropriateness
• Functions (e.g., greetings, compliments, apologies, etc.)
• Non-verbal strategies (e.g., gestures, facial expressions, manners, etc.)
•

Oral Language Genres

Similar to the process of listening, speaking also can fall into three broadly defined genres.
Unidirectional: Unidirectional genres include speeches or narratives. There will be
an audience; however, the audience would not directly participate in oral language
performance with the speaker.
Semi-bidirectional: Semi-directional genres include presentations and interviews. In this
genre, a speaker would interact with a listener or another speaker; however, the
interaction is rather limited. For instance, during an interview, an interviewer will
dominantly ask questions and an interviewee will mainly respond to those questions. Even
when an interviewee gets a chance to ask questions, the chances and content of questions
can be limited.
Bidirectional: In this genre of oral language, the interaction between two or more
participants will be two ways. However, it does not guarantee everybody's equal
participation during the performance.
It is important that as teachers we prepare our students to be able to function in all of the
above described genres.

Possible Challenges in Acquiring Speaking Skills

Speaking in a new language is often a challenging task. Unlike reading and
writing, speaking occurs in real time and it requires immediate action and reaction on the
speaker’s part. Another challenge is that is not enough to construct correct sentences, one
also needs to be understood.
The multi-dimensional nature of speech and many linguistic features involved in speaking
make a speaking task challenging, especially for lower proficiency learners. To be able to
communicate in a given language, speakers have to employ many linguistic elements. Such
elements or features include phonology, morphology, syntax, discourse and others (Van
Lier, 1996).
Among other challenges, Brown and Lee (2015) also mention reduced forms and
colloquial language. Learners need to be aware of contractions, reduced vowels, and
other similar characteristics all that pose special problems in learning spoken English.
Students also need to be acquainted with the words, idioms, and phrases of colloquial

62
language and that they get to practice producing these forms. Students who do not learn
colloquial contractions can sometimes develop a very formal language, that may not be
appropriate for all situations.
Conclusion
Teachers should take into account the complexities of speaking process when teaching
speaking. By understanding and focusing on various oral proficiency components and
genres, teachers can design activities to allow students to directly practice speaking skills
in a communicative environment.

References (Copyrighted)
Brown, D. & Lee, H. (2015). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language
pedagogy. Pearson Education ESL; 4 edition.
Burns, A. & Joyce, H. (1997). Focus on Speaking. National Center for English Language
Teaching and Research.
Van Lier, L. (1996). Interaction in the language curriculum: Awareness, autonomy, and
authenticity. London: Longman.

63
 Focus on Speaking

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). Learning Styles and Strategy-Based Instruction PPT, sponsored by the U.S Department
of State, with funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
 In this presentation, we will discuss the
speaking including its functions and processes.
Then, we will focus on activities and practices that
teachers can use in the classroom to teach speaking
skills.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
The Functions of Speaking
It is important to understand the many ways we use speaking. They
include:
• Interactional function: focuses on the communication between two
or more speakers
• Transactional function: focuses on the message instead of the
speakers
• Performance function: focuses on the speaker’s ability to use
appropriate discourse to present information

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Examples of Speaking Activities
The main types of speaking activities include
• Conversations
• Small talk
• Transactions
• Discussions
• Presentations
Other activities include
• Information gap
• Think, Pair, Share
• Unscripted role plays “Untitled” bymcmurryjulie via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.
It is free to use and share.

• Problem-solving/ decision-making/debates
• Whole class and pair dictation
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Accuracy
Accuracy refers to the different aspects of English that a student
produces correctly.
• grammar, pronunciation, word choice, appropriate topics,
formality, etc.
To improve accuracy teachers can do the following:
• Ask students to repeat what he or she said to see if they notice
an error
• Repeat the student’s discourse but with the correction
• Ask other students to correct the error
• Suggest that the sentence contains an error
• Indicate the error
• Point to where the language needs to be improved
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Fluency
Fluency is a speaker’s ability to produce language naturally (without
many interruptions), so that their message is understood. In teaching
fluency the focus is on meaning.

To improve fluency teachers can do the following:

• Ask students to engage in discussions over a period of time
• Have students respond to questions in a quick time frame
• Instruct students to use conversational practices such as turn-
taking and responding

Both accuracy and fluency are important to teach, however it is

necessary to find a balance between them.
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
 Teaching Speaking

Determine goals Choose suitable Think about other

• Fluency based? classroom activities factors that have to
• Accuracy based? • Match your goals with be considered when
activities that produce administering
desired outcomes speaking activity

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
 What What other
language
materials are
support will
needed?
What stages be needed?
What are the
should the expectations
activity be
for students?
divided into?

How will
How will it be
feedback be
modeled?
given?

Issues to
Focus of consider when How will
activity designing students be
speaking assessed?
activities

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Teaching Implications for Speaking
• Focus on fluency and accuracy
• Motivate students’ by including their goals and interests
• Use authentic language in meaningful situations
• Provide appropriate feedback and correction
• Maximize link between listening and speaking
• Give students the opportunity to speak
• Develop speaking strategies
• Create a safe classroom environment where students are
comfortable talking and listen respectfully

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
In the next section of this module, we will look at sample
activities that you can do in your classrooms to teach
speaking.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
References (Copyright)
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

• Brown, H.D. (2007). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy (3rd Ed.). White
Plains, NY: Pearson Education.
• Brown, G., and Yule, G. (1983). Teaching the spoken language, Cambridge..
• Davies, P. (2008). Success in English teaching. London: Oxford University Press.
• Harmer, J. (2007). How to teach English. Edinburgh: Pearson Longman.
• Richards, J.C. (2008). Teaching listening and speaking: From theory to practice. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
• Morley, J. (2002). Aural comprehension Instruction: principles and practicies. In M. Celce-Murcia. Teaching
English as a second or foreign language, 3rd Edition. Boston, MA: Longman.
• Nunan, D. (Ed.) (2003). Practical English language teaching. McGraw Hill.
• Mubarak A.T.Z. (2009). Helping teachers increase student talking time. In S. Borg (Ed.) Understanding
English language teaching and learning in Oman, p. 73-80. Sultanate of Oman: Ministry of Education.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
5.4.1 Lesson Activity Development: Teaching
Speaking

“Untitled (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.” bymcmurryjulie (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.
via Pixabay (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. is licensed under a Pixabay (Links to an external site.)Links to an external
site. License (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.. It is free to use and share.

Overview
In our previous lectures we mentioned Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) as a modern
approach to teaching languages. Communicative activities increase language use by making sure
that all students participate and communicate. One way to think about teaching skills is to group
them into different genres or categories and then look at specific activities that can be used to
teach a specific category of speaking skills. Richards (2015) discusses the following categories
of speaking skills: small talk, conversations, transactions, discussions, and presentations. Let's
examine how we can successfully teach small talk, conversations, and transactions by using the
CLT. Let's look at some specific examples of speaking activities that can be used to teach these
speaking genres and skills while providing students opportunities to interact and be socially
active.

Information Gap Activities

These are partner activities where students try to complete a task or obtain answers when they
are missing information. Each student has only half of the information they need, and their
partner has the other half. Students must take turns asking questions to complete the activity.
Information Gap Activities:

• Require communication
• Maximize participation
• Scaffolds production
• Practice grammar patterns , (i.e. change a sentence into a question, Where is? How much
is?)
• May focus on Speaking and Listening
• May integrate all four skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing)
73
Here is a sample script for an information gap activity:

Student A
Student B
1. Dolphins can live up to years.
1. Dolphins can live up to 50 years.
(How many....?)
2. Dolphins (sometimes/often/never) chew their
2. Dolphins never chew their food.
own food. (Do dolphins?)
3. There are more than species of
3. There are more than 40 species of dolphins.
dolphins.
4. Some dolphins can swim at per hour.
(How many....?)
(How fast?)
4. Some dolphins can swim at 20 miles per
hour.
5. Dolphins can migrate if they do not have
enough food.
5. Dolphins can if they do not have
enough food.
6. Dolphins are very animals.
(What do dolphins do?)
(What kind?)
6. Dolphins are very intelligent animals.

"Dolphin Information Gap" by University of Maryland Baltimore County is licensed under CC BY 4.0 (Links to an external site.)Links to an
external site.for use in the AE E-teacher program sponsored by the U.S.Department of State

Fluency Circles
A fluency circle or “inside- outside” circle that allows all students to participate in speaking and
listening activities by positioning them in as seen in the photo below.

Fluency circles are organized this way:

• Students form a circle.

• They count off by 1’s and 2’s.
• 1's takes one step forward into the circle and turn around to face a partner (2's).
• Students speak and listen based on teacher prompts.
• Then the inside circle takes two steps to the right to say hello to a new partner (teacher
may vary how many steps they take).
• If there is an odd number of participants, the teacher participates.

74
“Fluency Circle" by University of the Maryland Baltimore County is licensed under CC BY 4.0 Links to an external site.for use in the AE E-
Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State.

Here is a sample of a fluency circle activity:

• Students form an inside and an outside circle.

• Teacher says: '1’s you are going to be listeners, you will retell someone else what your
partner said.
• 2’s tell your partner (use one prompt,) like: “one way to exercise” or “ask one question
you have about exercising” or “tell about a time you last exercised”.
• After a few minutes, teacher signals to stop (e.g., clap, call and response).
• 1’s move “2 steps” to the right to their new partner and retells them what their previous
partner said and adds to it.
• This continues using different questions related to the content.This activity can be used
during the introduction, throughout the lesson, and after the lesson.
• Students returning from this task may do some reflective writing based on questions or
discussions with their peers.

Why are fluency circles effective?

Often participation is limited to only a few students who raise their hand. This structure insures
that all students speak and listen.

• Students must use language authentically.

• If one partner's task is to listen, he or she has time to think.
• Students use different grammatical structures and active listening when engaging in
fluency circles.

75
 “Untitled (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.” by OpenClipart-Vectors (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.
via Pixabay (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. is licensed under a Pixabay (Links to an external site.)Links to an external

site. License (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.. It is free to use and shared.

Cooperative Learning Structures

Cooperative Learning Structures provides opportunities for interactive learning that:
• Foster student engagement
• Maximize participating
• Allow for collaboration
• Can be used with ANY content
• Motivate learners by providing social interaction and the opportunity to be active
• Supports students at different levels

Examples of Cooperative Learning structures include:

Think-Pair-Share: Think-pair-share is a collaborative learning strategy that requires students to
work together to answer a question or to solve a problem. During this activity, students:

• (Think) Students listen to a question about the text or topic and 'think' about what they
know or what they have learned about this topic.
• (Pair) Students form pairs or groups
• (Share) Students share their responses with their partner or groups. They can also share
with the whole class as part of a class discussion.

Additional Optional Resources:

Please review these short resource pages for additional ideas and examples of how to engage
your learners in speaking activities.

1. Making Speaking Fun

To view "Making Speaking Fun" click here

Explore two types of activities (i.e., 'Mystery Box', and 'Find Someone Who..') that you can use
to engage your learners. American English. Teachers' Corner: Making Speaking Fun.

76
https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/week_2_activity.pdf (Links to an
external site.)

2. Scaffolding to Support Language Production

To view "Scaffolding to Support Language Production click here

Explore three types of activities (i.e., 'Sentence Starters and Frames', 'Word Banks and Word
Walls', 'Think-Pair-Share') that you can use in your classroom to practice speaking. American
English. Teacher's Corner: Supporting Language Production.

https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/september_teachers_corner_week_4_fin
al_1.pdf (Links to an external site.)

3. Key Issues in Language Teaching Summary (From Richards, 2015).

To view the summary of Key Issues in Language Teaching click here

This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Read a summary of types of speaking activities based on Richards, J. (2015). Key Issues in
Language Teaching. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

77
5.4.2 Reading: Reciprocal Teaching: A Useful Tool for
Increasing Student Talking Time
Read this article published by American English (Links to an external site.)Links to an
external site.. A study guide is provided below.

"Reciprocal Teaching: A useful tool for increasing student talking time"

For a study guide of the Vela Izquierdo article click here.

Reciprocal Teaching is an effective method that allows students to maximize their speaking
time during class. This method involves various techniques that teachers can implement in
order to increase talk time between teachers and students, and also students to students.
Overall, by using this method, teachers are encouraging students to not only practice
language, but also master it fluently and communicatively.
Please read and reflect on this article. Consider how it might connect to your own teaching
context. You will discuss these ideas and your own connections in the Module 5 discussion.

78
Vela Izquierdo, Felipe A. (2004). Practical Tips for Increasing Listening Practice
Time. English Teaching Forum, 42(2), 20-25.
https://americanenglish.state.gov/resources/english-teaching-forum-2004-volume-42-
number-2#child-480
79
A. Felipe Vela Izquierdo
P ERU

Reciprocal
Teaching:
A USEFUL TOOL
IN
INCREASING
STUDENT-TALKING TIME

R ECIPROCAL TEACHING (RT), A STRATEGY THAT ATTEMPTS TO ESTABLISH AN ACTIVE

and relatively expanded dialog between teacher and students and among stu-

dents themselves, is gaining importance in educational circles. Pioneer RT

researchers Palincsar and Brown (1984) developed this strategy to reinforce
comprehension in L1 and ESL reading classes. Because of its success, it soon
began to be applied to other areas of study. The purpose of this article is to
demonstrate how the principles underlying RT can be effectively used to
increase student-talking time in the L2 classroom, and thereby improve their
communicative competence in the target language.

When RT is used, the classroom is not a one-way street, in which the teacher
maintains strict control of the environment, but rather a two-way street that
allows active participation by students. In such a classroom, the teacher assumes
the role of facilitator and monitor, and students are encouraged to perform

20 A P R I L 2 0 0 4 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
actively in cadence with the teacher and/or could simply say “Nothing!” Such a response
among themselves. Students are given a solid provides no details; it merely responds to the
opportunity to improve their communicative question in as brief a way as possible. Clearly,
competence in the target language because they teachers need to prompt students to produce
have the openings they need to talk in class. longer utterances if they are to be effective
Among the procedures that RT utilizes to communicators, and they need to help listen-
promote this desired teacher-student (T-S), ers get a clearer idea of what is expected of
student-teacher (S-T), and student-student them. They can do so by beckoning the stu-
(S-S) exchange are such well-known tactics as dent, by word or gesture, to give a long-turn
paraphrasing, reported speech, and question answer, such as: “Uh… I went to the movies
formation. In conjunction with these tactics, I with some friends. We saw a terrific movie and
refer in this article to a procedure called con- after the show, we had something to eat.”
cept-checking, which is not as well known, Producing long-turns is part and parcel of RT.
and provide examples of it. Of course, short-turn answers can also be
legitimate responses. However, from an instruc-
The vocabulary of RT tional point of view, they neither further com-
In RT theory the terms long-turn and short- municative competence nor allow the target
turn are often used. A short-turn, often language to become properly rooted in the stu-
referred to as language for informational purpos- dent’s mind. If students are to make progress in
es, is a markedly abbreviated exchange between a foreign language, they need to be trained to
persons. A long-turn, often referred to as lan- produce utterances that engage them in a con-
guage for transactional purposes, is an extended sistent fluent dialog. This requires effort and
conversation involving a series of exchanges. practice, but the results will be greater fluency
Brown and Yule (1983, 16–17) describe the and retention for the student.
distinction: “A short-turn consists of only one The next part of this paper focuses on the
or two utterances, a long-turn consists of a procedures that RT uses: paraphrasing, report-
string of utterances which may last as long as ed speech, question formation, and concept-
an hour’s lecture…. [W]hat is demanded of a checking.
speaker in a long-turn is considerably more.”
Paraphrasing
The researchers point out that the long-turn
speaker takes responsibility for creating a The ability to paraphrase is an alternative to
“structured sequence of utterances” that using direct quotations when you want to use
enable the listener to “create a coherent men- someone else’s ideas. When you paraphrase,
tal representation” of what the speaker is try- you state an author’s thoughts in your own
ing to say. Brown and Yule (1983, 19) stress words through the use of synonymous words
that training students to produce short-turns or equivalent phrases. In the language class-
“will not automatically yield students who can room this ability is practiced when the teacher
perform satisfactorily in long-turns.” The asks a student to paraphrase what a classmate
point is, teachers should do all they can to just said or what the teacher just explained.
encourage students to produce complete sen- From my experience as an EFL teacher, I have
tences rather than short utterances. learned that encouraging my students to para-
Through the use of paraphrasing, reported phrase is not an easy undertaking. However,
speech, question formation and concept-check- with practice, the students made notable
ing, students learn to find synonymous expres- progress. The following sample dialogue shows
sions or substitutes, practice relaying informa- how paraphrasing in RT can be used.
tion, and familiarize themselves with the Teacher: Let’s talk about holidays or festi-
structuring of questions. The teacher makes vals in our country. What’s an
certain that the instructions or concepts have important holiday or festival in
been understood. When the teacher asks a Peru, Karina?
question such as “Did you have a good week- Student: Well, for me it’s Independence
end?” students tend to give short responses, that Day.
is, a short-turn such as “Yes” or “No.” Likewise, Teacher: Tell us what you know about this
if a teacher asks, “What did you do?” a student holiday.

A P R I L 2 0 0 4
E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M 21
 Student: OK. July 28 is the day when Teacher: Carlos, what did I ask Elsa?
Peruvians celebrate Independence Carlos: You asked her what she was plan-
Day. On that day all houses have ning to do.
a flag on the roof, and many peo-
This sample dialogue shows how a one-on-
ple go out with their families to
one interchange can serve to involve other
visit historical spots such as the
members of the class. The use of reported
Main Square.
speech could present a problem for students in
Teacher: Thanks. Juan, can you say in a basic program, particularly if they were not
your own words what Karina just yet exposed to the needed structures. In such a
explained to the class? situation, the use of prompts on the board can
Student: Sure. On July 28 Peruvians help ease students into making acceptable
remember Independence Day. responses. For example:
On that day they have a flag on
Teacher: Where does your husband work,
the roof of their houses and fam-
Teresa?
ilies like to visit historical places,
Teresa: He works in a bank.
for example, the Main Square.
Teacher: María, what did Teresa say about
This dialog demonstrates how the long- her husband?
turn facilitates T-S, S-T, and S-S exchanges.
Prompt on the chalkboard:
Student-talking time is increased. Someone
She just said that…
might claim that this is mere repetition. Far
from being so, paraphrasing requires students María: She just said that he works in a
to cope with vocabulary items and structural bank.
forms in order to present the same informa- Here, the student only had to repeat what
tion in a different way. It gives students the her classmate had said. True, this is an ele-
opportunity to participate actively and apply mentary example; however, any enterprising
their own personal touch. Since students first teacher can find ways to facilitate the use of
have to grasp what is expressed, listening com- more complex forms. Here is where the wise
prehension is also practiced. use of prompts, whatever their format or
source, can help ensure that the objective of a
Reported speech lesson is met.
Many teachers find that helping students
learn how to use reported speech is difficult; I Question formation
agree. It is not easy for students to change a Learning how to structure questions is a
direct statement, question, or command into complex endeavor because the word order that
an indirect one. Again, practice is the remedy, underlies questions has its own logic. This can
and RT gives students the practice they need to become a perplexing challenge for students. I
accomplish this. T-S, S-T, and S-S exchanges have discovered that RT has helped my stu-
provide immediate opportunities to practice dents deal with the complexity of question for-
reported speech. At any given moment, the mation by prodding them to form their own
teacher can ask a student to report to the class questions in long-turn discourse with their
what a fellow student or the teacher has just peers. A casual perusal of ESL/EFL classrooms
expressed. An example: reveals that it is the teacher who asks most of
Teacher: What are you planning to do on the questions, thereby unnecessarily increasing
your vacation, Alcides? teacher-talking time. As a result, students are
deprived of the opportunity to become profi-
Alcides: I’m going to Cuzco with my cient in question-making, a necessary real
friends.
world skill. Two examples show how this can
Teacher: What did Alcides say, Elsa? be done. The first is applicable to a basic class,
Elsa: He said that he was going to the second to an intermediate one.
Cuzco with his family. Course: Basic 1
Teacher: And what are you planning to do? Function: Asking for and giving information
Elsa: I’m staying in Lima. about age.

E N G L I S H
F
22 A P R I L 2 0 0 4 T E A C H I N G O R U M
 Teacher: Oscar, how old are you? describe instructions that were given. Compre-
Oscar: I’m 15 years old. hension checks can take on different formats:
Teacher: Oscar, ask Sandra how old she is. students can repeat the information, summa-
Oscar: How old are you, Sandra? rize it, or paraphrase it.
Sandra: I’m 17 years old. By using comprehension checks, we can be
sure that our instructions are understood and
Teacher: Choose another person, Sandra. at the same time give students added practice
Sandra: OK, how old are you, Pedro? in the use of effective language. For example,
Course: Intermediate 5 students can be asked to paraphrase or sum-
Function: Making recommendations. marize recent information about the differ-
Teacher: Carmen, ask a classmate how ence between the simple past and the past
schools can be improved. continuous in this manner: “Now that you
Carmen: José, how can schools be know the difference between the simple past
and the past continuous, and you have done
improved? some exercises, what is your understanding of
José: I think computers should be pur- the distinction between these two tenses?”
chased for all students. This procedure can be particularly profitable
Teacher: Gladys, ask José a follow-up when students are engaged in pair or group
question. work. Too often such work degenerates into a
Gladys: How will schools afford to buy feckless exercise. Monitoring student compre-
those computers? hension is an excellent way to remedy this. At
José: Schools ought to try to get fund- different intervals the teacher can ask: “What
ing from companies or the local are you doing now?” or “What did your part-
government. ner just tell you?” In fact, after the task is com-
The examples above are brief, but they sug- pleted, the teacher can say: “Tell me what you
have done.”
gest what can be done with RT. What is
important to note is that the students them- Axioms to teach by
selves structure the questions. The teacher sets It is useful to examine the role of the
up the conversation in such a way that ques- teacher in RT in greater detail. Below I enu-
tions have to be asked and responded to by the merate several axioms fundamental to the
students. The teacher remains the guiding and technique. Inherent in all of them is the
facilitating force, but the talking-time is the notion that the teacher plays the role of facili-
province of the students. To insure success, the tator and monitor, helping the students per-
level of the students must be taken into form their tasks and checking on the dynam-
account. A lesson should not be beyond the ics of their interactions.
competence of the students.
Axiom 1: Step back
Concept-checking Teachers have to keep in mind that the stu-
Students should be cognizant of the impli- dents are to be given the control of the activi-
cations of the lesson and understand the instruc- ties, but always under the teachers’ guidance
tions they are given to complete a task. Here is and supervision.
where concept-checking becomes important Axiom 2: Say the whole sentence
in the language classroom. After giving and At least a complete sentence and preferably
modeling instructions, teachers can ask their an extended dialog (long-turn) should be
students to verbalize them. RT utilizes this sought on the part of the students. This will
routine to heighten the students’ attention better inure students with the language ele-
and comprehension. How many times have ments than would be the case with a short
we asked students if they understand a lesson answer (short-turn).
only to receive the invariable response, “Yes”? Axiom 3: Teach the language of the classroom
Our question should rather be: “What is it Learners need to become familiar with the
that you understand?” Students will then be language that the teacher uses and the lan-
expected to verbalize the content of a lesson or guage they can use as students. If the students

A P R I L 2 0 0 4
E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M 23
 are beginners, the necessary expressions can be This technique allows us to monitor levels of
written as prompts on the board or wall. For understanding of the task or procedure before
example, the teacher might use one or more of (“What do you have to do?”), during (“What
the following expressions: are you doing?”) and after an activity (“What
• Could you read the next question? have you done?”). Students also learn to listen
to their neighbors attentively, learn reciprocal-
• Would you mind answering the question? ly, and become more active in the learning
• Will you tell us what you think?
process.
• Open your books to page .
Students are likely to find the following Possible reservations
expressions useful: Most teachers acknowledge that RT is a
• What does mean? useful tool for increasing student-talking time.
• Please repeat your question, sir. However, some teachers object to all the time
spent on paraphrasing, reported speech, ques-
• I didn’t understand the last point.
tion formation, and concept-checking and the
Of course, many more expressions could be energy they must expend to ensure that these
added on either side. Be aware that the natural techniques are executed properly. Teachers
tendency to use the native language is a danger may feel frustrated and dismayed by what they
that can plague a classroom. Teachers might perceive as inadequate responses from stu-
insist on the use of the target language for class- dents. In turn, students could lose confidence
room chatter, but they still need to provide stu- in themselves or feel threatened if they fail to
dents with facilitating cues when necessary. carry through on the instructions that are
Axiom 4: I teach you given. These are clearly undesirable sequels
At the beginning of a task, clarify the and should be countered.
objective of the activity or the procedure; then There is no doubt that RT can become
model the directions. time-consuming, but only if it is overused.
Axiom 5: You teach me Teachers should gradually and judiciously
When the students are instructed and introduce the technique into the classroom,
shown what to do, ensure comprehension of giving students a clear idea of the rationale
behind RT. Once students appreciate its
the procedures by asking different students to importance, they are more likely to be willing
verbalize the information:
to engage in the exercises, particularly when
• “What is the objective of the activity?” they see results. I use the word judiciously
• “Are you going to work in pairs or because teachers should be careful not to sig-
in groups?” nificantly exceed the current level of compe-
• “What do you have to do?” tence of the class. Krashen and Terrell’s (1983)
Teachers can also ask students to paraphrase “input + 1” dictum in their hypothesis on
questions they just answered and pose them to Comprehensible Input is decidedly valid in RT.
somebody else: “Now ask one of your neigh- Students should not feel overwhelmed or they
bors the same question.” They can also have will fail to communicate. Teachers must
students paraphrase definitions: “Now that I always make ready use of prompts. This tallies
have defined it for you, what’s the meaning of with the supportive role that they have as facil-
token?” The same can be done with explana- itators. The chalkboard is one visual aid that is
tions: “What are If clauses?” at the immediate service of the teacher. With
Axiom 6: We teach each other practice, students will become less dependent
Students can share our role by asking their on prompts. Indeed, practice cannot be
peers similar questions: neglected, since students perform in propor-
tion to the practice that is given.
• “What did the teacher explain to
the class?” Conclusion
• “What is your group’s conclusion?” It is important that student-talking time be
• “Are you finished, or do you need maximized and teacher-talking time be used
more time?” strategically to provide students with the open-

A E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
24 P R IL 2 0 0 4
ings they need to communicate with the conversational English. New York: Cambridge
teacher and among themselves with long-turn University Press.
utterances. Reciprocal Teaching has been engi- Krashen, S. and T. D. Terrell. 1983. The natural
neered specifically to accomplish such a goal. It approach. New York: Pergamon Press.
has proven to be an effective way to substan- Palincsar, A. S. and A. Brown. 1984. Reciprocal
tially increase student-talking time. It should teaching of comprehension-fostering and com-
prehension-monitoring activities. Cognition
become a key tool in the teacher’s repertoire as
and Instruction, 1 (2):117–175.
a way to help students internalize language and
improve their communicative competence in
the world outside the classroom. A. FELIPE VELA IZQUIERDO is an EFL teacher
at the Instituto Cultural Peruano Norteamer-
References icano (ICPNA) in Lima, Peru. He has been
Brown, G. and G. Yule. 1983. Teaching the spoken teaching English for five years and has pub-
language: An approach based on the analysis of lished bilingual stories.
 An AE E-Teacher Study Guide for:
Reciprocal Teaching: A Useful Tool for Increasing Student Talk Time
Article by A. Felipe Vela Izquierdo,

From English Language Teaching Forum, 2004, Volume 42, Number 2 Retrieved 28 January
2018 from:
https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/04-42-2-h.pdf

Overview

Reciprocal teaching (RT) is a strategy that teachers can use to encourage students to actively
speak. This method decreases talk time for the teacher and maximizes talk time for students.
The teacher acts as a facilitator of conversation as opposed to a teacher. There are many
procedures involved in reciprocal teaching which help increase interaction in student - student
conversations and student - teacher conversations. These methods include:

• Vocabulary used
• Paraphrasing
• Reported speech
• Question formation
• Concept checking

The Vocabulary of RT

Teachers and students can use both short turn and long turn language to interact in the
classroom. Language that is short and only used for informational purposes in the classroom is
referred to as short turn language. Language that is used to exchange information in
conversation is referred to as long turn language. It is recommended that teachers encourage
students to promote long turn language, or language where students are producing complete
sentences, in order to better communicate automatically in conversations. This can be done by
gesturing or asking the student in a few words to continue their explanation by using long-turn
language.

Here is an example of a student being prompted to use long-turn language.

Teacher: Did you have a good weekend?

Student: Yes.
Teacher: What did you do?
©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). An AE E-Teacher Study Guide for: Reciprocal Teaching: A
Useful Tool for Increasing Student Talk Time for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of State
and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where
noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and
delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
Student: Nothing
Teacher gestures to explain their answer more.
Student: Uh, I went to the movies with some friends. We saw a terrific movie and after the
show we had something to eat.
A teacher’s motion to further the conversation allows the student more talking time and
encourages fluency and language retention.

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing means to say or write someone else’s ideas using your own words. By asking
students to paraphrase their classmates ideas or what their classmates say in class, students
have more opportunities to speak and participate. Students also have the ability to think of
synonyms, or words that have similar meanings, further increasing their vocabulary.

Reported Speech

Similar to paraphrasing, students can also practice reported speech to relay information that
their classmates have recently stated. In reported speech, language is changed from a direct
statement or question to a reported on by changing verb tenses. This might be difficult for
students because it involves grammar, however, it can be seen as good practice for speaking. In
lower-level classes, teachers can write prompts on the board to help students with reported
speech.

Question Formation

Usually, teachers ask the majority of question during class. Teachers can also instruct students
to ask their peers questions during long turn conversations.

• Basic courses: the teacher asks the student a question. The student answers, chooses
another student, and asks another student the same question.
• Intermediate courses: the teacher instructs a student to ask a specific question to another
student. After the student responds, the teacher asks another student to ask a follow up
question to the first student.

It is important to take into account the level of students in order to provide the appropriate
scaffolding.

Concept Checking

Concept checking is when a teacher asks students to repeat the instructions for an assignment
after they are given. This method checks students’ comprehension and attention. Students can

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI

360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
repeat, summarize or paraphrase the information. Concept checking can not only be used to
check comprehension of instructions, but also to ensure understanding of grammar concepts
and to summarize progress on an assignment.

How to Ensure Success with RT

For reciprocal teaching to work effectively, teachers must take the following steps in the
classroom:
• Step back to give students control of speaking.
• Encourage students to say the whole sentence to ensure that students understand various
language elements.
• Teach the language of the classroom so that students understand what they are being
asked to do. • Give instructions by modeling the task.
• Instruct students to verbalize the instructions after they have heard them to ensure
comprehension.
• Ask students to check the comprehension of their peers by asking peers about instructions
and other course concepts.

Possible Reservations

Engaging in this type of discourse could present difficulties for both the teacher and the
students. Teachers may feel underwhelmed with the level of responses that the students give,
thus making students feel less than confident about speaking. It is also quite time consuming
and could become repetitive. To avoid these challenges, teachers should slowly introduce the
technique to students. As students feel more comfortable, they will start to get comfortable
with the amount of speaking they are being asked to produce. Teachers can also utilize prompts
to help students with more complex language. These can also be slowly removed from the
classroom once students gain knowledge.

Conclusion

Student talk time should be increased in the classroom to provide students with enough
opportunities to develop fluency in the classroom. Reciprocal teaching allows students to
practice language more in the classroom so that they can perform with competence outside of
the classroom.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI

360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
References (Copyright):
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Brown, G. and G. Yule. 1983. Teaching the spoken language: An approach based on the analysis
of conversational English. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Krashen, S. and T. D. Terrell. 1983. The natural approach. New York: Pergamon Press.

Palincsar, A. S. and A. Brown. 1984. Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and

comprehension-monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction, 1 (2):117–175.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI

360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
5.5 Quiz: Teaching Listening and Speaking Skills

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Quiz Instructions
Now that you have had a chance to read and reflect on teaching listening and speaking and
on creating various activities, try and match concepts with their meaning. Take the quiz to
test yourself!
This quiz is graded and it is worth 10 points. You are allowed multiple attempts to
complete this quiz. You must earn at least 7 points to unlock the next page.
This quiz should be completed online.

89
5.6 Lecture: Error Treatment

“Untitled (Links to an external site.).” by Mohammed Hassan (Links to an external site.) (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. Is
licenced via Pixabay (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. is licensed under a Pixabay (Links to an external site.)Links to an
external site. License (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.. It is free to use and share.

Overview
The question of when and how or whether to correct errors in students' speech is one of
the most frequently asked questions by and of the English language teachers. In the end,
everyone develops their own approach to error correction and treatment based on their
own teaching philosophy.
Often, as teachers we know what to correct, as spoken errors are immediately apparent
when our students are speaking. The question becomes when to correct, and how to
correct those errors.

When to Correct Errors

Correcting every error students make is time consuming, and it can lead to some negative
consequences:

• Students may develop a fear of making mistakes and stop speaking so not to be corrected.
• Students may loose concentration or flow of thought if corrected mid-sentence.

90
On the other hand, not correcting students may also lead to some negative consequences:

• Students may not realize they are making mistakes, and, therefore, not improve their speaking
skills.

It is important that teachers find some middle ground on when to correct spoken errors.
You may consider doing it when:

• The meaning of what one is trying to say is unclear.

• The student needs correction before he or she can continue.
• The error is common to several learners in the class.

You can also consider doing immediate correction or delayed error correction.
Immediate error correction is recommended when the focus is on accuracy. Delayed error
correction is recommended when the focus is on fluency.

How to Correct Errors

Below are examples of six common error correction strategies. Please read them and
reflect on how often you use them in your own classrooms.
Explicit error correction is used when the teacher states an error and corrects it.
Example:
Student: I drinked milk for breakfast this morning.
Teacher: We don’t say “drinked,” we say “drank.”
Recast is used when the teacher says it correctly but keeps the flow going.
Example:
Student: I speaked to Karen yesterday.
Teacher: Oh, you spoke to her yesterday?
Clarification request is used when a student makes a mistake and a teacher asks a
clarification question in order to point the mistake out.
Student: She teached that lesson yesterday.
Teacher: Excuse me, she taught what lesson?
Metalinguistic feedback is used when a teacher asks a student to reflect on a particular
grammar rule.
Student: I taked a test yesterday.
Teacher: Is taked the past tense of take?
Elicitation is used when a teacher encourages a student to provide a response.
Student: Yesterday with friends I saw a ummm….
Teacher: What do we call a video on a big screen?
Repetition is used when a teacher repeats an error so a student can hear it and self-
correct.

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Student: I seed it yesterday.
Teacher: You seed it?

Conclusion
There are multiple ways to correct spoken errors. The timing of error treatment and the
specific approach to it should be carefully considered. Every teacher should determine
what works for his or her particular students and what agrees with his or her teaching
philosophy.

References (Copyrighted)
Correcting Spoken English. In How to Teach English. Retrieved from
http://www.icaltefl.com/error-correction (Links to an external site.)
Lyster, R. & Ranta, L. (1997). Corrective feedback and learner uptake: Negotiation of form
in communicative classrooms. Cambridge University Press, published online. Volume 19-1.

92
 Error Treatment

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). Error Treatment PPT for the American English E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the
U.S Department of State, with funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
 In this presentation we will discuss
spoken error correction and error correction strategies.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Rationale for Error Correction
• Error correction is part of the teaching and learning process.
• If error correction is done correctly, it helps students discover
knowledge and follow their unique individual learning paths.
• Over-correction/ poor correction techniques can be demotivating
for learners. They may lead to learners loosing interest in learning
and speaking the language.
It is important that teachers make good decisions about what, when
and how to correct errors to be able to best assist their learners in
acquiring speaking skills (Loewen, 2007).

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
What Errors to Correct?

Fluency vs. Accuracy

• Speaking English with a high level of accuracy means to speak
correctly, with very few mistakes.
• Speaking English with a high level of fluency means to speak easily,
quickly and with few pauses.
• Ideally, one would speak both accurately and fluently, but it takes
time to practice. Teachers can focus on either fluency or accuracy in
different speaking activities. It depends on the purpose of the
activity and learner’s proficiency level.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
When to Correct Errors?

Fluency: In communicative language teaching, we should

first value the meaning and message learners produce.

Focus on errors that effect the meaning of the message.

Accuracy: When students are practicing new words or trying

to improve pronunciation, you might correct more specific
errors, based on what they are learning.
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Some Error Correction Techniques:

Use body language. For example, make a ‘T’ with fingers to

illustrate missing ‘the’ or cross hands over to show wrong
word order (Mumford & Darn, 2005)
“Untitled” by ProSmile via pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.
Use facial expressions. For example, raise your eyebrow, It is free to use and share.

tilt your head, give a slight frown

Repeat what they are saying wrong to give students an
opportunity to correct themselves (Nunan, 2003).
Say it the right way and give students an opportunity to
repeat the correct language.
Point at correct language. Have grammar rules, vocabulary, “Untitled” by TukTukDesign via pixabay is licensed under
It is free to use and share.
a Pixabay License.

or structure written on the board and point out to them if a

student is making a mistake.
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funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
 How to Correct Errors After Your Students
are Done Speaking?
Collect errors for later, write them down. You can use
them later in the same class and engage students in
correcting errors.
Give and use grammar rules to point to errors. This
works well when students know the rules and can “Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.
identify it. It is free to use and share.

Ask to try it again. Often students will do better on a

second try, after they had a chance to think about
their errors.
Record student presentations and speeches and ask
students to identify and correct their own mistakes.
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
 Conclusion
Listening and speaking in English are
equally important for effective
communication. They are not only
language skills; they are life
communication skills.

“If speaking is silver, then listening is

gold.” (Turkish Proverb) “Untitled” by Free-Photos via pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.
It is free to use and share.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
References (Copyrighted)
• Loewen, S. (2007). Error correction in the second language classroom. CLEAR News, Volume 11, Issue 2,
Fall 2007. Retrieved from http://clear.web.cal.msu.edu/wp-
• Mumford, S. & Darn, S. (2005). Classroom management: Speaking correction techniques. Retrieved from
• Richards, J.C. (2008). Teaching listening and speaking: From theory to practice. New York: Cambridge
University Press.

content/uploads/sites/22/2018/10/Fall_2007_Newsletter- Error_correction.pdf

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

management-speaking-correction-techniques/146455.article
funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
• Nunan, D. (Ed.) (2003). Practical English language teaching. by FHI 360McGraw Hill.
5.6.1 Quiz: Error Treatment

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to use and share.

Quiz Instructions
Now that you have had a chance to read and reflect on error correction and treatment, try
and match concepts with their meaning. Take the quiz to test yourself!
This quiz is graded and it is worth 10 points. You are allowed multiple attempts to
complete this quiz. You must earn at least 7 points to unlock the next page.
This quiz should be completed online.

100
5.7 Culture Spotlight: Interaction in the EFL
Classroom

“Cultural Spotlight icon” by Tiera Day for University of Maryland Baltimore County is licensed under CC BY 4.0 (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. for use in the AE E-
Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State.

Creating Classroom Communities and

Interaction in the EFL Classroom
Directions:
Read the instructions to creating classroom communities and interactions in the EFL
classroom. As you read, think about interactions in your own classrooms and how cultural
norms affect your classroom interactions. Try some of these suggestions in your next class.

Introduction
Learning is a collaborative process; therefore, creating classroom communities that
promote positive interactions between students and teachers is very important. Such
positive interactions promote our ESL or EFL students' language development.
Classroom community implies students working together to achieve common learning
goals. When students are a part of a classroom community, they feel connected to their
teacher and other students in their class. Additionally, students need to feel safe to
communicate and feel comfortable speaking in English. Therefore, facilitating ways for
students and teachers to interact becomes essential for students' success and learning.
Here are several ways how you can create classroom communities and promote interaction
in your class.
Learn students' names
Knowing students' names will show them that you care about them and about their
learning.

101
Know some facts about students' personal lives
Learn about students' families, hobbies, interests, origins, likes and dislikes. You can then
refer to some of these facts in your daily interactions, and make students feel noticed and
important.
Share facts about yourself
Let students know about yourself, your hobbies, your experiences, your adventures. They
will be able to relate to you on a personal level.
Engage in small talk
At the beginning of class, ask students about something that's new or interesting. What
they did on the weekend, etc.
Create classroom rules and expectations together
Students can help create rules and expectations for classroom behavior. It will be easier for
them to practice these rules daily if they took part in creating them. Talk to students about
these rules and how they help them learn, communicate, show respect, and stay safe.
Conduct a daily meeting
Start a class by asking students to sit in a circle or in pairs, shake hands, greet each other by
name, and share something new or interesting that happened to them the day before.
Everyone loves sharing important things. Having such meetings will help your students feel
connected.
Regularly change seating arrangements and partners
Change where your students sit regularly, even during the same class. This will allow
students an opportunity to work with many peers, and it will promote interaction and team
building.
Display student work and success
Post students' work around the classroom to showcase and model their accomplishments.
Students can ask each other questions or comment on each other's work.
Create a class web page or a blog
Students can post about their learning and life experiences and share them with their
friends and families abroad.
Create a class book
At the end of the course or semester students can create a book with their pictures and
share about their experiences in their class. You can make digital or print copies and share
them with everyone. It is great for students to keep something like this as a memory! They
can write each other messages and memories in English.

102
5.8 Optional Discussion: Communicative
Activity
5 Minute Communicative Activity
After working through the lectures, the activities, and the readings, you should be familiar
with some speaking and listening strategies, as well as the challenges learners of English
encounter when mastering their speaking and listening skills. Let's discuss how these ideas
apply to our own teaching contexts.

Directions:
Follow the following suggestions to design and share a 5 minute communicative activity.

1. Think about your own classes and students.

2. Design a 5-minute speaking activity for your students. This can be an activity that is connected
to what your students are studying. Make this activity practical and use it with your students in
the next class.
3. Name your activity and indicate what category of speaking activities it falls into (i.e., small talk,
conversations, transactions, discussions, presentations).
4. Provide an objective/goal (what language skills and functions will students use?) for your
activity and outline the steps your students need to take.
5. Briefly describe how you would assess this activity.
6. Review the rubric below for additional guidance on how to best complete this activity.
OPTIONAL: Read and respond to as many peers as you like.

5.8 Optional Discussion: Communicative Activity Rubric

Criterion Below Expectations Meets Expectations

Post presents practical activity that The activity is complex and needs
can be completed in 5 minutes. more than 5 minutes to complete. The activity is practical and can be
completed in 5 minutes.
Post provides activity name and Post provides name but not the Post provides both, the name and
category. category for the activity. the category for the activity.

Post provides activity objective and

Post provides an objective, but does Post provides both, objectives and
outlines the steps students need to
not outline the steps. specific steps students need to take.
take.

Post describes how the activity will Post does not mention the Post mentions the specific
be assessed. assessment. assessment for this activity.

103
This discussion is not graded. However, please see this self-assessment rubric for scoring
on how well you address each part of the assignment.

5.9 Reflection: Cascading New Knowledge

Survey

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Survey Instructions
Now that you are familiar with methods and approaches for teaching listening and
speaking, and also error treatment strategies, it is time to reflect on the module! Some of
the questions in this graded survey are open-ended, meaning that they require a full
answer, drawing on your own knowledge or feelings. You are encouraged to draft your
answers somewhere else, so that you can save them and revisit your thoughts later. Then,
you can copy/paste or type in your responses to the survey. This will give you a chance to
take some time to reflect on the answers. Remember, the purpose of this survey is for you
reflect on your own.
This survey is graded. You will receive 10 points after you submit it. You will NOT receive
instructor feedback on this activity.
You are allowed multiple attempts to complete this activity.
This survey must be completed online.

104
5.10 Course Wrap up
Thank you for taking the MOOC Methodology Online Course!

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Congratulations to all of you who have successfully completed out TESOL

Methods MOOC Course!
It was great to have you be part of our online learning community. During this course, we
discussed the cultural and teaching implications of English as an international language
and explored how local, target and international cultures can be drawn upon when
teaching English. You considered and tried various language teaching methods,
approaches, and principles, and learned about learner-centered teaching.
We truly appreciate your sharing your ideas, resources, and experiences with your co-
workers around the world and we hope you will continue to be a part of this online global
community of English language teachers. We also hope that you will continue sharing the
knowledge and experiences that you have gained through this course with your co-workers
and other teachers.
Once again, good luck on this wonderful and continuous journey of English Methodology
and we hope to see you in our other online courses!

105
Module 5 Check

Please answer one question to verify that you have completed all activities in Module 5. You
must choose "yes" in order to move on in the course. This quiz will count as 1 point toward your
grade.

106