Networks Lab Manual
Networks Lab Manual
MANUAL
ODD SEMESTER
Course Title : Network And Systems lab
Course Code :
Programme : B.Tech
Semester : III
DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
BIRLA INSTITUTE OF APPLIED SCIENCES
BHIMTAL, NAINITAL, UTTARAKHAND 263136 INDIA
LIST OF PROGRAMS
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
COURSE OUTCOMES:
1. Students will be able to design and implement various theorems.
2. Students will be able to design and implement transient response of RLC circuits.
3. Students will be able to design the experiments, analyze and interpretation various two
4. Students will be able to design the experiments, analyze and interpretation filters.
5. Students will acquire skills of teamwork, technical communication and effective report
writing.
EXPERIMENT: 01
Implementation and verification of
Maximum Power
Transfer and Superposition theorems in ac
circuits.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
to the las The amount of power transferred will depend upon the load resistance. If
load resistance R_{5} ma equal to the internal resistance R of the source, then
"Maximum power is transferred from a source to a load when the load resistance is
made equal the internal resistance of the source" This applies to DC as well as AC
power.
APPLICATIONS:
Electric power systems never operate for maximum power transfer because of low
efficiency ar high voltage drops between generated voltage and load. However, m the
public address system, it is desirab to have load (ie speaker) "Matched" to the
amplifier so that there is maximum transference. power from the amplifier to the
speaker. "In such situations, efficiency is sacrificed at the cost of hi power transfer.
1| Page
Super Position Theorem:
Super Position Theorem states that in a network of linear resistances containing more than
on source of em f, the current which flows at any points is the sum of all the currents which
would flow at that point if each em.f source (voltage source) where considered separately
and all the other em.f sources replaced for the time being by resistances equal to their internal
resistances (if any).
Page 5 of 54
PROCEDURE:
I_{1} = I_{T}
(For better accuracy check that current by using Digital Multimeter because AC
Analo Milliammeter are not sensitive at lower ranges, when circuit divided in
branches. The circuit parallel resistances effect the Milliammeter internal shunt
resistance)
Page 6 of 54
I{2} = I{1}-I{3}=48mA.
Therefore,
I{1} = 144 mAmp
I{2} = 48 mAmp
I{3} = 96 mAmp
Therefore Current
Page 8 of 54
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VERIFICATION OF MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM :
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When load is connected across a voltage source, power is transferred from the source
to the load. The amount of power transferred will depend upon the load resistance. If
load resistance RL is made equal to the internal resistance Ri of the source, then
maximum power is transferred to the load RL. This is known as maximum power
transfer theorem and can be stated as follows.
"Maximum Power is transferred from a source to a load when the load resistance is
made equal to the internal resistance of the source". This applies to DC as well as AC
power.
To prove this theorem mathematically, consider a voltage source of generated voltage
E, an internal resistance Ri and delivering power to a load resistance RL as shown in
Fig. 1 (a). The current I flowing through the circuit is given by:
I = E/RL+RiI
Power delivered to the load:
(RL+Ri)2−2RL(RL+Ri) = 0
Or
(RL+Ri)−Ri(RL+Ri−2RL)=0
or
(RL+Ri)(Ri+RL)=0
Since (RL+Ri) cannot be zero,
Ri−RL=0 or RL=Ri
i.e. load resistance = internal resistance.
Thus for maximum power transfer, load resistance RLR_LRL must be equal to the
internal resistance RiR_iRi of the source. Under such conditions, the load is said to be
matched to the resistance RiR_iRi of the source. Fig. 1 (b) shows a graph of power
delivered to RLR_LRL as a function of RiR_iRi. It may be mentioned that efficiency
of maximum power transfer is 50% as one half of the total generated power is
dissipated in this internal resistance RiR_iRi of the source.
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PROCEDURE :
1. Connect 12 Volt AC Regulated Power Supply in the circuit (indicated by
dotted lines).
2. Connect R and VR (load resistance) in the circuit and also connect current
meter and voltmeter in the circuit.
3. Now increase the value of load resistance (VR) in steps and note down the
corresponding value of voltage and current. Calculate the power using formula:
P=V×IP = V \times IP=V×I
5. At a particular point when load resistance is made equal to the value of
R1R_1R1 (i.e., internal resistance of a source) maximum power is transferred
from source to load. Plot graph between power output and load resistance.
Result :-
Implemented and verified Maximum Power Transfer and
Superposition theorems in ac circuits.
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EXPERIMENT: 02
Implementation and verification of
Maximum Power
Transfer and Superposition theorems in ac
circuits.
THEORY:
Thevenin’s theorem :
Thevenin’s theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit,
irrespective of how complex it is, to an equivalent circuit with a single voltage
source and a series resistance.
Norton's theorem:
Norton's theorem states that any linear circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with a single resistor. This equivalent
circuit, known as the Norton equivalent, behaves identically to the original circuit
when connected to a load. The theorem simplifies circuit analysis by reducing
complex networks to a much simpler form
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VERIFICATION OF THEVENIN THEOREM :
R{1} = 500, ohm.
V = 12, Volt.
R{2} = 100, ohm.
R{3} = 90, ohm.
R{L} = 50, ohm.
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STEP – 1:
Open load and measure volt across open end Z₁ – Z₂, resulting circuit as shown in
Fig. 2 (a)
Open Circuit Volt = 1.75, Volt (Measured)
Open Circuit Volt which will appear across 100 ohm resistance
Vth = (100 x 12) / 600 = 2, Volt.
STEP – 2:
Now short circuit the volt source (with RL open circuit), the resulting circuit as
shown in Fig. 2 (b)
Now measure the Resistance at Z₁ – Z₂
R = (500 x 100) / (500 + 100) + 90 = 173.40 ohm.
Now above circuit between Z₁ – Z₂ may be replaced as:
SVth = 2, Volt.
Rth = 173.4, ohm.
RL = 25, ohm.
IL = 2 / (173.40 + 25) = 10, mAmp.
For RL = 50, ohm.
IL = 2 / (173.40 + 50) = 8.9, mAmp.
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Page | 16
VERIFICATION OF NORTON’S THEOREM:
STEP – 1:
Open load and measure volt across Z₁ – Z₂, resulting circuit diagram is shown in Fig.
3 (a).
Open Circuit Volt which will appear across 100 ohm resistance.
Vnor = (100 x 12) / 600 = 2, Volt.
STEP – 2:
Now disconnect voltage source and short the A & B points as shown in the circuit
diagram (with RL open circuit) Fig. 3 (b).
Now measure the Resistance at Z₁ – Z₂
Rnor=500×100500+100+90=173.4 ohm.R_{nor} = \frac{500 \times 100}{500 +
100} + 90 = 173.4 \, \text{ohm}.
Short circuit current
Isc = VnorRnor
Isc = 2/73.4
Isc = 11.5 , mA
The equivalent circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 3 (c).
Now the circuit may be replaced as:
Isc = 11.5 mAmp.I_{sc} = 11.5 mAmp
Isc = 173.40, ohm.R_{sc} .= 173.40, \, ohm.
For RL = 25 ohm
I L = 11.5×173.40/173.40+25= 10 mAmp.
For RL = 50 ohm
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I L = 11.5×173.40/173.40+50= 8.9 mAmp.
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EXPERIMENT: 03
Implementation and verification of Tellegens
theorem.
.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Experimental board on Tellegen’s theorem
2. Digital voltmeter 0-2V
3. Digital voltmeter 0-20V
4. Digital ammeter 0-20mA 5. Digital ammeter 0-200mA
THEORY:
Topological branch is defined as a branch, which is left after the sources in the
network have been reduced to zero. Zero voltage source means short circuit and zero
current source means open circuit. Consider the network shown in Fig.1, which is
composed of a two terminal elements across which a voltage exists and through which
a current flows. In this network, arbitrary reference directions have been selected for
all of the branch currents and the corresponding branch voltage is indicated, with the
positive reference direction at the tail of the current arrow. Now for this network,
select a set of branch voltage and a set of branch currents without any consideration of
the previous choice of branch voltages. The only requirements are that the voltage
must satisfy KVL and KCL be satisfied at each node. Then it can be shown that these
arbitrarily chosen voltages and currents satisfy the equation.
b VkIk=0 (1) k =1
Then,
Now Substitute the voltages obtained in Eq.2 for the VK in the sum vk ik and
rearrange the resulting sum to put in the form eA ( currents) + eB ( currents) + eC
( currents).
k =1
= eA(i1 +i2 +i6) + eB (-i2 + i3 + i4) + eC (-i4+ i5 + i6) + eD (-i1 –i3 – i5)
=0
Each product in above equation vanishes because each KCL summation equal zero at
the node. Therefore, one can say that b V k I k = 0 k =1 Where Ik is the current and
Vk is the voltage associated with the k th element. The above equation is same as
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Equation 1 and is the Tellegen’s theorem
Procedure
1. Assemble the circuit as shown in Fig.1 by connecting terminals 2 – 6 – 10; 1 – 3 –
11; 4 – 5 – 7 and 8 – 9 – 12 by connecting leads.
2. Now disconnect the connection 2 to 6 (keep the connection 6 to 10 as it is) and
connect VS between terminals 2 and 6. Draw the circuit and topology of this
assembled resistive network with voltage source in your note book..
3. Assign voltage with polarity and current with direction for each branch (resistance)
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according to Fig.1 in the circuit drawn in step 2.
4. With the help of digital voltmeter measure the voltage of each branch according
the polarity assigned in step 3 and note them with positive or negative sign. Select the
range of the voltmeter as convenient,
5. Now measure the current in each branch with digital ammeter according to the
direction as assigned in step 3 and note them with positive or negative sign. Assume
that the currents entering the node are negative and leaving the node are positive.
Select the range of the ammeter as convenient.
6. Find the sum of products of voltage and current of each branch, you will find that
the sum is almost zero. This proves Eq.1, i.e., this proves the Tellegen’s theorem for
this circuit.
OBSERVATION TABLE:-
Result :
We have study and verifies of Tallegen’s Theorem
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EXPERIMENT: 4
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. DC circuit training system
2. Set of wires.
3. DC Power supply
4. Digital A.V.O. meter
THEORY:
In any bilateral linear network containing one or more generators the ratio of a voltage
introduced in on mesh to the current (I) in any second mesh is the same as the ratio
obtained if the position of voltage and current are interchanged other emf being
removed .Let us consider a general network.
Procedure:-
1- Using the DC circuit trainer, connect the circuit Shown in Fig. (1-a) , take V =5V,
and R1=10kΩ, R2 = 100Ω and R3 =1kΩ.
2- 2- Measure the voltage and current of "R1 , R2 & R3", then record it in table
below
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3- Disconnect the DC power supply, and then measured the equivalent resistance
by using the AVO meter only.
5- Measure the voltage and current of "R1 , R2 & R3", then record it in table
below
Result :-
we studied Verification of Reciprocity theorem
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EXPERIMENT: 05
Design and testing of transient analysis in
RC/RL circuits
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Resistors
2. Capacitors
3. Inductors
4. Breadboard
5. Jumper wires
6. DC Power supply
7. Oscilloscope
8. Function generator
9. Multimeter
THEORY:
1. RC circuit:
A capacitor will charge when it is connected to a dc voltage source, When the
capacitor is fully charged, there is no current. (A capacitor behaves as open circuit).
But when the voltage source is disconnected and the wire is connected across a
charged capacitor the capacitor will discharge as shown in the Fig.1 below
Regarding to the induced voltage (VL) across the inductor it decreases as the current
increases which means if the induced voltage across the inductor has decreased by
63%, which causes the current to increase by 63% as shown in Fig.4.
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Procedure (RC Charging/Discharging ):
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9. Use cursors to measure the first time constant.
T1 =
1. Use breadboard to connect the circuit in Fig.7 shown below on breadboard and use
real Oscilloscope & Function generator to fill Table.3 below:
2. Set the function generator to the following parameters: Function: Square-wave,
Frequency: 1kHz, Amplitude: 1.25Vp( 2.5Vpp),
3. Run the function generator, adjust the oscilloscope axes to monitor the inductor
voltage (VL)
4. Use the differential time in the OSC (ΔT) to fill the Table.3: ΔT 5us 50us 100us
200us 300us 400us 500us 600us 700us 800us 900us VL
5. Use cursors to measure the first time constant. = 1T࣎
6. Sketch at the graph paper(2) below the inductor increasing/decreasing voltage
waveform using the values at Table.3. The increasing/decreasing voltage curve must
be compared with theoretical curve.
Graph Paper(2)
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EXPERIMENT: 06
Design and testing of transient analysis in
RLC circuits.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. A Computer with Waveforms installed
2. Analog Discovery 2
3. Breadboard Breakout for the Analog Discovery 2 with a Ribbon Cable
4. USB A to Micro-B cable
5. Digital multimeter
6. MB102 breadboard
7. Jumper wires
8. The following Resistors (1/4 watt, 1% or 5%)
a. 100Ω resistor
b. 1.0kΩ resistor
9. 100nF capacitor
10.220nF capacitor
11.10mH inductor
THEORY:
Resistors
As has been studied before, the application of a voltage V to a resistor (with
resistance R in Ohms), results in a current I, according to the formula:I=VR(1)The
current response to voltage change is instantaneous; a resistor has no transient
response.
Inductors
A change in voltage across an inductor (with inductance L in Henrys) does not result
in an instantaneous change in the current through it. The i-v relationship is described
with the equation:v=Ldidt(2)This relationship implies that the voltage across an
inductor approaches zero as the current in the circuit reaches a steady value. This
means that in a DC circuit, an inductor will eventually act like a short circuit.
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Capacitors
The transient response of a capacitor (with Capacitance C in Farads) is such that it
resists instantaneous change in the voltage across it. Its i−v relationship is described
by:i=Cdvdt(3)This implies that as the voltage across the capacitor reaches a steady
value, the current through it approaches zero. In other words, a capacitor eventually
acts like an open circuit in a DC circuit.
Procedures :
In theory, there are three cases for the way a series RLC circuit will respond when
the switch is closed at time t=0. In this lab, only the underdamped case will be dealt
with. For this case, the current in the circuit is described by:
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The current in the circuit oscillates due to the sine component in Equation (10), but
the maximum value it can reach is decaying due to the negative exponential. The
“envelope” that the current must fall within is described by:
i=±VOωdL exp(−αt)or|i|=VOωdL exp(−αt) (13)
The quantity α is referred to as the time constant of the envelope. It is determined by
taking the natural logarithm of both sides of the above equation:
ln|i|=lnVOωdL−αt (14)
which is a linear equation. If a graph of ln|i| vs. t is plotted, its slope will be –α
Result :
studied Design and testing of transient analysis in RLC circuits.
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EXPERIMENT: 07
To calculate Z, Y, ABCD parameters of a
given two port networks.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Power Supply
2. Bread Board
3. Five resistances
4. Connecting Leads.
5. Voltmeter
6. Ammeter
7.
THEORY:.
Z Parameters:
In Z parameters of a two-port, the input & output voltages V1 & V2 can be
expressed in terms of input & output currents I1 & I2. Out of four variables (i.e V1,
V2, I1, I2) V1& V2 are dependent variables whereas I1 & I2 are independent
variables. Thus,
V1 = Z11I1+ Z12 I2 -----(1)
V2 = Z21I1 + Z22 I2 ----(2)
Here Z11 & Z22 are the input & output driving point impedances while Z12 & Z21
are the reverse & forward transfer impedances.
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PROCEDURE:
a) Connect the circuit as shown in fig. & switch ‘ON’ the experimental board.
b) First open the O/P terminal & supply 5V to I/P terminal. Measure O/P Voltage &
I/P Current.
c) Secondly, open I/P terminal & supply 5V to O/P terminal. Measure I/P Voltage &
O/P current using multi-meter.
d) Calculate the values of Z parameter using Equation (1) & (2). e) Switch ‘OFF’ the
supply after taking the readings.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
(1) When O/P is open circuited i.e. I2 = 0 Z11 = V1/I1 Z21 =V2 /I1
(2) When I/P is open circuited i.e. II = 0 Z12 = V1/I2 Z22 = V2 /I2
RESULT : The Z-parameters of the two port network has been calculated and
verified.
B) Y Parameters :
In Y parameters of a two-port , the input & output currents I1 & I2 can be expressed
in terms of input & output voltages V1 & V2 . Out of four variables (i.e I1, I2, V,
V2) I1& I2 are dependent variables whereas V1 & V2 are independent variables.
I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 ------(1)
I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2 -------(2)
Here Y11 & Y22 are the input & output driving point admittances while Y12 &
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Y21are the reverse & forward transfer admittances.
PROCEDURE :
a) Connect the circuit as shown in fig. & switch ‘ON’ the experimental board.
b) First short the O/P terminal & supply 5V to I/P terminal. Measure O/P & I/P
current
c) Secondly, short I/P terminal & supply 5V to O/P terminal. Measure I/P & O/P
current using multi-meter.
d) Calculate the values of Y parameter using Eq. (1) & (2). e) Switch ‘off’ the supply
after taking the readings
RESULT : The Y-parameters of the two port network has been calculated and
verified.
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c) ABCD Parameters :
ABCD parameters are widely used in analysis of power transmission engineering
where they are termed as “Circuit Parameters”. ABCD parameters are also known as
“Transmission Parameters”. In these parameters, the voltage & current at the sending
end terminals can be expressed in terms of voltage & current at the receiving end.
Thus,
V1 = AV 2 + B (-I2)
I1 = CV2 + D (-I2)
Here “A” is called reverse voltage ratio, “B” is called transfer impedance “C” is
called transfer admittance & “D” is called reverse current ratio.
PROCEDURE :
a) Connect the circuit as shown in fig. & switch ‘ON’ the experimental board.
b) First open the O/P terminal & supply 5V to I/P terminal. Measure O/P voltage &
I/P current
c) Secondly, short the O/P terminal & supply 5V to I/P terminal. Measure I/P & O/P
current using multi-meter.
d) Calculate the A, B, C, & D parameters using the Eq. (1) & (2).
e) Switch ‘off’ the supply after taking the readings.
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RESULT: The ABCD-parameters of the two-port network has been calculated and
verified.
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EXPERIMENT: 08
Implementation and verification of transfer
function of two-port network.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Power Supply
2. Bread Board
3. Five resistances
4. Connecting Leads.
5. Voltmeter
6. Ammeter
THEORY:
For a one-port network, the driving point impedance or impedance of the
network is defined as
Z(s) = V(s)/I(s)
For the Transfer Function of Two Port Network without internal sources,
the driving point impedance function at port 1-1′ is the ratio of the
transform voltage at port 1-1′ to the transform current at the same port.
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Similarly, the driving point impedance at port 2-2′ is the ratio of transform
voltage at port 2-2′ to the transform current at the same port.
z22(s) = v2(s)/I2(s)
For the Transfer Function of Two Port Network, the driving point
admittance is defined as the ratio of the transform current at any port to the
transform voltage at the same port.
Therefore
or
The above network functions are found by forming the system of equations
using node or mesh analysis, and taking the transforms of equations by
setting the initial conditions to zero and solving for ratio of the response
to excitation.
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EXPERIMENT: 10
Implementation and verification of inter-
connection i.e. cascade, series, parallel, effect
of loading of two-port networks.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
Hence, the z-parameters of the series connection are the sum of z-parameters
of the individual network connected in series.
Parallel Connection of Two Ports:
Consider two networks N’ and N” are connected in parallel as shown in Fig.
6.8 (b). When two ports are connected in parallel, we can add their y-
parameters to get overall y-parameters of the parallel connection.
Let the y-parameters of the network N’ by y’11, y’12, y’21, y’22. Let the y-
parameters of the network N” be y”11, y”12, y”21, y”22. Let the overall y-
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parameters of parallel connection be y11, y12, y21, y22.
For parallel connection we have,
Hence, the transmission parameters for the cascaded two port network is
simply the matrix product of the transmission parameter matrix of each
individual two port network in cascade.
Series and Parallel Permissibility of Connection:
Before interconnecting two ports it is very important to check for the overall
port if the current entering one terminal is same as that leaving other terminal
of same port. This test is called as Validy test or Brune’s Test.
If the 2-port networks to be interconnected do not satisfy Brune’s test, an ideal
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transformer of 1:1 turns ratio is connected at one of the ports. This
transformer provides necessary isolation and it also ensures that the
characteristics of any network does not alter due to the interconnection with
other.
The permissibility of connection of two port network through the transformer
is as shown in the Fig. 6.9 (a) to (d).
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Result : Implemented and verified inter-connection i.e. cascade, series,
parallel, effect of loading of two-port networks
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EXPERIMENT: 11
Design and implementation of K-derived
LPF and HPF in T-sections.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
(ii) Variable frequency oscillator
(iii) Oscillosope
(iv) High impedance voltmeter
THEORY:
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PROCEDURE :
1. Design a constant-k or prototype T-section and -section Low Pass filter
with cut-off frequencyof 8kHz and load resistance of 500.
2. Design a constant-k or prototype T-section and -section High Pass filter
with cut-off frequencyof 8kHz and load resistance of 500.
3. Design an m-derived T-section and -section Low Pass filter with cut-off
frequency of 8kHzandload resistance of 500. Infinite attenuation occurring at
9.24kHz.
4. Design an m-derived T-section and -section High Pass filter with cut-off
frequency of 8kHzandload resistance of 500. Infinite attenuation occurring at
6.93kHz.
5. Build the filter networks designed in (1) to (4) above with available
components andcheckfrequency response of each network between 2kHz –
20kHz. Take several readings by varyingthe frequency of the oscillator (at least
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5 close readings around the cut-off frequency). Eachtime, maintain the
magnitude of input voltage at same value.
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EXPERIMENT: 12
Temperature dependent circuits and their
analysis.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
PHYWE power supply, Thermostat, Immersion probes, Bath for thermostat, Digital
Multi-meter, Resistor, Connecting cord, Tubing connector.
THEORY:
n restricted temperature ranges the change in the resistance of the electrical
components can be assumed to be linear. In these regions, the general formula
for the dependence of the resistance on the temperature is valid;
𝑹(𝑻) = 𝑹𝟐𝟎 + 𝑹𝟐𝟎.𝜶. (𝑻 − 𝟐𝟎 °𝐂)
Where;
R(T) = Resistance at T
R20 = Resistance at 20 °C
α = Temperature coefficient
T = Temperature at time of measurement
By rearranging and substituting the measured values the temperature
coefficient can be determined using the formula. In copper wire the free path of
the electrons in the electron vapor, which contribute to charge transport,
becomes shorter with increasing temperature. The change in resistance can be
clearly seen:
𝜶𝑪𝒖 = 𝟓. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 /𝑲
The resistance of the CuNi wire is nearly constant over the measured range.
This is in accordance with Mathies rule, which states;
𝐑𝐭𝐨𝐭 = 𝐑𝟐𝟎 + 𝐑(𝐓)
The change in the resistance with the temperature is very slight in the measured
temperature range. Consequently, the absolute resistance (R20) is predominant.
This experiment provides a negative temperature coefficient of;
𝜶𝑪𝒖𝑵𝒊 = −𝟏. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 /𝑲
In the carbon-layer resistor, the absolute resistance is very high to begin with.
The change with the temperature is, as is the case with CuNi, small and has
practically no effect. A negative temperature coefficient results;
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𝜶𝑪𝒖 = −𝟐. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 /𝑲
The metallic layer resister also has a relatively high absolute resistance at 20
°C. And the change in the measured temperature range is even lower than for
carbon. Thus, the temperature coefficient approaches zero.
𝜶𝒎𝒆𝒕 → 𝟎
The two NTC and PTC resistors consist of alloys. Depending on their
compositions, great changes in resistance can be realized in a small temperature
range. The curves that are recorded in this experiment can no longer be
considered linear. They serve only to illustrate the behavior of NTC and PTC
resistors
Literature Values:
𝜶𝑪𝒖 = 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 /𝑲
𝜶𝑪𝒖𝑵𝒊 = −𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 /𝑲
𝜶𝑪 = −𝟐. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 /𝑲
𝜶𝒎𝒆𝒕 = ± 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 /𝑲
𝜶𝑵𝑻𝑪 = − 𝟔. 𝟏𝟓 % /𝑲
𝜶𝑷𝑻𝑪 = 𝟐𝟎 % /𝑲
The value for PTC is valid in the steepest region of the characteristic line. In
semiconductors the number of charge carriers and the charge carrier density
increases with temperature (charge carrier generation, electron-hole pair
formation). From the law;
𝝈 = 𝒆. 𝒏. 𝝁
Where;
σ = Intrinsic conductivity
e = Elementary charge
n = Charge carrier density
µ = Mobility
One can see that the intrinsic conductivity of the semiconductor thus
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increases. The mobility indeed decreases with increasing temperature, but the
increase in the charge carrier density compensates for this effect. A definite
drop in resistance is observed; this allows one to infer that there is a negative
temperature coefficient. Through the calculation with the above-mentioned
formula for the temperature dependence, rearranged for the voltage Up , the
following values are obtained.
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Procedure :
Place the immersion probe set, which is enclosed in a watertight plastic bag,
into the water bath. The resistance values for the PTC, NTC, metallic film and
carbon film resistors, as well as the Cu and CuNi wire resistors, can be
measured directly with the digital hand multi-meter (circuit 6 diagram, Fig. 5).
To do this, connect the multi-meter to the ground jack, which is connected to
all the components, and the jack located under the symbol corresponding to the
respective component. Note the different resistance values, and plot them as a
function of temperature.
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Result : Studied Temperature dependent circuits and their analysis
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