Table Of Contents
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................ ii
1 Observation of V-I Characteristics of a Diode ................................................................................ 1
1.1 Corresponding CLOs and PLOs ............................................................................................. 1
1.2 Objective ................................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Equipment Used ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.4 Theory ....................................................................................................................................... 1
1.5 Precautions ................................................................................................................................ 2
1.6 Procedure .................................................................................................................................. 2
1.7 Circuit Diagram ........................................................................................................................ 2
1.8 Observations ............................................................................................................................. 3
1.8.1 Forward-Biased .................................................................................................................... 3
1.8.2 Reverse-Biased ..................................................................................................................... 3
1.9 VD vs I Graph ............................................................................................................................ 4
1.10 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 4
1.11 Rubrics ...................................................................................................................................... 5
2 Half Wave Rectification .................................................................................................................... 6
2.1 Corresponding CLOs and PLOs ............................................................................................. 6
2.2 Objective ................................................................................................................................... 6
2.3 Equipment Used ....................................................................................................................... 6
2.4 Theory ....................................................................................................................................... 6
2.5 Precautions ................................................................................................................................ 7
2.6 Procedure .................................................................................................................................. 7
2.7 Circuit Diagram ........................................................................................................................ 8
2.8 Calculations for VDC, Vp(in)rms, Vp(out) ....................................................................................... 8
2.9 Measured values ....................................................................................................................... 8
2.10 Waveform .................................................................................................................................. 9
2.10.1 Input .................................................................................................................................. 9
2.10.2 Output ............................................................................................................................... 9
2.11 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 10
2.12 Rubrics .................................................................................................................................... 11
3 Full Wave Rectification ................................................................................................................... 12
i
3.1 Corresponding CLOs and PLOs ........................................................................................... 12
3.2 Objective ................................................................................................................................. 12
3.3 Equipment Used ..................................................................................................................... 12
3.4 Theory ..................................................................................................................................... 12
3.4.1 Positive half cycle and negative cycle of input signal ...................................................... 13
3.4.2 Formulas ............................................................................................................................. 14
3.5 Precautions .............................................................................................................................. 14
3.6 Procedure ................................................................................................................................ 14
3.7 Circuit Diagram ...................................................................................................................... 14
3.8 Calculations for VDC, Vp(in)rms, Vp(out) ..................................................................................... 15
3.9 Measured Values .................................................................................................................... 15
3.10 Waveform ................................................................................................................................ 16
3.10.1 Input ................................................................................................................................ 16
3.10.2 Output ............................................................................................................................. 16
3.11 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 17
3.12 Rubrics .................................................................................................................................... 18
List of Figures
Figure 1 : V-I Characteristic curve of the P-N junction diode. .................................................................... 1
Figure 2: Output of Half Wave Rectifier ..................................................................................................... 7
Figure 3: A full bridge rectifier. ................................................................................................................. 12
Figure 4: Positive cycle of AC signal. ....................................................................................................... 13
Figure 5: Negative cycle of AC signal ....................................................................................................... 13
Figure 6: Input and output of the full bridge rectifier ................................................................................ 13
ii
Date: ____ /____ /________
1 Observation of V-I Characteristics of a Diode
1.1 Corresponding CLOs and PLOs
CLO ______, PLO ______
1.2 Objective
To understand the working of a diode in forward-biased and reverse-biased state.
1.3 Equipment Used
• Bread Board
• DC Power Supply
• Jumper Cables
• Diode
• Resistors
• Digital Multimeter
1.4 Theory
A P-N junction is an interface or a boundary between two semiconductor material types, namely
the p-type and the n-type, inside a semiconductor. In a semiconductor, the P-N junction is created
by the method of doping. The p-side or the positive side of the semiconductor has an excess of
holes, and the n-side or the negative side has an excess of electrons.VI characteristics of P-N
junction diodes is a curve between the voltage and current through the circuit.
Figure 1 : V-I Characteristic curve of the P-N junction diode.
When the P-N junction diode is in forward bias condition, the p-type is connected to the positive
terminal while the n-type is connected to the negative terminal of the external voltage. When the
diode is arranged in this manner, there is a reduction in the potential barrier. For silicone diodes,
when the voltage is 0.7 V and for germanium diodes, when the voltage is 0.3 V, the potential
barriers decrease, and there is a flow of current.
1
When the diode is in forward bias, the current increases slowly, and the curve obtained is non-
linear as the voltage applied to the diode overcomes the potential barrier. Once the diode
overcomes the potential barrier, the diode behaves normally, and the curve rises sharply as the
external voltage increases, and the curve obtained is linear.
When the P-N junction diode is in negative bias condition, the p-type is connected to the negative
terminal while the n-type is connected to the positive terminal of the external voltage. This results
in an increase in the potential barrier. Reverse saturation current flows in the beginning as minority
carriers are present in the junction.
When the applied voltage is increased, the minority charges will have increased kinetic energy
which affects the majority charges. This is the stage when the diode breaks down. This may also
destroy the diode.
1.5 Precautions
• No food or drink.
• Wear your PPE and proper lab Attire.
• Good hygiene.
• Label your workspace.
• Don't work alone.
• Stay focused and aware of your surroundings.
• Participate in safety exercises.
1.6 Procedure
1. Take a bread board and implement a diode in forward-biased and resistor in series.
2. Provide voltage at various values from the DC power supply.
3. Measure voltage across diode and resistor, then the current in the circuit with help of
DMM.
4. Now put the diode in reverse-biased.
5. Provide voltage at various values from DC power supply.
6. Measure voltage across diode and resistor, then the current in the circuit with help of
DMM.
1.7 Circuit Diagram
Forward-Biased: Reverse-Biased:
2
1.8 Observations
1.8.1 Forward-Biased
VIN (V) VD (V) VR (V) I (mA)
1.8.2 Reverse-Biased
VIN (V) VD (V) VR (V) I (mA)
3
1.9 VD vs I Graph
1.10 Conclusion
4
1.11 Rubrics
Absent Student is Student can Student has Student has Student
unable to follow understand followed constructed perfectly
the provided the provided instructions the functional/ implemented a
instructions laboratory to construct working working model/
properly. instructions the schematic/ logic/ circuit/
The student can and familiar fundamental model/ block block diagram/
name the with the lab schematic/ diagram/ code and
hardware or environment block code, and have successfully
Demonstration simulation (Trainer/ diagram/ successfully executed the lab
platform, but software/ code/ model executed the objective in
unable to IDE), but on the program/ run Realtime or in a
implement cannot protoboard/ circuit on simulation
anything implement on trainer/ software environment
practically or on the platform simulation platform and produced
the software practically or software. the desired
on the results
software
Category Ungraded Very Poor Poor Fair Good Excellent
Marks 0 1 2 3 4 5
Date Total Marks Instructor’s Signature
Report not Plagiarized Requirements Observations Appropriate Correctly
submitted content are listed and are recorded computations drawn
Laboratory presented or experimental along with or numerical conclusion
Reports incomplete procedure is detailed analysis is with exact
submission presented procedure performed results and
complete
report in all
respects
Category Ungraded Very Poor Poor Fair Good Excellent
Marks 0 1 2 3 4 5
Date Total Marks Instructor’s Signature
5
Date: ____ /____ /________
2 Half Wave Rectification
2.1 Corresponding CLOs and PLOs
CLO ______, PLO ______
2.2 Objective
To study half wave rectification using diodes and find the values of Vp (out), PIV, Vavg, Vrms.
2.3 Equipment Used
• Bread board
• Diode
• Resistor
• Function Generator
• Oscilloscope
• DMM
• Connecting wires
2.4 Theory
The rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). Dc only flows
in one direction whereas ac regularly flows in the reverse direction. The Rectifier works on the
principle of PN junction diode biasing condition. The diode offers low resistance to current flow
in one direction i.e., in forward biased condition and it offers high resistance in other direction i.e.
in reverse biased condition. The process of conversion of ac signal to dc is called rectification.
A rectifier that converts the ac signal to the dc signal by passing either a positive or negative half
cycle of the ac waveform and blocking the other half cycle is called a half wave rectifier. During
construction, a half-wave rectifier circuit uses only one diode for the rectification process. A half-
wave rectifier is a simple type of rectifier.
The working of half wave rectifier is since the diode allows the current flow only in one direction.
Thus, it converts the ac signal into a dc signal. When ac voltage is applied across the diode, the
diode conducts only on the forward biasing condition. i.e., when the anode side of the diode is
positive with respect to the cathode side.
During the positive half cycle of ac voltage, the diode comes in forward biased condition as the
anode is positive with respect to the cathode and it conducts current to a resistive load. Due to this
current flow, A voltage is developed across the load which is the same as the applied ac input
voltage of the positive half cycle.
6
Figure 2: Output of Half Wave Rectifier
During the negative half cycle of ac, the diode comes in reverse biased condition as the anode is
negative with respect to the cathode and there is no current flow through the diode. No voltage
appears across the resistive load in the negative half cycle.
!"
To take out the Vrms of an AC wave form we use this formula:
√$
!"
And for Vp(avg) =
%
And for Vp(out) = Vp(in) – Diode barrier voltage (0.7 for silicon and 0.3 for germanium)
2.5 Precautions
• No food or drink.
• Wear your PPE and proper lab Attire.
• Good hygiene.
• Label your workspace.
• Don't work alone.
• Stay focused and aware of your surroundings.
• Participate in safety exercises.
2.6 Procedure
1. Take a bread board and connect a diode in forward biased to a resistor in series.
2. Provide a 20Vp-p AC voltage from function generator.
3. Connect your oscilloscope to the circuit to observe the half wave rectification.
4. Calculate Vp(in)rms, Vp(out), VDC with help of formulas.
5. Measure Vp(in)rms, Vp(out), VDC with the help of DMM and oscilloscope.
7
2.7 Circuit Diagram
2.8 Calculations for VDC, Vp(in)rms, Vp(out)
2.9 Measured values
Vp(in)rms = ________________________
VDC = ________________________
Vp(out) = _________________________
8
2.10 Waveform
2.10.1 Input
Vp-p = 20V, f = 1KHz, V/div = 5V, Time/div = 0.5ms
2.10.2 Output
f = 1KHz, V/div = 5V, Time/div = 0.5ms
9
2.11 Conclusion
10
2.12 Rubrics
Absent Student is Student can Student has Student has Student
unable to follow understand followed constructed perfectly
the provided the provided instructions the functional/ implemented a
instructions laboratory to construct working working model/
properly. instructions the schematic/ logic/ circuit/
The student can and familiar fundamental model/ block block diagram/
name the with the lab schematic/ diagram/ code and
hardware or environment block code, and have successfully
Demonstration simulation (Trainer/ diagram/ successfully executed the lab
platform, but software/ code/ model executed the objective in
unable to IDE), but on the program/ run Realtime or in a
implement cannot protoboard/ circuit on simulation
anything implement on trainer/ software environment
practically or on the platform simulation platform and produced
the software practically or software. the desired
on the results
software
Category Ungraded Very Poor Poor Fair Good Excellent
Marks 0 1 2 3 4 5
Date Total Marks Instructor’s Signature
Report not Plagiarized Requirements Observations Appropriate Correctly
submitted content are listed and are recorded computations drawn
Laboratory presented or experimental along with or numerical conclusion
Reports incomplete procedure is detailed analysis is with exact
submission presented procedure performed results and
complete
report in all
respects
Category Ungraded Very Poor Poor Fair Good Excellent
Marks 0 1 2 3 4 5
Date Total Marks Instructor’s Signature
11
Date: ____ /____ /________
3 Full Wave Rectification
3.1 Corresponding CLOs and PLOs
CLO ______, PLO ______
3.2 Objective
To understand and implement full wave rectifier and find Vp (out), PIV, Vavg, Vrms.
3.3 Equipment Used
• Bread board
• Diode
• Resistor
• Function Generator
• Oscilloscope
• DMM
• Connecting wires
3.4 Theory
A full wave rectifier is defined as a type of rectifier that converts both halves of each cycle of an
alternating wave (AC signal) into a pulsating DC signal. Full-wave rectifiers are used to convert
AC voltage to DC voltage, requiring multiple diodes to construct. Full wave rectification is the
process of converting an AC signal to a DC signal.
Circuits that convert alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC) are known as rectifiers. If
such rectifiers rectify both the positive and negative half cycles of an input alternating waveform,
the rectifiers are full-wave rectifiers.
Full-wave rectifiers achieve this by using a group of diodes. A diode permits current in one
direction only and blocks the current in the other direction. We use this principle to construct
various rectifiers.
Figure 3: A full bridge rectifier.
12
3.4.1 Positive half cycle and negative cycle of input signal
When an AC signal is applied across the bridge rectifier, terminal A becomes positive during the
positive half cycle while terminal B becomes negative. This results in diodes D1 and D3 becoming
forward biased while D2 and D4 becoming reverse biased.
The current flow during the positive half-cycle is shown in the figure below:
Figure 4: Positive cycle of AC signal.
During the negative half-cycle, terminal B becomes positive while terminal A becomes negative.
This causes diodes D2 and D4 to become forward biased and diode D1 and D3 to be reverse biased.
The current flow during the negative half cycle is shown in the figure below:
Figure 5: Negative cycle of AC signal
Thus, the input from the AC source and the output on the load resistor will be shown as:
Figure 6: Input and output of the full bridge rectifier
13
3.4.2 Formulas
!"
To take out the Vrms of an AC wave form we use this formula:
√$
$!"
And for Vp(avg) =
%
And for Vp(out) = Vp(in) – 2*Diode barrier voltage (0.7 for silicon and 0.3 for germanium)
3.5 Precautions
• No food or drink.
• Wear your PPE and proper lab Attire.
• Good hygiene.
• Label your workspace.
• Don't work alone.
• Stay focused and aware of your surroundings.
• Participate in safety exercises.
3.6 Procedure
1. Take a bread board and implement a full bridge rectifier to a resistor.
2. Provide a 20Vp-p AC voltage from function generator.
3. Connect your oscilloscope to the circuit to observe the full wave rectification.
4. Calculate Vp(in)rms, Vp(out), VDC with help of formulas.
5. Measure Vp(in)rms, Vp(out), VDC with the help of DMM and oscilloscope.
3.7 Circuit Diagram
14
3.8 Calculations for VDC, Vp(in)rms, Vp(out)
3.9 Measured Values
Vp(in)rms = ________________________
VDC = ________________________
Vp(out) = _________________________
15
3.10 Waveform
3.10.1 Input
Vp-p = 20V, f = 1KHz, V/div = 5V, Time/div = 0.5ms
3.10.2 Output
f = 1KHz, V/div = 5V, Time/div = 0.5ms
16
3.11 Conclusion
17
3.12 Rubrics
Absent Student is Student can Student has Student has Student
unable to follow understand followed constructed perfectly
the provided the provided instructions the functional/ implemented a
instructions laboratory to construct working working model/
properly. instructions the schematic/ logic/ circuit/
The student can and familiar fundamental model/ block block diagram/
name the with the lab schematic/ diagram/ code and
hardware or environment block code, and have successfully
Demonstration simulation (Trainer/ diagram/ successfully executed the lab
platform, but software/ code/ model executed the objective in
unable to IDE), but on the program/ run Realtime or in a
implement cannot protoboard/ circuit on simulation
anything implement on trainer/ software environment
practically or on the platform simulation platform and produced
the software practically or software. the desired
on the results
software
Category Ungraded Very Poor Poor Fair Good Excellent
Marks 0 1 2 3 4 5
Date Total Marks Instructor’s Signature
Report not Plagiarized Requirements Observations Appropriate Correctly
submitted content are listed and are recorded computations drawn
Laboratory presented or experimental along with or numerical conclusion
Reports incomplete procedure is detailed analysis is with exact
submission presented procedure performed results and
complete
report in all
respects
Category Ungraded Very Poor Poor Fair Good Excellent
Marks 0 1 2 3 4 5
Date Total Marks Instructor’s Signature
18
