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Networks Lab Manual

The document is a laboratory manual for the Network and Systems lab course at Birla Institute of Applied Sciences, detailing various experiments related to electrical circuit theorems such as Maximum Power Transfer, Thevenin's, Norton's, and Tellegen's theorems. It outlines course objectives, outcomes, and a list of experiments with procedures and theoretical explanations. The manual aims to enhance students' understanding of circuit design, analysis, and teamwork skills.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
8 views54 pages

Networks Lab Manual

The document is a laboratory manual for the Network and Systems lab course at Birla Institute of Applied Sciences, detailing various experiments related to electrical circuit theorems such as Maximum Power Transfer, Thevenin's, Norton's, and Tellegen's theorems. It outlines course objectives, outcomes, and a list of experiments with procedures and theoretical explanations. The manual aims to enhance students' understanding of circuit design, analysis, and teamwork skills.

Uploaded by

bishtvaishali99
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
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You are on page 1/ 54

LABORATORY

MANUAL
ODD SEMESTER
Course Title : Network And Systems lab

Course Code :

Programme : B.Tech

Semester : III

DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
BIRLA INSTITUTE OF APPLIED SCIENCES
BHIMTAL, NAINITAL, UTTARAKHAND 263136 INDIA
LIST OF PROGRAMS

NETWORK AND SYSTEMS LAB (COURSE CODE)

S.No. Program Page No.

1. Implementation and verification of Maximum Power


Transfer and Superposition theorems in ac circuits.

2. Implementation and verification of Thevnin's and


Norton's theorem in ac circuits.

3. Implementation and verification of Tellegens


theorem.

4. Implementation and verification of Reciprocity


theorem.

5. Design and testing of transient analysis in RC/RL


circuits.

6. Design and testing of transient analysis in RLC


circuits.

7. To calculate Z, Y, ABCD parameters of a given two-


port networks.

8. Implementation and verification of transfer


function of two-port network.
9. To calculate image and characteristic impedance
in T and a networks.
Implementation and verification of inter-connection i.e.
10. cascade, series, parallel, effect of loading of two-port
networks.
11. Design and implementation of K-derived LPF and
HPF in T-sections.

12. Temperature dependent circuits and their analysis.

Course Coordinator HOD


(ECP-032 )NETWORKS AND SYSTEMS LAB

COURSE OBJECTIVES:

This course enables the students to:

1. To design and implement various theorems

2. To design and implement transient response of RLC circuits.

3. illustrate and outline the Multi-terminal network in engineering

4. select and design of filters

COURSE OUTCOMES:
1. Students will be able to design and implement various theorems.

2. Students will be able to design and implement transient response of RLC circuits.

3. Students will be able to design the experiments, analyze and interpretation various two

port network parameters

4. Students will be able to design the experiments, analyze and interpretation filters.

5. Students will acquire skills of teamwork, technical communication and effective report

writing.
EXPERIMENT: 01
Implementation and verification of
Maximum Power
Transfer and Superposition theorems in ac
circuits.

OBJECTIVE: To Implement and verify Maximum Power Transfer and

Superposition theorems in ac circuits.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

THEORY:

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:


When load is connected across a voltage source, power is transferred from the source

to the las The amount of power transferred will depend upon the load resistance. If

load resistance R_{5} ma equal to the internal resistance R of the source, then

maximum power is transferred to the load R This is knows as maximum power

transfer theorem and can be state as follows

"Maximum power is transferred from a source to a load when the load resistance is

made equal the internal resistance of the source" This applies to DC as well as AC

power.

APPLICATIONS:

Electric power systems never operate for maximum power transfer because of low

efficiency ar high voltage drops between generated voltage and load. However, m the

electronic circuit maximum power transfer is usually desirable. For instance, in a

public address system, it is desirab to have load (ie speaker) "Matched" to the

amplifier so that there is maximum transference. power from the amplifier to the

speaker. "In such situations, efficiency is sacrificed at the cost of hi power transfer.

1| Page
Super Position Theorem:
Super Position Theorem states that in a network of linear resistances containing more than
on source of em f, the current which flows at any points is the sum of all the currents which
would flow at that point if each em.f source (voltage source) where considered separately
and all the other em.f sources replaced for the time being by resistances equal to their internal
resistances (if any).

Page 5 of 54
PROCEDURE:

Verification of SuperPosition Theorem:


Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 1 (a) through patch cords.
Considering only one voltage source at a time first 12, Volt

R_{T} = 50 + 33.33 = 83.33ohm

I_{T} = 12/83.33 = 144mA

I_{1} = I_{T}

I{3}=144 X 100 / 150 = 96mA

(For better accuracy check that current by using Digital Multimeter because AC
Analo Milliammeter are not sensitive at lower ranges, when circuit divided in
branches. The circuit parallel resistances effect the Milliammeter internal shunt
resistance)

Page 6 of 54
I{2} = I{1}-I{3}=48mA.
Therefore,
I{1} = 144 mAmp
I{2} = 48 mAmp
I{3} = 96 mAmp

Now taking voltage source 5 volt only. [Fig.1(a) and (b)]


Resistance accross ab = 50 x 100 / 50 + 100 = 33.33 ohm

Total Resistance R{T} = 50 + 8.33 = 83.33 ohm

Current I{1} = 5 / 83.33 = 60 mAmp.

I{3} = 60, mAmp

I{2} = 85.7 x 50 / 50 + 100 = 20, mAmp.

Therefore Current

I{1} = 60 – 20 = 40, mAmp.

(Check it at Digital Multimeter)

I{2} = 20, mAmp.

I{3} = 60, mAmp. according to Super Position Theorem.

Net algebraic Sum :

Current Through Resistance R{1} = I{1} = 144 – 40 = 104, mAmp.

Current Through Resistance R{2} = I{2} = 48 + 20 = 68, mAmp.


Page 7 of 54
Current Through Resistance R{3} = I{3} = 96 + 60 = 36, mAmp.

(For better accuracy check it at Digital Multimeter).

When Source volts is 12, Volt only :

V{R1} = I{1} x R{1} = 144 mA x 50 = 7.2 Volt.

V{R2} = I{2} x R{2} = 48 mA x 100 = 4.8 Volt.

V{R3} = I{3} x R{3} = 96 mA x 50 = 4.8 Volt.

When Source volts is 5, Volt only :

V{R1} = I{1} x R{1} = 40 x 50 = 2.0 Volt.

V{R2} = I{2} x R{2} = 20 mA x 100 = 2.0 Volt.

V{R3} = I{3} x R{3} = 60 mA x 50 = 3.0 Volt.

Final Volt drop across resistors :

V{R1} = I{1} x R{1} = 104 x 50 = 5.2 Volt.

V{R2} = I{2} x R{2} = 68 mA x 100 = 6.8 Volt.

V{R3} = I{3} x R{3} = 36 x 50 = 1.8 Volt.

Page 8 of 54
Page | 9
VERIFICATION OF MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM :

Page | 10
When load is connected across a voltage source, power is transferred from the source
to the load. The amount of power transferred will depend upon the load resistance. If
load resistance RL is made equal to the internal resistance Ri of the source, then
maximum power is transferred to the load RL. This is known as maximum power
transfer theorem and can be stated as follows.
"Maximum Power is transferred from a source to a load when the load resistance is
made equal to the internal resistance of the source". This applies to DC as well as AC
power.
To prove this theorem mathematically, consider a voltage source of generated voltage
E, an internal resistance Ri and delivering power to a load resistance RL as shown in
Fig. 1 (a). The current I flowing through the circuit is given by:
I = E/RL+RiI
Power delivered to the load:

P = I2RL = [E/RL+Ri]2RL (1)


For a given source, generated voltage E and internal resistance Ri are constant.
Therefore, power delivered to the load depends upon RL. In order to find the value of
RL for which the value of P is maximum, it is necessary to differentiate Eq. (1) w.r.t.
RL and set the result equal to zero.
Thus,
dP/dRL = E2(RL+Ri)2−RL(RL+Ri)/(RL+Ri)4 = 0
or

(RL+Ri)2−2RL(RL+Ri) = 0

Or

(RL+Ri)−Ri(RL+Ri−2RL)=0
or
(RL+Ri)(Ri+RL)=0
Since (RL+Ri) cannot be zero,

Ri−RL=0 or RL=Ri
i.e. load resistance = internal resistance.
Thus for maximum power transfer, load resistance RLR_LRL must be equal to the
internal resistance RiR_iRi of the source. Under such conditions, the load is said to be
matched to the resistance RiR_iRi of the source. Fig. 1 (b) shows a graph of power
delivered to RLR_LRL as a function of RiR_iRi. It may be mentioned that efficiency
of maximum power transfer is 50% as one half of the total generated power is
dissipated in this internal resistance RiR_iRi of the source.

Page | 11
PROCEDURE :
1. Connect 12 Volt AC Regulated Power Supply in the circuit (indicated by
dotted lines).
2. Connect R and VR (load resistance) in the circuit and also connect current
meter and voltmeter in the circuit.
3. Now increase the value of load resistance (VR) in steps and note down the
corresponding value of voltage and current. Calculate the power using formula:
P=V×IP = V \times IP=V×I
5. At a particular point when load resistance is made equal to the value of
R1R_1R1 (i.e., internal resistance of a source) maximum power is transferred
from source to load. Plot graph between power output and load resistance.

Result :-
Implemented and verified Maximum Power Transfer and
Superposition theorems in ac circuits.

Page | 12
EXPERIMENT: 02
Implementation and verification of
Maximum Power
Transfer and Superposition theorems in ac
circuits.

OBJECTIVE: To Implement and verify Thevnin's and Norton's theorem in ac


circuits.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

THEORY:

Thevenin’s theorem :
Thevenin’s theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit,
irrespective of how complex it is, to an equivalent circuit with a single voltage
source and a series resistance.

Norton's theorem:
Norton's theorem states that any linear circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with a single resistor. This equivalent
circuit, known as the Norton equivalent, behaves identically to the original circuit
when connected to a load. The theorem simplifies circuit analysis by reducing
complex networks to a much simpler form

Page | 13
VERIFICATION OF THEVENIN THEOREM :
R{1} = 500, ohm.
V = 12, Volt.
R{2} = 100, ohm.
R{3} = 90, ohm.
R{L} = 50, ohm.

Resistance between X & Y (Rx) = 90 + 50 = 140, ohm.


Resistance between a and b = 140 x 100 / 240 = 58.4, ohm.
Total Resistance RT = 500 + 58.4 = 558.4, ohm.
Voltage Across a-b = 12 / 558.4 x 58.4 = 1.25, Volt.
Voltage Across RL = 1.25 x 50 / 40 = 0.446, Volt.
Current Through RL = 0.446 / 50 = 8.8, mAmp.

For Load Resistance = 25, ohm.

Resistance between X & Y (Rx) = 90 + 25 = 115, ohm.


Resistance between a and b = 115 x 100 / 215 = 53.48, ohm.
Total Resistance RT = 500 + 53.48 = 553.48, ohm.
Voltage Across a & b = 12 / 553.48 x 53.48 = 1.15, Volt.
Voltage Across RL = 1.15 x 25 / 115 = 0.252, Volt.
Current Through RL = 0.252 / 25 = 10.0, mAmp
.

Page | 14
STEP – 1:

Open load and measure volt across open end Z₁ – Z₂, resulting circuit as shown in
Fig. 2 (a)
Open Circuit Volt = 1.75, Volt (Measured)
Open Circuit Volt which will appear across 100 ohm resistance
Vth = (100 x 12) / 600 = 2, Volt.

STEP – 2:
Now short circuit the volt source (with RL open circuit), the resulting circuit as
shown in Fig. 2 (b)
Now measure the Resistance at Z₁ – Z₂
R = (500 x 100) / (500 + 100) + 90 = 173.40 ohm.
Now above circuit between Z₁ – Z₂ may be replaced as:
SVth = 2, Volt.
Rth = 173.4, ohm.
RL = 25, ohm.
IL = 2 / (173.40 + 25) = 10, mAmp.
For RL = 50, ohm.
IL = 2 / (173.40 + 50) = 8.9, mAmp.

Page | 15
Page | 16
VERIFICATION OF NORTON’S THEOREM:
STEP – 1:
Open load and measure volt across Z₁ – Z₂, resulting circuit diagram is shown in Fig.
3 (a).
Open Circuit Volt which will appear across 100 ohm resistance.
Vnor = (100 x 12) / 600 = 2, Volt.

STEP – 2:
Now disconnect voltage source and short the A & B points as shown in the circuit
diagram (with RL open circuit) Fig. 3 (b).
Now measure the Resistance at Z₁ – Z₂
Rnor=500×100500+100+90=173.4 ohm.R_{nor} = \frac{500 \times 100}{500 +
100} + 90 = 173.4 \, \text{ohm}.
Short circuit current
Isc = VnorRnor
Isc = 2/73.4
Isc = 11.5 , mA
The equivalent circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 3 (c).
Now the circuit may be replaced as:
Isc = 11.5 mAmp.I_{sc} = 11.5 mAmp
Isc = 173.40, ohm.R_{sc} .= 173.40, \, ohm.
For RL = 25 ohm
I L = 11.5×173.40/173.40+25= 10 mAmp.
For RL = 50 ohm

Page | 17
I L = 11.5×173.40/173.40+50= 8.9 mAmp.

Result : Implemented and verified Thevnin's and Norton's theorem in ac circuits.

Page | 18
Page | 19
EXPERIMENT: 03
Implementation and verification of Tellegens
theorem.
.

OBJECTIVE: To Implement and verify of Tellegens theorem.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Experimental board on Tellegen’s theorem
2. Digital voltmeter 0-2V
3. Digital voltmeter 0-20V
4. Digital ammeter 0-20mA 5. Digital ammeter 0-200mA

THEORY:

Topology is an important branch of mathematics and has applications in many field of


science and engineering. Electrical networks are composed of branches with junction
between them, therefore,

they have topological properties.

Topological branch is defined as a branch, which is left after the sources in the
network have been reduced to zero. Zero voltage source means short circuit and zero
current source means open circuit. Consider the network shown in Fig.1, which is
composed of a two terminal elements across which a voltage exists and through which
a current flows. In this network, arbitrary reference directions have been selected for
all of the branch currents and the corresponding branch voltage is indicated, with the
positive reference direction at the tail of the current arrow. Now for this network,
select a set of branch voltage and a set of branch currents without any consideration of
the previous choice of branch voltages. The only requirements are that the voltage
must satisfy KVL and KCL be satisfied at each node. Then it can be shown that these
arbitrarily chosen voltages and currents satisfy the equation.

b  VkIk=0 (1) k =1

Where b represents the elements/number of branches in the network. Consider the


Page | 20
network of Fig. 1 again and choose node D as the datum. Express the V k in terms of
the node-to datum voltage eA, eB, eC, and eD. Expressing the element voltages in
terms of the node-to datum voltages satisfies KVL.

Then,

V1 = eA, - eD, V2 = eA - eB, V3 = eB - eD,

V4 = eB, - eC, V5 = eC - eD, V6 =eA--eC (2)

Now Substitute the voltages obtained in Eq.2 for the VK in the sum  vk ik and
rearrange the resulting sum to put in the form eA ( currents) + eB ( currents) + eC
( currents).

 v k i k = (eA – eD) i1 + (eA – eB) i2 + (eB – eD) i3

k =1

+ (eB – eC) i4 + (eC – eD) i5 + (eA – eC) i6

= eA(i1 +i2 +i6) + eB (-i2 + i3 + i4) + eC (-i4+ i5 + i6) + eD (-i1 –i3 – i5)

= eA (KCL at node A) + eB ( KCL at node B)

+ eC (KCL at node C) + eD ( KCL at node D)

=0

Each product in above equation vanishes because each KCL summation equal zero at
the node. Therefore, one can say that b  V k I k = 0 k =1 Where Ik is the current and
Vk is the voltage associated with the k th element. The above equation is same as
Page | 21
Equation 1 and is the Tellegen’s theorem

Procedure
1. Assemble the circuit as shown in Fig.1 by connecting terminals 2 – 6 – 10; 1 – 3 –
11; 4 – 5 – 7 and 8 – 9 – 12 by connecting leads.
2. Now disconnect the connection 2 to 6 (keep the connection 6 to 10 as it is) and
connect VS between terminals 2 and 6. Draw the circuit and topology of this
assembled resistive network with voltage source in your note book..
3. Assign voltage with polarity and current with direction for each branch (resistance)

Page | 22
according to Fig.1 in the circuit drawn in step 2.
4. With the help of digital voltmeter measure the voltage of each branch according
the polarity assigned in step 3 and note them with positive or negative sign. Select the
range of the voltmeter as convenient,
5. Now measure the current in each branch with digital ammeter according to the
direction as assigned in step 3 and note them with positive or negative sign. Assume
that the currents entering the node are negative and leaving the node are positive.
Select the range of the ammeter as convenient.
6. Find the sum of products of voltage and current of each branch, you will find that
the sum is almost zero. This proves Eq.1, i.e., this proves the Tellegen’s theorem for
this circuit.

OBSERVATION TABLE:-

Result :
We have study and verifies of Tallegen’s Theorem

Page | 23
EXPERIMENT: 4

Implementation and verification of


Reciprocity theorem.

OBJECTIVE: To Implement and verify Reciprocity


theorem.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. DC circuit training system
2. Set of wires.
3. DC Power supply
4. Digital A.V.O. meter

THEORY:

In any bilateral linear network containing one or more generators the ratio of a voltage
introduced in on mesh to the current (I) in any second mesh is the same as the ratio
obtained if the position of voltage and current are interchanged other emf being
removed .Let us consider a general network.

Procedure:-
1- Using the DC circuit trainer, connect the circuit Shown in Fig. (1-a) , take V =5V,
and R1=10kΩ, R2 = 100Ω and R3 =1kΩ.

2- 2- Measure the voltage and current of "R1 , R2 & R3", then record it in table
below
Page | 24
3- Disconnect the DC power supply, and then measured the equivalent resistance
by using the AVO meter only.

4- Change the voltage supply position shown in fig (1-b) .

5- Measure the voltage and current of "R1 , R2 & R3", then record it in table
below

6- Disconnect the DC power supply, and then measure the equivalent


resistance by using the AVO meter only.

Result :-
we studied Verification of Reciprocity theorem

Page | 25
EXPERIMENT: 05
Design and testing of transient analysis in
RC/RL circuits

OBJECTIVE: To Design and testing of transient analysis in RC/RL circuits.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Resistors
2. Capacitors
3. Inductors
4. Breadboard
5. Jumper wires
6. DC Power supply
7. Oscilloscope
8. Function generator
9. Multimeter

THEORY:

1. RC circuit:
A capacitor will charge when it is connected to a dc voltage source, When the
capacitor is fully charged, there is no current. (A capacitor behaves as open circuit).
But when the voltage source is disconnected and the wire is connected across a
charged capacitor the capacitor will discharge as shown in the Fig.1 below

A capacitor charges and discharges following an exponential curve, as shown in


Fig.2 below. In these graphs, the approximate percentage of full charge is shown at
each time-constant Interval .The charging curve is an increasing exponential, and the
discharging curve is a decreasing exponential. It takes five time constant interval to
change the voltage by 99%. This five time-constant interval is generally accepted as
the time to fully charge or discharge a capacitor and is called the transient time
Page | 26
2. RL circuit
When an inductor is connected in series with a resistor and dc source, Increasing and
decreasing voltages and currents follow exponential curves, the current will increase
to approximately 63% of its full value in one time-constant interval after voltage is
applied as shown in the Fig.3 below

Regarding to the induced voltage (VL) across the inductor it decreases as the current
increases which means if the induced voltage across the inductor has decreased by
63%, which causes the current to increase by 63% as shown in Fig.4.

Page | 27
Procedure (RC Charging/Discharging ):

1. Use Multisim to connect the RC circuit shown in Fig.5 below :


2. Set the oscilloscope horizontal axis (time) at 100us/div, and vertical axis (voltage)
at 0.5V/div. Connect the probe at “VC”, as shown in Fig.5 above, turn-on the
simulator and display the charging/discharging waveform on the OSC.
3. Stop the auto-run of the oscilloscope. Activate vertical cursors to start taking
measurements. Put the 2nd cursor at the start instance and move the 1st cursor in
steps using the differential time between the two markers (ΔT) to fill the Table.1
below:

4. Measure ΔT when VC ≈ 1.57V. This is the actual time-constant of charging


circuit.
5. Sketch at the graph paper(1) below , the capacitor charging/discharging voltage
waveform using the values at Table.1. The charging /discharging curve must be
compared with theoretical curve. Graph Paper(1)
6. Use breadboard to build the RC circuit at Fig.6 and use real Oscilloscope &
Function generator to fill Table.2 below:
7. Set the function generator to the following parameters: Function: Square-wave
Frequency: 1KHz Amplitude: 2.5Vpp or 1.25 Vp
8. Run the signal generator, adjust the oscilloscope axes to display the waveform at
‘A’ channel

Page | 28
9. Use cursors to measure the first time constant.
T1 =

II. Procedure (RL Increasing /Decreasing ):

1. Use breadboard to connect the circuit in Fig.7 shown below on breadboard and use
real Oscilloscope & Function generator to fill Table.3 below:
2. Set the function generator to the following parameters: Function: Square-wave,
Frequency: 1kHz, Amplitude: 1.25Vp( 2.5Vpp),
3. Run the function generator, adjust the oscilloscope axes to monitor the inductor
voltage (VL)
4. Use the differential time in the OSC (ΔT) to fill the Table.3: ΔT 5us 50us 100us
200us 300us 400us 500us 600us 700us 800us 900us VL
5. Use cursors to measure the first time constant. = 1T࣎
6. Sketch at the graph paper(2) below the inductor increasing/decreasing voltage
waveform using the values at Table.3. The increasing/decreasing voltage curve must
be compared with theoretical curve.
Graph Paper(2)

Result : Designed and tested transient analysis in RC/RL circuits

Page | 29
EXPERIMENT: 06
Design and testing of transient analysis in
RLC circuits.

OBJECTIVE: To Design and testing of transient analysis in RLC circuits.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. A Computer with Waveforms installed
2. Analog Discovery 2
3. Breadboard Breakout for the Analog Discovery 2 with a Ribbon Cable
4. USB A to Micro-B cable
5. Digital multimeter
6. MB102 breadboard
7. Jumper wires
8. The following Resistors (1/4 watt, 1% or 5%)
a. 100Ω resistor
b. 1.0kΩ resistor
9. 100nF capacitor
10.220nF capacitor
11.10mH inductor

THEORY:

Resistors
As has been studied before, the application of a voltage V to a resistor (with
resistance R in Ohms), results in a current I, according to the formula:I=VR(1)The
current response to voltage change is instantaneous; a resistor has no transient
response.

Inductors
A change in voltage across an inductor (with inductance L in Henrys) does not result
in an instantaneous change in the current through it. The i-v relationship is described
with the equation:v=Ldidt(2)This relationship implies that the voltage across an
inductor approaches zero as the current in the circuit reaches a steady value. This
means that in a DC circuit, an inductor will eventually act like a short circuit.

Page | 30
Capacitors
The transient response of a capacitor (with Capacitance C in Farads) is such that it
resists instantaneous change in the voltage across it. Its i−v relationship is described
by:i=Cdvdt(3)This implies that as the voltage across the capacitor reaches a steady
value, the current through it approaches zero. In other words, a capacitor eventually
acts like an open circuit in a DC circuit.

Procedures :

Transient response of a series RLC circuit


Solving the circuit below involves the solution of first and second order differential
equations. Only the solution has been included, as that is all that is needed for the
lab.

In theory, there are three cases for the way a series RLC circuit will respond when
the switch is closed at time t=0. In this lab, only the underdamped case will be dealt
with. For this case, the current in the circuit is described by:

I=VOωdL exp(−αt) sin(ωdt) (10)


Where
ωd=√ω20−α2 (11)
ω0=1√LCandα=R2L (12)
Equation (10) describes a current that is both fluctuating and deteriorating, as shown
in Figure 1.4:

Page | 31
The current in the circuit oscillates due to the sine component in Equation (10), but
the maximum value it can reach is decaying due to the negative exponential. The
“envelope” that the current must fall within is described by:
i=±VOωdL exp(−αt)or|i|=VOωdL exp(−αt) (13)
The quantity α is referred to as the time constant of the envelope. It is determined by
taking the natural logarithm of both sides of the above equation:
ln|i|=lnVOωdL−αt (14)
which is a linear equation. If a graph of ln|i| vs. t is plotted, its slope will be –α

Result :
studied Design and testing of transient analysis in RLC circuits.

Page | 32
EXPERIMENT: 07
To calculate Z, Y, ABCD parameters of a
given two port networks.

OBJECTIVE: OBJECTIVE: To calculate Z, Y, ABCD parameters of a given


two port networks.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Power Supply
2. Bread Board
3. Five resistances
4. Connecting Leads.
5. Voltmeter
6. Ammeter
7.
THEORY:.

Z Parameters:
In Z parameters of a two-port, the input & output voltages V1 & V2 can be
expressed in terms of input & output currents I1 & I2. Out of four variables (i.e V1,
V2, I1, I2) V1& V2 are dependent variables whereas I1 & I2 are independent
variables. Thus,
V1 = Z11I1+ Z12 I2 -----(1)
V2 = Z21I1 + Z22 I2 ----(2)
Here Z11 & Z22 are the input & output driving point impedances while Z12 & Z21
are the reverse & forward transfer impedances.

Page | 33
PROCEDURE:
a) Connect the circuit as shown in fig. & switch ‘ON’ the experimental board.
b) First open the O/P terminal & supply 5V to I/P terminal. Measure O/P Voltage &
I/P Current.
c) Secondly, open I/P terminal & supply 5V to O/P terminal. Measure I/P Voltage &
O/P current using multi-meter.
d) Calculate the values of Z parameter using Equation (1) & (2). e) Switch ‘OFF’ the
supply after taking the readings.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

(1) When O/P is open circuited i.e. I2 = 0 Z11 = V1/I1 Z21 =V2 /I1
(2) When I/P is open circuited i.e. II = 0 Z12 = V1/I2 Z22 = V2 /I2

RESULT : The Z-parameters of the two port network has been calculated and
verified.

B) Y Parameters :

In Y parameters of a two-port , the input & output currents I1 & I2 can be expressed
in terms of input & output voltages V1 & V2 . Out of four variables (i.e I1, I2, V,
V2) I1& I2 are dependent variables whereas V1 & V2 are independent variables.
I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 ------(1)
I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2 -------(2)
Here Y11 & Y22 are the input & output driving point admittances while Y12 &
Page | 34
Y21are the reverse & forward transfer admittances.

PROCEDURE :

a) Connect the circuit as shown in fig. & switch ‘ON’ the experimental board.
b) First short the O/P terminal & supply 5V to I/P terminal. Measure O/P & I/P
current
c) Secondly, short I/P terminal & supply 5V to O/P terminal. Measure I/P & O/P
current using multi-meter.
d) Calculate the values of Y parameter using Eq. (1) & (2). e) Switch ‘off’ the supply
after taking the readings

(1) When O/P is short circuited i.e. V2 = 0 Y11 = I1/V1 Y21 = I2


(2) When I/P is short circuited i.e. VI = 0 Y12 = I1/V2 Y22 = I2 /V2

RESULT : The Y-parameters of the two port network has been calculated and
verified.

Page | 35
c) ABCD Parameters :
ABCD parameters are widely used in analysis of power transmission engineering
where they are termed as “Circuit Parameters”. ABCD parameters are also known as
“Transmission Parameters”. In these parameters, the voltage & current at the sending
end terminals can be expressed in terms of voltage & current at the receiving end.
Thus,
V1 = AV 2 + B (-I2)
I1 = CV2 + D (-I2)
Here “A” is called reverse voltage ratio, “B” is called transfer impedance “C” is
called transfer admittance & “D” is called reverse current ratio.

PROCEDURE :
a) Connect the circuit as shown in fig. & switch ‘ON’ the experimental board.
b) First open the O/P terminal & supply 5V to I/P terminal. Measure O/P voltage &
I/P current
c) Secondly, short the O/P terminal & supply 5V to I/P terminal. Measure I/P & O/P
current using multi-meter.
d) Calculate the A, B, C, & D parameters using the Eq. (1) & (2).
e) Switch ‘off’ the supply after taking the readings.

(1) When O/P is open circuited i.e. I2 = 0


A = V1/V2 C = I1 /V2
(2) When O/P is short circuited i.e. V2 = 0
B = -V1/I2 D = -I1 /I2

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RESULT: The ABCD-parameters of the two-port network has been calculated and
verified.

Page | 37
EXPERIMENT: 08
Implementation and verification of transfer
function of two-port network.

OBJECTIVE: OBJECTIVE: To Implementation and verification of transfer


function of two-port network.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Power Supply
2. Bread Board
3. Five resistances
4. Connecting Leads.
5. Voltmeter
6. Ammeter

THEORY:
For a one-port network, the driving point impedance or impedance of the
network is defined as

Z(s) = V(s)/I(s)

The reciprocal of the impedance function is the driving point admittance


function, and is denoted by Y(s).

For the Transfer Function of Two Port Network without internal sources,
the driving point impedance function at port 1-1′ is the ratio of the
transform voltage at port 1-1′ to the transform current at the same port.

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Similarly, the driving point impedance at port 2-2′ is the ratio of transform
voltage at port 2-2′ to the transform current at the same port.
z22(s) = v2(s)/I2(s)

For the Transfer Function of Two Port Network, the driving point
admittance is defined as the ratio of the transform current at any port to the
transform voltage at the same port.

Therefore

or

Which is the driving point admittance.


The four other network functions are called transfer functions. These
functions give the relation between voltage or current at one port to the
voltage or current at the other port as shown here under.
(i) Voltage transfer ratio:
This is the ratio of voltage transform at one port to the voltage transform at
the other port, and is denoted by G(s)

(ii) Current transfer ratio:


This is the ratio of current transform at one port to current transform at
other port, and is denoted by α(s)

(iii) Transfer impedance:


It is defined as the ratio of voltage transform at one port to the current
transform at the other port, and is denoted by Z(s).
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(iv) Transfer admittance:
It is defined as the ratio of current transform at one port to the current
transform at the other port, and is denoted by Y(s).

The above network functions are found by forming the system of equations
using node or mesh analysis, and taking the transforms of equations by
setting the initial conditions to zero and solving for ratio of the response
to excitation.

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EXPERIMENT: 10
Implementation and verification of inter-
connection i.e. cascade, series, parallel, effect
of loading of two-port networks.

OBJECTIVE: OBJECTIVE: To Implement and verify of inter-connection


i.e. cascade, series, parallel, effect of loading of two-port networks.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

THEORY:

Interconnection of Two Port Network:


Various types of Interconnection of Two Port Network such as series
connection of two ports, parallel connection of two ports, cascade connection
of two ports etc.
Series Connection of Two Ports:
Consider two networks N’ and N” are connected in series as shown in Fig. 6.8
(a). When two ports are connected in series, we can add their z parameters to
get overall z-parameter of the overall series connection.
Let the z-parameters of network N’ be z’11, z’12, z’21, z’22. Let the z parameters
of network N” be z”11, z”12, z”21, z”22. Let the overall z-parameters of series
connection be z11, z12, z21, z22.

For series connection we have,


Page | 41
For network N’ , z-parameter equations are,

For network N”, z-parameter equations are,

From equations (1) , (2) and (3) , (4) we can write,

In the Matrix form, above equations can be written as,

Thus, overall z-parameters are,

Hence, the z-parameters of the series connection are the sum of z-parameters
of the individual network connected in series.
Parallel Connection of Two Ports:
Consider two networks N’ and N” are connected in parallel as shown in Fig.
6.8 (b). When two ports are connected in parallel, we can add their y-
parameters to get overall y-parameters of the parallel connection.

Let the y-parameters of the network N’ by y’11, y’12, y’21, y’22. Let the y-
parameters of the network N” be y”11, y”12, y”21, y”22. Let the overall y-
Page | 42
parameters of parallel connection be y11, y12, y21, y22.
For parallel connection we have,

For network N’, the y-parameter equations are,

For network N” the y-parameter equations are,

From equations (1), (2) and (3), (4), we can write,

In matrix form, above equations can be written as,

Thus, overall y-parameters are,

Hence, the y-parameters of the parallel connection are the sum of y-


parameters of the individual networks connected in parallel.
Cascade Connection of Two Ports:
The cascade connection is also called Tandem connection. Consider two
networks N’ and N” are connected in cascade as shown in Fig. 6.8 (c). When
two ports are connected in cascade, we can multiply their individual
transmission parameters to get overall transmission parameters of the cascade
connection.

Let the transmission parameters of network N’ be A’ , B’ ,C’ , D’. Let the


transmission parameters of network N” be A”, B”, C”, D”. Let the overall
Page | 43
transmission parameters of cascade connection be A, B, C, D.
For cascade connection we have,

For the network N’, transmission parameter equations are,

For the network N”, transmission parameter equations are,

The overall transmission parameters of the cascade connection can be written


as,

Hence, the transmission parameters for the cascaded two port network is
simply the matrix product of the transmission parameter matrix of each
individual two port network in cascade.
Series and Parallel Permissibility of Connection:
Before interconnecting two ports it is very important to check for the overall
port if the current entering one terminal is same as that leaving other terminal
of same port. This test is called as Validy test or Brune’s Test.
If the 2-port networks to be interconnected do not satisfy Brune’s test, an ideal

Page | 44
transformer of 1:1 turns ratio is connected at one of the ports. This
transformer provides necessary isolation and it also ensures that the
characteristics of any network does not alter due to the interconnection with
other.
The permissibility of connection of two port network through the transformer
is as shown in the Fig. 6.9 (a) to (d).

Page | 45
Result : Implemented and verified inter-connection i.e. cascade, series,
parallel, effect of loading of two-port networks

Page | 46
EXPERIMENT: 11
Design and implementation of K-derived
LPF and HPF in T-sections.

OBJECTIVE: OBJECTIVE: Design and implementation of K-derived LPF


and HPF in T-sections.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
(ii) Variable frequency oscillator
(iii) Oscillosope
(iv) High impedance voltmeter

THEORY:

Filter networks are widely used in communication systems to separate


variousvoice channels from the carrier frequency. Filters are classified as low-
pass, band-pass, high-passband-reject etc. depending on frequency range to be
passed to the load or blocked. Filters arealsoclassified as Active and Passive
filters depending on the active or passive components used. Conventional or
passive filters use passive components R, L and C.
Filter networks may be of T-section or -section depending on its
configuration. The basic parametersto be considered for a filter design are
Characteristic impedance (Z0), Pass band, Stop band, Cut-off frequency,
Attenuation and Phase constant. Passive filters are designed using inductors (L)
andcapacitors (C). In constant-k design, the product of series impedance (Z1)
and shunt impedance(Z2) is always constant, i.e. 2 1 2 Z Z = k , where k is a
real constant and matches with the load resistanceR0. In m-derived filters,
sharper attenuation characteristics and uniform characteristic impedance is
obtained by using anti-resonance circuits in shunt path of T-network or in series
path of -network.

Page | 47
PROCEDURE :
1. Design a constant-k or prototype T-section and -section Low Pass filter
with cut-off frequencyof 8kHz and load resistance of 500.
2. Design a constant-k or prototype T-section and -section High Pass filter
with cut-off frequencyof 8kHz and load resistance of 500.
3. Design an m-derived T-section and -section Low Pass filter with cut-off
frequency of 8kHzandload resistance of 500. Infinite attenuation occurring at
9.24kHz.
4. Design an m-derived T-section and -section High Pass filter with cut-off
frequency of 8kHzandload resistance of 500. Infinite attenuation occurring at
6.93kHz.
5. Build the filter networks designed in (1) to (4) above with available
components andcheckfrequency response of each network between 2kHz –
20kHz. Take several readings by varyingthe frequency of the oscillator (at least
Page | 48
5 close readings around the cut-off frequency). Eachtime, maintain the
magnitude of input voltage at same value.

Result : Designed and implemented of K-derived LPF and HPF in


T-sections.

Page | 49
EXPERIMENT: 12
Temperature dependent circuits and their
analysis.

OBJECTIVE: OBJECTIVE: To study Temperature dependent circuits and


their analysis.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
PHYWE power supply, Thermostat, Immersion probes, Bath for thermostat, Digital
Multi-meter, Resistor, Connecting cord, Tubing connector.

THEORY:
n restricted temperature ranges the change in the resistance of the electrical
components can be assumed to be linear. In these regions, the general formula
for the dependence of the resistance on the temperature is valid;
𝑹(𝑻) = 𝑹𝟐𝟎 + 𝑹𝟐𝟎.𝜶. (𝑻 − 𝟐𝟎 °𝐂)
Where;
R(T) = Resistance at T
R20 = Resistance at 20 °C
α = Temperature coefficient
T = Temperature at time of measurement
By rearranging and substituting the measured values the temperature
coefficient can be determined using the formula. In copper wire the free path of
the electrons in the electron vapor, which contribute to charge transport,
becomes shorter with increasing temperature. The change in resistance can be
clearly seen:
𝜶𝑪𝒖 = 𝟓. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 /𝑲
The resistance of the CuNi wire is nearly constant over the measured range.
This is in accordance with Mathies rule, which states;
𝐑𝐭𝐨𝐭 = 𝐑𝟐𝟎 + 𝐑(𝐓)
The change in the resistance with the temperature is very slight in the measured
temperature range. Consequently, the absolute resistance (R20) is predominant.
This experiment provides a negative temperature coefficient of;
𝜶𝑪𝒖𝑵𝒊 = −𝟏. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 /𝑲
In the carbon-layer resistor, the absolute resistance is very high to begin with.
The change with the temperature is, as is the case with CuNi, small and has
practically no effect. A negative temperature coefficient results;
Page | 50
𝜶𝑪𝒖 = −𝟐. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 /𝑲
The metallic layer resister also has a relatively high absolute resistance at 20
°C. And the change in the measured temperature range is even lower than for
carbon. Thus, the temperature coefficient approaches zero.
𝜶𝒎𝒆𝒕 → 𝟎
The two NTC and PTC resistors consist of alloys. Depending on their
compositions, great changes in resistance can be realized in a small temperature
range. The curves that are recorded in this experiment can no longer be
considered linear. They serve only to illustrate the behavior of NTC and PTC
resistors

Literature Values:
𝜶𝑪𝒖 = 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 /𝑲
𝜶𝑪𝒖𝑵𝒊 = −𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 /𝑲
𝜶𝑪 = −𝟐. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 /𝑲
𝜶𝒎𝒆𝒕 = ± 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 /𝑲
𝜶𝑵𝑻𝑪 = − 𝟔. 𝟏𝟓 % /𝑲
𝜶𝑷𝑻𝑪 = 𝟐𝟎 % /𝑲
The value for PTC is valid in the steepest region of the characteristic line. In
semiconductors the number of charge carriers and the charge carrier density
increases with temperature (charge carrier generation, electron-hole pair
formation). From the law;
𝝈 = 𝒆. 𝒏. 𝝁
Where;
σ = Intrinsic conductivity
e = Elementary charge
n = Charge carrier density
µ = Mobility
One can see that the intrinsic conductivity of the semiconductor thus
Page | 51
increases. The mobility indeed decreases with increasing temperature, but the
increase in the charge carrier density compensates for this effect. A definite
drop in resistance is observed; this allows one to infer that there is a negative
temperature coefficient. Through the calculation with the above-mentioned
formula for the temperature dependence, rearranged for the voltage Up , the
following values are obtained.

𝜶𝑺𝒊 = −𝟑. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 /𝑲


𝜶𝑮𝒆 = −𝟒. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 /𝑲
At low voltages, around 3V, a Zener breakdown occurs in Z diodes. As a result
of the strong electric field, electron hole pairs are spontaneously generated in
the inner electron shells in the barrier-layer zone. Under the influence of the
field charge carrier, they cross the barrier layer. A higher temperature increases
the energy of the bound charge carriers. As a consequence, the Zener effect can
occur at lower voltages. In the Avalanche the charge carriers are accelerated by
the electric field to such a great degree that they in turn release other charge
carriers on colliding with other atoms, which in turn are accelerated. The higher
temperature shortens the free path, so that the voltage must increase with the
temperature in order to continue to release charge carriers. From the
calculations, the following values result for;
𝜶𝒁𝑷𝑫𝟐.𝟕 = −𝟕. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝑲
𝜶𝒁𝑷𝑫𝟔.𝟖 = +𝟒. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 /𝑲

Page | 52
Procedure :
Place the immersion probe set, which is enclosed in a watertight plastic bag,
into the water bath. The resistance values for the PTC, NTC, metallic film and
carbon film resistors, as well as the Cu and CuNi wire resistors, can be
measured directly with the digital hand multi-meter (circuit 6 diagram, Fig. 5).
To do this, connect the multi-meter to the ground jack, which is connected to
all the components, and the jack located under the symbol corresponding to the
respective component. Note the different resistance values, and plot them as a
function of temperature.

In order to measure the conducting-state voltage of the semiconducting


diodes, connect them to a voltage of 10 V. Connect a 4.7Ω resistor in series
with the component. Set a voltage of 10 V on the universal power supply, and
adjust the current limiter to its maximum value. Measure the voltage parallel
to the component. Note the conducting-state voltage corresponding to the
respective temperatures. Also measure the blocking voltage for the Zener and
avalanche effects with the set-up illustrated in Fig. 6. However, the diodes
have already been wired in the blocking direction through their placement in
the immersion probe set.

Page | 53
Result : Studied Temperature dependent circuits and their analysis

Page | 54

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