Appendix: Review of Some of the Important

Theoretical Concepts

This appendix reviews some of the important theoretical concepts used in the book.

Instantaneous Power

The instantaneous power of a device ( p(t)) is defined as:

pðt Þ ¼ vðt Þ  iðt Þ ðA:1Þ

where v(t) is the voltage across the device and i(t) is the current through the device.
The instantaneous power is generally a time-varying quantity. If the passive sign
convention illustrated in Fig. A.1 is observed, the device is absorbing power if p(t) is
positive at a specified value of time t. The device is supplying power if p(t) is
negative.

Fig. A.1 Passive sign

convention: p(t) > 0
indicates power is being
absorbed

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to 745
Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022
F. Asadi, Essential Circuit Analysis using NI Multisim™ and MATLAB®,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89850-2
746 Appendix: Review of Some of the Important Theoretical Concepts

For instance, consider the simple circuit shown in Fig. A.2. In this circuit,
vin(t) ¼ 311 sin (377t) and R ¼ 50 Ω.

Fig. A.2 A simple resistive

circuit

According to Ohm’s law, iðt Þ ¼ vinRðtÞ ¼ 6:22 sin ð377t Þ and instantaneous power
for resistor R is:

pR ðt Þ ¼ 311 sin ð377t Þ  6:22 sin ð377t Þ ¼ 2345 sin 2 ð377t Þ: ðA:2Þ

Obtained result is positive for all the times, i.e., 8t, sin2(377t) > 0. This is
expected since resistor dissipates power.
The instantaneous power of AC source can be calculated with the aid of Fig. A.3.

Fig. A.3 Calculation of

instantaneous power of
input AC source

The instantaneous power of AC source is:

Appendix: Review of Some of the Important Theoretical Concepts 747

pV in ðt Þ ¼ 311 sin ð377t Þ  6:22 sin ð377t Þ ¼ 2345 sin 2 ð377t Þ ðA:3Þ

Obtained result is negative for all the time. We expect this result since the AC
source supplies the power into the load. For instance, at t ¼ 12 ms, pV in ðt Þ ¼
2:263 kW and pR(t) ¼ + 2.263 kW. This means that at t ¼ 12 ms, AC source
supplies 2.263 kW and resistor absorbs 2.263 kW. Figure A.4 shows the instanta-
neous power waveforms on the same graph.

Fig. A.4 Graph of instantaneous power for input AC source and load resistor

Average Power

Function f(t) is periodic if,

∃T > 0, 8t f ðt þ T Þ ¼ f ðt Þ ðA:4Þ

T is called the period. For instance, f(t) ¼ sin (t) is periodic since f(t + 2π) ¼ f(t).
If device voltage ( v(t)) and current (i(t)) are periodic, i.e., v(t) ¼ v(t + T ) and
i(t) ¼ i(t + T ), then the instantaneous power will be a periodic since
748 Appendix: Review of Some of the Important Theoretical Concepts

pðt Þ ¼ vðt Þ  iðt Þ

pðt þ T Þ ¼ vðt þ T Þ  iðt þ T Þ ¼ vðt Þ  iðt Þ ¼ pðt Þ ðA:5Þ

The average power for such a periodic waveform is defined as:

Z t 0 þT Z t 0 þT
1 1
P¼ pðt Þdt ¼ vðt Þ  iðt Þdt ðA:6Þ
T t0 T t0

Assume that v(t) is a constant function, i.e., v(t) ¼ Vdc. In this case the average
power can be calculated by the
Z t 0 þT Z t 0 þT  Z t0 þT 
1 1 1
P¼ vðt Þ  iðt Þdt ¼ V dc  iðt Þdt ¼ V dc iðt Þdt
T t0 T t0 T t0
¼ V dc I avg ðA:7Þ

The average power for constant i(t), i.e., i(t) ¼ Idc can be found in the same way.
Z t 0 þT Z t 0 þT  Z t0 þT 
1 1 1
P¼ vðt Þ  iðt Þdt ¼ vðt Þ  I dc dt ¼ I dc vðt Þdt
T t0 T t0 T t0
¼ I dc vavg ðA:8Þ

Effective Value of a Signal

Consider the simple circuit shown in Fig. A.5. The input source is a periodic voltage
source, i.e., v(t + T ) ¼ v(t). The load is purely resistive.

Fig. A.5 A resistor is

connected to a periodic
voltage source

The average power consumed by the resistor is:

Appendix: Review of Some of the Important Theoretical Concepts 749

Z Z Z 2
1 T
1 T 1 T vð t Þ
P¼ pðt Þdt ¼
vðt Þ  iðt Þdt ¼ dt
T0 T 0 T 0 R
 Z 
1 1 T 2
¼ vðt Þ dt ðA:9Þ
R T 0

Now consider the circuit shown in Fig. A.6. The input source is a constant DC
voltage source, i.e., v(t) ¼ Vdc.

Fig. A.6 The same resistor

(as the one in Fig. A.5) is
connected to a DC source

2
In this case the power consumed byqthe resistor ffiis VRdc . Power consumption of
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
RT
both circuits are the same when V dc ¼ T1 0 vðt Þ2 dt . Since,

 Z  sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Z
1 1 T 2 V dc 2 1 T
vðt Þ dt ¼ ⟹V dc ¼ vðt Þ2 dt ðA:10Þ
R T 0 R T 0
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
RT ffi
The T1 0 vðt Þ2 dt is called Root Mean Square (RMS) or effective value of
signalv(t). So, RMS value of periodic signal v(t) is a DC value which produce the
same amount of heat in the resistive load as the periodic signal v(t).
The RMS can be defined for the current waveforms as well.
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Z
1 T 2
I rms ¼ iðt Þ dt ðA:11Þ
T 0

Example A.1
Determine the RMS value of the periodic pulse waveform shown in Fig. A.7.

Fig. A.7 Waveform of Example A.1

750 Appendix: Review of Some of the Important Theoretical Concepts

Solution

Vm 0 < t < DT
vð t Þ ¼
0 DT < t < T

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Z Z DT Z T  rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 T 2 1 1 2
V rms ¼ vðt Þ dt ¼ V m dt þ
2
0dt ¼ V m DT
T 0 T 0 DT T
pffiffiffiffi
¼ Vm D

Example A.2 Determine the RMS values of the following waveforms ω ¼ 2π
T .

(a) v(t) ¼ Vm sin (ωt).

(b) v(t) ¼ |V
8m sin (ωt)|.
>
< V m sin ðωt Þ 0<t<
T
(c) vðt Þ ¼ 2 .
>
:0 T
<t<T
2
Solution
(a)
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Z Z T
1 T 2 1
V rms ¼ ðV m sin ðωt ÞÞ dt ¼  Vm 2
sin 2 ðωt Þdt
T 0 T 0
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Z Z Z T
V m 2 T 1  cos ð2ωt Þ V m2 T 1 cos ð2ωt Þ
¼ dt ¼ dt  dt
T 0 2 T 0 2 0 2
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
  ffi
V m2 T sin ð2ωt Þ T
¼   j
T 2 4ω 0
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
V m2 T
¼  0
T 2
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
V m2
¼
2
V
¼ pmffiffiffi
2

(b) RMS value of v(t) ¼ |Vm sin (ωt)| is the same as v(t) ¼ Vm sin (ωt). Since (|
V mffiffi
Vm sin (ωt)|)2 ¼ (Vm sin (ωt))2. So, RMS value of v(t) ¼ |Vm sin (ωt)| is p 2
. Graph
Appendix: Review of Some of the Important Theoretical Concepts 751

of v(t) ¼ |Vm sin (ωt)| is shown in Fig. A.8. Such a waveform is called Full Wave
Rectified in power electronics.

Fig. A.8 Full wave rectified sinusoidal waveform

8
>
< V m sin ðωt Þ 0<t<
T
(c) Graph of vðt Þ ¼ is shown in Fig. A.9. Such a 2
>
:0 T
<t<T
2
waveform is called Half Wave Rectified in power electronics.

Fig. A.9 Half wave rectified sinusoidal waveform

vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u
u 1 Z T2 Z T ! Z T
t 1 2
2
V rms ¼ ðV m sin ðωt ÞÞ dt þ 0dt ¼  Vm 2
sin 2 ðωt Þdt
T 0 T T 0
2
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Z T Z T Z T
V m 2 2 1  cos ð2ωt Þ V m2 2 1 2 cos ð2ωt Þ
¼ dt ¼ dt  dt
T 0 2 T 0 2 0 2
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
  Tffi
V m2 t sin ð2ωt Þ
¼   j2
T 2 4ω 0
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
V m2 T
¼  0
T 4
752 Appendix: Review of Some of the Important Theoretical Concepts

rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
V m2
¼
4
Vm
¼
2

RMS of triangular wave shapes can be calculated using the formulas shown in
Fig. A.10.

Fig. A.10 RMS value of triangular waveforms

Effective Value of Sum of Two Periodic Signals

Consider two periodic waveforms, i.e., v1(t + T ) ¼ v1(t), v2(t + T ) ¼ v2(t). The RMS
value of sum of two waveforms (v(t) ¼ v1(t) + v2(t)) is:

ZT ZT
1 2 1  2
V rms 2
¼ ðv1 þ v2 Þ dt ¼ v1 þ 2v1 v2 þ v2 2 dt
T T
0 0
ðA:12Þ
ZT ZT ZT
1 1 1
¼ v1 2 dt þ 2v1 v2 dt þ v2 2 dt
T T T
0 0 0
Appendix: Review of Some of the Important Theoretical Concepts 753

RT RT
Sometime the T1 0 v1 ðt Þv2 ðt Þdt term is zero. The T1 0 v1 ðt Þv2 ðt Þdt is the iner
R T
product of v1(t) and v2(t). When T1 0 v1 ðt Þv2 ðt Þdt ¼ 0, the signals v1(t) and v2(t) are
called orthogonal. Table A.1 shows some of the important orthogonal functions.

Table A.1 Some of the No. v1(t) v2(t)

important orthogonal func-
1 sin(n  ω  t + φ1) sin(m  ω  t + φ2)
tions (ω ¼ 2π
T , n 6¼ m and k is a
2 sin(n  ω  t + φ1) cos(m  ω  t + φ2)
constant)
3 cos(n  ω  t + φ1) cos(m  ω  t + φ2)
4 sin(n  ω  t + φ1) k
5 cos(m  ω  t + φ1) k

For instance according to the second row of the table, sin(n Rω  t + φ1) and cos
T
(m  ω  t + φ2) (when n 6¼ m) are orthogonal since T1 0 sin ðnωt þ φ1 Þ 
cos ðmωt þ φ2 Þdt ¼ 0.
For orthogonal functions,
Z Z
1 T
21 T 2
V rms 2
¼ ðv1 þ v2 Þ dt ¼ v1 þ 2v1 v2 þ v2 2 dt
T 0 T 0
Z Z Z
1 T 2 1 T 1 T 2
V rms 2 ¼ v dt þ 2v1 v2 dt þ v dt
T 0 1 T 0 T 0 2
Z Z
1 T 2 1 T 2
V rms ¼
2
v dt þ v dt
T 0 1 T 0 2
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
V rms ¼ V 1,rms 2 þ V 2,rms 2 ðA:13Þ

RMS value of sum of more than two orthogonal functions (each two terms are
assumed to be orthogonal) can be calculated in the same way:

Z !
X
N
1 T
vðt Þ ¼ vn ðt Þ8k, l 1  k  N, o1  l  N, ok ¼
6 l, o vk ðt Þvl ðt Þdt ¼ 0 ⟹
n¼1
T 0
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi u
uX N
V rms ¼ V 1,rms 2 þ V 2,rms 2 þ V 3,rms 2 þ . . . ¼ t V n,rms 2 ðA:14Þ
n¼1

 
Example A.3 Determine the RMS value of v(t) ¼ 4 + 8 sin (ω1t + 10 ) + 5 sin (ω2t + 50 )
under the following conditions.
(a) ω2 ¼ 2ω1
(b) ω2 ¼ ω1
754 Appendix: Review of Some of the Important Theoretical Concepts

Solution:
 
(a) When ω2 ¼ 2ω1, the v(t) ¼ 4 + 8 sin (ω1t + 10 ) + 5 sin (2ω1t + 50 ).
According to Table A.1, all the functions are orthogonal to each other, so
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 2  2
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
8 5
V rms ¼ V 1,rms 2 þ V 2,rms 2 þ V 3,rms 2 ¼ 42 þ pffiffiffi þ pffiffiffi ¼ 7:78 V
2 2
 
(b) When ω2 ¼ ω1, the v(t) ¼ 4 + 8 sin (ω1t + 10 ) + 5 sin (ω1t + 50 ).
 
8 sin (ω1t + 10 ) and 5 sin (ω1t + 50 ) are not orhtogonal to each other. So,
we can’t use the ffi previous formullas. Note that a  sin ðωt Þ þ b 
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  
cos ðωt Þ ¼ a2 þ b2 sin ωt þ tan 1 ba . So,
   
vðt Þ ¼ 4 þ 8 sin ω1 t þ 10 þ 5 sin ω1 t þ 50

 
¼ 4 þ 12:3 sin ω1 t þ 25:2

The two terms of last equation are orthogonal to each other (See Table A.1). So,
the RMS is
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 2
12:3
V rms ¼ 4 þ pffiffiffi
2
¼ 9:57 V
2

Example A.4 In this example we show how RMS values can be calculated with the
aid of MATLAB®. Assume
v(t) ¼ 311 sin (2π  60t) + 100 sin (2π  2  60t) + 20 sin (2π  3  60t) is
given. The RMS can be calculated easily:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 2  2  2ffi
311 100 20
V rms ¼ pffiffiffi þ pffiffiffi þ pffiffiffi ¼ 231:43 V
2 2 2

The commands shown in Fig. A.11 calculates the RMS value of given signal. The
first two lines sample a period of given signal. The sampling time is 6000
1
¼ 166:7μs.
The rms command is used to calculate the RMS value of sampled signal.
Appendix: Review of Some of the Important Theoretical Concepts 755

Fig. A.11 Calculation of RMS value of v(t) ¼ 311 sin (2π  60t) + 100 sin (2π  2  60t) + 20 sin
(2π  3  60t) with 6000
1
steps

The result is 230.283 which is a little bit lower than the expected value of 231.43.
if you decrease the sampling time from 166.7μs to 16.67μs you get a more accurate
result (Fig. A.12).

Fig. A.12 Calculation of RMS value of v (t) ¼ 311 sin (2π  60t) + 100 sin (2π  2  60t) + 20 sin
(2π  3  60t) with 60000
1
steps

Measurement of RMS of Signals

The cheap multimeters are not suitable devices to measure the RMS value of signals
inside a power electronics converters. The cheap multimeters are able to measure the
RMS value of pure sinusoidal signals, i.e. the one shown in Fig. A.13.
756 Appendix: Review of Some of the Important Theoretical Concepts

Vm

π 2π ωt

–Vm

Fig. A.13 Pure sinusoidal waveform

Figure A.14 shows one of the methods that cheap multimeter uses measure the
RMS of a signal. VX is the signal under measurement. Assume that VX is a pure
sinusoidal waveform, i.e. a signal such as the one shown in Fig. A.13. Then the
capacitor is charged up to Vm Volts (voltage drop of diode is neglected) where Vm
is the peak value of voltage under measurement. So, Analog-to-Digital converter
reads the maximum of input signal. The read value is simply multiplied by p1ffiffi2, and
pffiffi, is the RMS value of input signal. This method only works for pure
the result, i.e., Vm
2
sinusoidal signals and doesn’t produce correct result if the input signal is not pure
sinusoidal.

Fig. A.14 A simple circuit for detection of input AC signal peak value

The expensive multimeters samples the input waveform and uses a processor to
calculate the RMS value. So, the wave shape of input signal doesn’t affect the
measurements. Such a multimeter has “TRUE RMS” label on it. So, ensure that your
multimeter is TRUE RMS type if you want to measure the RMS of a signal of a
power electronics converters. Digital oscilloscopes can be used to measure the RMS
of signals as well.
Appendix: Review of Some of the Important Theoretical Concepts 757

Apparent Power and Power Factor

Apparent power (S) is the product of RMS of voltage and RMS of current
magnitudes.

S ¼ V rms  I rms ðA:15Þ

The power factor of a load is defined as the ratio of average power to apparent
power:

P P
pf ¼ ¼ ðA:16Þ
S Vrms Irms

The above equation can be used to analyse both the linear circuits and non-linear
circuits. In the linear circuit case PF ¼ cos (α) where α shows the phase angle
between the voltage and current sinusoids.

Power Computations for Linear Circuits

The steady state voltages and currents of a linear circuit which has sinusoidal AC
sources are sinusoidal. Assume an element with the following voltage and current,

vðt Þ ¼ V m cos ðωt þ θÞ

iðt Þ ¼ I m cos ðωt þ φÞ ðA:17Þ

Then the instantaneous power is:

pðt Þ ¼ vðt Þiðt Þ ¼ ½V m cos ðωt þ θÞ½I m cos ðωt þ φÞ ðA:18Þ

According to basic trigonometric identities:

1
ð cos AÞð cos BÞ ¼ ½ cos ðA þ BÞ þ cos ðA  BÞ ðA:19Þ
2

So, instantaneous power can be written as:

V mIm
pð t Þ ¼ ½ cos ð2ωt þ θ þ φÞ þ cos ðθ  φÞ ðA:20Þ
2

The average power can be calculated easily:

758 Appendix: Review of Some of the Important Theoretical Concepts

ZT
1 V m I m RT
pð t Þ ¼ pðt Þdt ¼ ½ cos ð2ωt þ θ þ φÞ þ cos ðθ  φÞdt
T 2 0
0 ðA:21Þ
V mI m
¼ cos ðθ  φÞ
2
¼ V rms I rms cos ðθ  φÞ

ðθφÞ
So, the power factor of circuit is V rms IVrmsrmscos
I rms ¼ cos ðθ  φÞ . The average
power (measured with units of Watts, W) is the part of power which is consumed
by the resistors in the circuit. In the steady state, no net power is absorbed by an
inductor or a capacitor. The term reactive power (measured with units of Volt-Amper
Reactive, VAR) is commonly used in conjunction with voltages and currents for
inductors and capacitors. Reactive power is characterized by energy storage during
one-half of the cycle and energy retrieval during the other half. Reactive power (Q) is
calculated as:

Q ¼ V rms I rms sin ðθ  φÞ ðA:22Þ

By convention, inductors absorb positive reactive power and capacitors absorb

negative reactive power.
Complex
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Power (measured with units of Volt Amper,VA) is defined as
(j ¼ 1Þ:

S ¼ P þ jQ ðA:23Þ

Apparent power is the magnitude of complex power:

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
S = jSj ¼ P2 þ Q2 ðA:24Þ

Example A.5 In the following circuit (Fig. A.15), v1(t) ¼ 311 sin (2  π  50  t),
L ¼ 0.1 H ve R ¼ 40 Ω. Determine the apparent power, average (active) power,
reactive power and power factor.

Fig. A.15 Circuit of

Example A.5
Appendix: Review of Some of the Important Theoretical Concepts 759

Solution:

Z ¼ R þ j  L  ω ¼ 40 þ 31:415j

 
1 Lω 1 31:415 
φ ¼ tan ¼ tan ¼ 38:14 ¼ 0:666 Rad
R 40
311  
V ¼ pffiffiffi < 0 ¼ 219:92∢0
2
V 219:92ej0
I¼ ¼ ¼ 3:4  2:67j ¼ 4:323e0:666j
Z 40 þ 31:42j
S ¼ jV  Ij ¼ 950:824 VA
P ¼ V  I  cos ðφÞ ¼ 747:63 W
Q ¼ V  I  sin ðφÞ ¼ 587:46 VAR
PF ¼ cos ðφÞ ¼ 0:786

Fourier Series

A periodic and non-sinusoidal signal f(t) that satisfy certain conditions (Dirichlet
conditions) can be written as the sum of sinusoids. The Fourier series of f(t) ¼ f(t + T )
can be written as (ω0 ¼ 2πT ):

X
1
f ð t Þ ¼ a0 þ ½an cos ðnω0 t Þ þ bn sin ðnω0 t Þ ðA:25Þ
n¼1

where a0, an and bn are,

760 Appendix: Review of Some of the Important Theoretical Concepts

T
Z2
1
a0 ¼ f ðt Þdt
T
T

2
T
Z2
2
an ¼ f ðt Þ cos ðnω0 t Þdt ðA:26Þ
T
T

2
T
Z2
2
bn ¼ f ðt Þ sin ðnω0 t Þdt
T
T

2
R T2
The a0 ¼ T1 T2
f ðt Þdt is called the average value of f(t). The above equations can
be written p
in ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
the following
ffi  forms as well (remember that a  sin ðωt Þ þ b 

cos ðωt Þ ¼ a þ b sin ωt þ tan 1 ba ).
2 2

(A) Sum of sines

X
1
f ð t Þ ¼ a0 þ C n sin ðnω0 t þ θn Þ
n¼1
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi   ðA:27Þ
1 an
Cn ¼ an þ bn and θn ¼ tan
2 2
bn

(B) Sum of cosines

X
1
f ð t Þ ¼ a0 þ Cn cos ðnω0 t þ θn Þ
n¼1
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi   ðA:28Þ
1 bn
C n ¼ an þ bn and θn ¼ tan
2 2

an

The following equation can be used to determine the RMS value of a signal using
its Fourier series coefficients.
Appendix: Review of Some of the Important Theoretical Concepts 761

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi v u
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
X 1 u X 1  2
C
F rms ¼ F n,rms 2 ¼ ta0 2 þ pnffiffiffi
n¼0 n¼1 2
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
X 1  2
an þ bn 2
¼ a0 þ 2 ðA:29Þ
n¼1
2

Fourier Series of Important Wave Shapes

Fourier series of important wave shapes are shown in Figs. A.16, A.17, A.18, A.19,
and A.20.

Fig. A.16 Fourier series of a half wave rectified waveform

Fig. A.17 Fourier series of a full wave rectified waveform

762 Appendix: Review of Some of the Important Theoretical Concepts

Fig. A.18 Fourier series of a pulsed waveform

Fig. A.19 Fourier series of a square wave

Appendix: Review of Some of the Important Theoretical Concepts 763

Fig. A.20 Fourier series of a modified square wave

Calculation of Average Power Using the Fourier Series

Assume that the Fourier series of voltage and current of an element is given as
follows

X
1
vðt Þ ¼ V 0 þ V n cos ðnω0 t þ θn Þ
n¼1
ðA:30Þ
X
1
iðt Þ ¼ I 0 þ I n cos ðnω0 t þ φn Þ
n¼1

RT
Then the average power (i.e., T1 0 vðt Þiðt Þdt) can be calculated as:

X
1 X
1
P¼ Pn ¼ V 0 I 0 þ V n,rms I n,rms cos ðθn  φn Þ ðA:31Þ
n¼0 n¼1

or

X1
V n, max I n, max
P ¼ V 0I0 þ cos ðθn  φn Þ ðA:32Þ
n¼1
2


Forinstancetheaveragepowerforv(t)¼10+20cos(2π60t)+30cos(4π60t+30 )
 
and i(t) ¼ 2 + 2.65 cos (2π  60t  48.5 ) + 2.43 cos (4π  60t  36.2 ) is 52.2 W.
764 Appendix: Review of Some of the Important Theoretical Concepts

Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)

THD quantify the non-sinusoidal property of a waveform. THD is often applied in

situations where the dc term is zero. Assume that the Fourier series of the signal is
given ( f(t) can be either voltage or current waveform):

X
1
f ðt Þ ¼ ½an cos ðnω0 t Þ þ bn sin ðnω0 t Þ ðA:33Þ
n¼1

Then the THD of signal is defined as:

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
F rms 2  F 1,rms 2
THD ¼ ðA:34Þ
F 1,rms 2

Where Frms and F1, rms show the RMS value of s

signal f(t) and RMS value of
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
P ðan 2 þbn 2 Þ
1
fundamental harmonic of f(t) (note that F rms ¼ 2 and F 1,rms ¼
n¼1
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ða1 2 þb1 2 Þ
2 ). For instance for a current waveform of i-
(t) ¼ 4 sin ffi(ω0t) + 1.5 sin (3ω0t) + 0.64 sin (5ω0t), the THD is
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
3:05452 2:8292
2:8292
¼0:408. It is quite common to express the THD in percentage, so
the THD for aforementioned current waveform is 40.8%.
Example A.6 Determine the THD of v(t) ¼ 311 sin (2π  60t) + 100 sin (2π  2 
60t) + 20 sin (2π  3  60t).
Solution
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 2 2
RMS of given waveforms is V rms ¼ pffiffi
311
þ 100 pffiffi þ p20ffiffi ¼ 231:43 V:
2 2 2
Peak value of fundamental harmonic is 311 V. So, the RMS value of fundamental
pffiffi ¼ 219:91 V. Finally, the THD is:
harmonic is V 1,rms ¼ 311
2

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
V rms 2  V 1,rms 2 231:432  219:912
THD ¼ 2
¼ ¼ 0:33 or 33%
V 1,rms 219:912

Example A.7 Determine the THD for the given voltage waveform

100  1ms < t < 0
vð t Þ ¼
þ100 0 < t < 1ms
Appendix: Review of Some of the Important Theoretical Concepts 765

Solution
The graph of one period of given waveform is shown in Fig. A.21.
Fourier series of v(t) is:

X
1
2  200
vð t Þ ¼ sin ðnω0 t Þ ðA:35Þ
nπ
n¼1, 3, 5

RMS value of v(t) is:

Fig. A.21 Graph of given v(t)

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Z Z 0 Z 1m
1 T 1 1
V rms ¼ vðt Þ2 dt ¼ ð100Þ2 dt þ ð100Þ2 dt
T 0 2m 1m 2m 0
¼ 100 V ðA:36Þ

Fundamental harmonic (first harmonic) of v(t) has the peak value of V 1 ¼

V 1ffiffi
2200
π ¼ 127:324 V: So the RMS value of
fundamental harmonic is V 1,rms ¼ p 2
¼
pffiffi ¼ 90:0325 V. Finally, the THD is:
127:324
2
766 Appendix: Review of Some of the Important Theoretical Concepts

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
V rms 2  V 1,rms 2 1002  90:03252
THD ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:4834 or 48:34% ðA:37Þ
V 1,rms 2 90:03252
Index

A Colon operator, 30–35

AC source, 127, 129, 146, 214–217, 331, Colpitts oscillator, 597–599
334, 339, 373 Comment block, 172–175
AC sweep analysis, 370, 371, 537, 545 Common emitter amplifier, 505–510, 512
Add fault to the component, 498 Common mode gain, 555, 573
Agilent measurement devices, 251 Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR),
Analog Behavioral Modeling (ABM) 554–564
source, 656 Conj function, 6
Apparent power, 216–219 Coupled inductor, 358–365, 367–369
Arbitrary Laplace function block, 413 Coupling coefficient, 358
Assign a name to a node, 166 Current clamp, 235–238
Average power, 748 Current controlled current source, 313,
315–317, 321

B
Binary counter, 642 D
Bode function, 77 -3 dB points, 542
Bode plotter, 397–399 DCD-HEX block, 640
Boolean function, 624–628, 632, 660 Dc interactive voltage block, 453–455
Breakdown voltage, 458 DC operating point analysis, 288
Buck converter, 719, 722, 723, 725–728 Dc power source, 110
Bus connector, 644–654 DC sweep analysis, 458
Dependent sources, 312
Det function, 23
C Difference amplifier, 554–564
Capacitance of PCB, 543 Differential mode gain, 557, 569
Center tap transformer, 498 Diff function, 49
Cftool, 438, 439 Digital electronic, 611
Circuit description box, 175, 177–180 Digital IC, 611
Circuit wizard, 602, 603 Digital multimeter, 156–159, 251
Clc command, 12, 13 Digital probe, 619, 634
Clear instrument data, 139 Digital test inputs, 633
CMRR of differential pair, 564–575 Dimmer circuit, 697, 698, 700–703

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to 767
Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022
F. Asadi, Essential Circuit Analysis using NI Multisim™ and MATLAB®,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89850-2
768 Index

Diode, 429–441, 443, 447–462, 473, 474, Input/output impedance of non-inverting op

478–481, 483, 485, 486, 490, 491, amp amplifier, 519–525
502–505 Instantaneous power, 745
Distortion analyzer, 525–531, 535 Interactive digital constant block, 615
Internal resistance for the voltmeter, 119
Internal resistance of ammeter, 125
E Int function, 49
Effective value of signal, 749 Inverse Fourier transform, 49
Efficiency of power amplifier, 593 Inverse Laplace transform, 48
Electrical drives, 737–741 Inverse of a matrix, 23
Exponential functions, 29 IV analyzer, 441–443, 445–447
Export the result to Excel, 283
Export the result to MATLAB, 284
Eye function, 38 L
Ezplot function, 43 Laplace function, 47
Laplace transform, 45–49
Lim function, 49
F Linspace function, 35
Filter capacitor, 481, 488, 492 Lissajous curves, 247–250
Filter wizard, 603, 604 Logarithmic functions, 29
Flip flop, 654, 655, 660, 662 Logic converter, 621
Fourier analysis, 682, 684, 732 Logic gates, 611
Fourier series, 761 Logspace function, 36
Fourier transform, 49
Freewheeling diode, 667
Frequency division, 654 M
Frequency response of CE amplifier, Max function, 21
537–543, 545 Maximum power transfer, 343–351
Frequency response of circuit, 370 Min function, 21
Full adder circuit, 613 Mod function, 10–12
Full wave rectifier, 489–494, 498 MOSFET and diode block, 719
Multiplier/divider block, 231
Multisim components, 97
G
Grapher view, 283, 284
Ground element, 169–171 N
NAND gate implementation, 626
Norton equivalent circuits, 307–312
H Not a Number (NaN), 11
Half wave rectifier, 471–481, 483–489, 608
Help function, 83
Hyperbolic functions, 28, 29 O
Ohm’s law, 746
Ones function, 38
I On page connector block, 318, 321, 322
Ilaplace function, 48 Op-amp clamp circuit, 608
Impulse function, 71 Output impedance of CE amplifier, 545–554
Initial condition of capacitor/inductor, 255
Input impedance of CE amplifier, 545
Input impedance of differential pair, 575 P
Input/output impedance of circuits, 380 Partial fraction expansion, 45, 47–49
Input/output impedance of common emitter Phase angle controller 2 pulse block, 668, 669
amplifier, 512–516, 518, 519 Phase angle controller 6 phase block, 687
Index 769

Phase difference, 239–244, 246, 247 T

Piecewise linear voltage source block, 416 Tektronix oscilloscope, 251, 253
Plot command, 56 Temperature sweep, 448, 449
Poly function, 40 THD of amplifiers, 532, 534
Polyval function, 41 Thevenin equivalent circuit, 307, 312, 318
Potentiometer, 292–295, 297 Three phase circuit, 323, 325–333, 335, 336,
Power electronic, 663–742 338–340
Power factor, 216–219, 221, 336–340 Three phase controlled rectifier, 687–689,
Prefixes, 115, 116 691–697
Pretty function, 50 Three phase inverter, 728–734
Probes, 132–144, 147, 156, 216, 222 Three phase source, 323–333, 335–337,
PWM block, 723, 725 339–343
Pwm sinusoidal 3 phase block, 728, 730 Thyristor, 663–668, 675–682, 687, 696
Time delay block, 679
555 timer wizard, 660
R Time step of simulation, 281–283
Regulator IC, 494, 496–498 Title block, 177–185
Relaxation oscillator, 599–602 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), 525
Rem function, 10–12 Transfer function block, 413–416, 418–424,
Residue function, 45 426, 427
Resistive circuit, 103 Transformer, 351–358
Ripple, 482, 484, 493 Transient analysis, 203, 217, 255, 264, 364,
Root Mean Square (RMS), 749 367, 404, 409, 427
Rotating a component, 105 Transpose function, 22
Rounding functions, 30 Trigonometric functions, 26–28
Truth table, 613

S
Sample simulations, 102, 103 V
Search for a component, 100–102 Vertical voltmeter, 118, 119
Seven segment display, 639 Virtual components, 466, 468
Signal phase controlled rectifier, 667 Virtual diode, 466
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR), 663, 667, Virtual transistor, 466, 468
668, 689, 742 Voltage controlled voltage source, 223–235,
Simplify function, 44, 50 313–316
Single phase voltage controller, 742 Voltage regulator, 494–498
Single Pole Double Through (SPDT), 298–302 Voltage summer block, 226, 227, 424
Small signal AC resistance, 452
Solution of a differential equation, 42
SPICE model, 462, 463, 465, 466, 469 W
Squirrel cage AC motor, 742 Wattmeter block, 219–223
State diagram, 660 Wien bridge oscillator, 597–599
Step function, 71 Word generator, 633
Step response of circuits, 400 Worst common mode gain, 573
Step voltage block, 298, 302, 404
Sub circuit block, 581–585, 587–593
Sum of Square Error (SSE), 440 Z
Switching behavior of MOSFET, 703 Zener diode, 453–462
Symbolic variable, 42, 49 Zeros function, 38
Syms function, 49