1.

Expanding Expressions

Expanding an expression means removing parentheses by

multiplying terms. The key principle here is the **distributive
property**.

### a) Distributing a single term:

Multiply the term outside the parentheses by each term

inside.

$$a(b+c) = ab + ac$$

**Example:**

Expand $3(x+2)$.

$$3(x+2) = 3 \times x + 3 \times 2 = 3x + 6$$

### b) Expanding two binomials (FOIL method):

When multiplying two binomials, you multiply the:

* **F**irst terms
* **O**uter terms

* **I**nner terms

* **L**ast terms

Then, combine like terms.

$$(a+b)(c+d) = ac + ad + bc + bd$$

**Example:**

Expand $(x+3)(x-2)$.

$$(x+3)(x-2) = x \times x + x \times (-2) + 3 \times x + 3 \times

(-2)$$

$$= x^2 - 2x + 3x - 6$$

$$= x^2 + x - 6$$

---

## 2. Algebraic Identities

Algebraic identities are equations that are true for all values
of the variables. These are special cases of expanding
binomials that are very useful to memorize.

### a) Square of a sum:

$$(a+b)^2 = (a+b)(a+b) = a^2 + 2ab + b^2$$

**Example:**

Expand $(x+5)^2$.

$$(x+5)^2 = x^2 + 2(x)(5) + 5^2 = x^2 + 10x + 25$$

### b) Square of a difference:

$$(a-b)^2 = (a-b)(a-b) = a^2 - 2ab + b^2$$

**Example:**

Expand $(2x-3)^2$.

$$(2x-3)^2 = (2x)^2 - 2(2x)(3) + 3^2 = 4x^2 - 12x + 9$$

### c) Difference of squares:

$$(a+b)(a-b) = a^2 - b^2$$

**Example:**

Expand $(y+4)(y-4)$.

$$(y+4)(y-4) = y^2 - 4^2 = y^2 - 16$$

---
## 3. Factorizing Simple Quadratics ($x^2 + bx + c$)

Factorizing is the reverse of expanding. For a quadratic

expression in the form $x^2 + bx + c$, you need to find two
numbers that:

1. Multiply to $c$

2. Add to $b$

Let these two numbers be $p$ and $q$. Then the factored
form is $(x+p)(x+q)$.

**Example 1:**

Factorize $x^2 + 7x + 10$.

We need two numbers that multiply to $10$ and add to $7$.

The numbers are $2$ and $5$.

So, $x^2 + 7x + 10 = (x+2)(x+5)$.

**Example 2:**

Factorize $x^2 - 5x + 6$.

We need two numbers that multiply to $6$ and add to $-5$.

The numbers are $-2$ and $-3$.

So, $x^2 - 5x + 6 = (x-2)(x-3)$.

**Example 3:**

Factorize $x^2 + 2x - 15$.

We need two numbers that multiply to $-15$ and add to $2$.

The numbers are $5$ and $-3$.

So, $x^2 + 2x - 15 = (x+5)(x-3)$.

---

## 4. Factorizing Quadratic Expressions ($ax^2 + bx + c$

where $a \neq 1$)

When the coefficient of $x^2$ is not $1$, you can use the "ac
method" or grouping method.

**Steps:**

1. Multiply $a$ and $c$.

2. Find two numbers that multiply to $ac$ and add to $b$.

3. Rewrite the middle term ($bx$) using these two numbers.

4. Factor by grouping.
**Example:**

Factorize $2x^2 + 7x + 6$.

1. $a=2$, $c=6$. So $ac = 2 \times 6 = 12$.

2. We need two numbers that multiply to $12$ and add to

$7$. The numbers are $3$ and $4$.

3. Rewrite $7x$ as $3x + 4x$:

$$2x^2 + 3x + 4x + 6$$

4. Factor by grouping the first two terms and the last two
terms:

$$x(2x+3) + 2(2x+3)$$

Now, factor out the common binomial $(2x+3)$:

$$(2x+3)(x+2)$$

So, $2x^2 + 7x + 6 = (2x+3)(x+2)$.

---

## 5. Solving Quadratic Equations by Factorization

To solve a quadratic equation by factorization, you need to:

1. Set the equation to $0$ (i.e., $ax^2 + bx + c = 0$).

2. Factorize the quadratic expression.

3. Use the **Zero Product Property**: If $A \times B = 0$,
then either $A=0$ or $B=0$ (or both). Set each factor equal
to zero and solve for $x$.

**Example 1:**

Solve $x^2 + 5x + 6 = 0$.

1. The equation is already set to $0$.

2. Factorize $x^2 + 5x + 6$:

We need two numbers that multiply to $6$ and add to $5$.

These are $2$ and $3$.

$$(x+2)(x+3) = 0$$

3. Set each factor to zero:

$$x+2 = 0 \quad \text{or} \quad x+3 = 0$$

$$x = -2 \quad \text{or} \quad x = -3$$

The solutions are $x = -2$ and $x = -3$.

**Example 2:**

Solve $2x^2 - 5x = 3$.

1. Set the equation to $0$:

$$2x^2 - 5x - 3 = 0$$
2. Factorize $2x^2 - 5x - 3$:

$ac = 2 \times (-3) = -6$. We need two numbers that

multiply to $-6$ and add to $-5$. These are $-6$ and $1$.

$$2x^2 - 6x + x - 3 = 0$$

$$2x(x-3) + 1(x-3) = 0$$

$$(x-3)(2x+1) = 0$$

3. Set each factor to zero:

$$x-3 = 0 \quad \text{or} \quad 2x+1 = 0$$

$$x = 3 \quad \text{or} \quad 2x = -1$$

$$x = 3 \quad \text{or} \quad x = -\frac{1}{2}$$

The solutions are $x = 3$ and $x = -\frac{1}{2}$.

---

## 6. Solving Fractional Equations

Fractional equations are equations that contain fractions

with variables in the denominator.

**Steps:**

1. Find the **Least Common Multiple (LCM)** of all

denominators.
2. Multiply every term in the equation by the LCM to clear
the denominators.

3. Solve the resulting equation (which might be linear or

quadratic).

4. **Check for extraneous solutions**: Make sure your

solutions don't make any original denominator equal to zero.

**Example:**

Solve $\frac{3}{x+1} + \frac{2}{x} = 1$.

1. The denominators are $(x+1)$ and $x$. The LCM is

$x(x+1)$.

2. Multiply every term by $x(x+1)$:

$$x(x+1) \left(\frac{3}{x+1}\right) + x(x+1) \left(\frac{2}

{x}\right) = x(x+1)(1)$$

$$3x + 2(x+1) = x(x+1)$$

3. Simplify and solve:

$$3x + 2x + 2 = x^2 + x$$

$$5x + 2 = x^2 + x$$

Rearrange into a quadratic equation:

$$0 = x^2 + x - 5x - 2$$

$$x^2 - 4x - 2 = 0$$
 This quadratic doesn't factor easily, so we'd use the
quadratic formula (which we'll cover later). For now, let's
assume it was a simpler one.

Let's try a simpler example that factors:

Solve $\frac{1}{x} + \frac{1}{2} = \frac{3}{2x}$.

1. Denominators are $x$, $2$, $2x$. The LCM is $2x$.

2. Multiply every term by $2x$:

$$2x \left(\frac{1}{x}\right) + 2x \left(\frac{1}{2}\right) = 2x

\left(\frac{3}{2x}\right)$$

$$2 + x = 3$$

3. Solve for $x$:

$$x = 3 - 2$$

$$x = 1$$

4. **Check**: If $x=1$, the original denominators are $1$,

$2$, $2(1)=2$. None are zero, so $x=1$ is a valid solution.

---

## 7. Solving Simultaneous Equations

Simultaneous equations involve two or more equations with
two or more variables that need to be solved together to find
values that satisfy all equations. The most common methods
are **substitution** and **elimination**.

### a) Substitution Method:

1. Solve one equation for one variable in terms of the other.

2. Substitute this expression into the other equation.

3. Solve the resulting single-variable equation.

4. Substitute the value back into one of the original

equations to find the other variable.

**Example:**

Solve:

1) $y = 2x + 1$

2) $3x + y = 11$

1. Equation (1) is already solved for $y$.

2. Substitute $y = 2x+1$ into equation (2):

$$3x + (2x+1) = 11$$

3. Solve for $x$:

$$5x + 1 = 11$$
 $$5x = 10$$

$$x = 2$$

4. Substitute $x=2$ back into equation (1):

$$y = 2(2) + 1$$

$$y = 4 + 1$$

$$y = 5$$

The solution is $x=2$, $y=5$.

### b) Elimination Method:

1. Multiply one or both equations by a constant so that the

coefficients of one variable are opposites (or the same).

2. Add (or subtract) the equations to eliminate one variable.

3. Solve the resulting single-variable equation.

4. Substitute the value back into one of the original

equations to find the other variable.

**Example:**

Solve:

1) $2x + 3y = 7$

2) $4x - y = 1$

1. Let's eliminate $y$. Multiply equation (2) by $3$:

 $$3 \times (4x - y = 1) \implies 12x - 3y = 3$$

Now we have:

1) $2x + 3y = 7$

3) $12x - 3y = 3$

2. Add equation (1) and equation (3):

$$(2x + 3y) + (12x - 3y) = 7 + 3$$

$$14x = 10$$

3. Solve for $x$:

$$x = \frac{10}{14} = \frac{5}{7}$$

4. Substitute $x = \frac{5}{7}$ back into equation (2):

$$4\left(\frac{5}{7}\right) - y = 1$$

$$\frac{20}{7} - y = 1$$

$$-y = 1 - \frac{20}{7}$$

$$-y = \frac{7}{7} - \frac{20}{7}$$

$$-y = -\frac{13}{7}$$

$$y = \frac{13}{7}$$

The solution is $x = \frac{5}{7}$, $y = \frac{13}{7}$.

---

## 8. Solving and Graphing Inequalities

Solving inequalities is very similar to solving equations, with
one crucial difference:

**Rule:** If you multiply or divide both sides of an inequality

by a **negative number**, you must **reverse the inequality
sign**.

### a) Solving Linear Inequalities:

**Example 1:**

Solve $2x - 5 < 7$.

$$2x < 7 + 5$$

$$2x < 12$$

$$x < 6$$

**Example 2:**

Solve $-3x + 1 \ge 10$.

$$-3x \ge 10 - 1$$

$$-3x \ge 9$$

Divide by $-3$ and reverse the sign:

$$x \le \frac{9}{-3}$$

$$x \le -3$$

### b) Graphing Inequalities on a Number Line:

* Use an **open circle** ($\circ$) for strict inequalities ($<$

or $>$).

* Use a **closed circle** ($\bullet$) for inclusive inequalities

($\le$ or $\ge$).

* Draw an arrow in the direction of the solution.

**Example 1 (Graph $x < 6$):**

Draw a number line. Place an open circle at $6$ and draw an

arrow pointing to the left.

```

<-----o------

4 5 6 7 8

```

**Example 2 (Graph $x \le -3$):**

Draw a number line. Place a closed circle at $-3$ and draw an

arrow pointing to the left.
```

<-----•------

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1

```

---

## 9. Graphing Quadratic Equations

A quadratic equation in the form $y = ax^2 + bx + c$ graphs as

a **parabola**.

### Key Features:

* **Shape:**

* If $a > 0$, the parabola opens upwards (U-shape), and

has a **minimum** point.

* If $a < 0$, the parabola opens downwards (n-shape), and

has a **maximum** point.

* **Vertex:** The turning point of the parabola (either the

minimum or maximum). Its x-coordinate is given by $x = -
\frac{b}{2a}$. You find the y-coordinate by substituting this x-
value back into the equation.
* **Axis of Symmetry:** A vertical line that passes through
the vertex, given by the equation $x = -\frac{b}{2a}$. The
parabola is symmetrical about this line.

* **Y-intercept:** The point where the parabola crosses the

y-axis. This occurs when $x=0$, so the y-intercept is $(0, c)$.

* **X-intercepts (Roots/Zeros):** The points where the

parabola crosses the x-axis. This occurs when $y=0$. These
are the solutions to $ax^2 + bx + c = 0$. A quadratic can have
two, one (a double root), or no real x-intercepts.

### How to Sketch a Parabola:

1. Determine if it opens up or down ($a > 0$ or $a < 0$).

2. Find the y-intercept $(0, c)$.

3. Find the x-coordinate of the vertex using $x = -\frac{b}

{2a}$. Substitute this value into the equation to find the y-
coordinate of the vertex.

4. Find the x-intercepts (if any) by solving $ax^2 + bx + c = 0$

(by factoring or quadratic formula).

5. Plot these points and draw a smooth curve.

**Example:**

Sketch $y = x^2 - 4x + 3$.

1. $a=1$ (positive), so it opens upwards.

2. Y-intercept: $(0, 3)$.

3. Vertex:

$x = -\frac{-4}{2(1)} = \frac{4}{2} = 2$.

$y = (2)^2 - 4(2) + 3 = 4 - 8 + 3 = -1$.

Vertex is $(2, -1)$.

4. X-intercepts: Set $y=0$.

$x^2 - 4x + 3 = 0$

$(x-1)(x-3) = 0$

$x=1$ or $x=3$.

X-intercepts are $(1, 0)$ and $(3, 0)$.

Plot $(0,3)$, $(2,-1)$, $(1,0)$, $(3,0)$ and draw a U-shaped

curve.

---

## 10. Solving Quadratics Using the Formula

The quadratic formula is a universal method to solve any

quadratic equation in the form $ax^2 + bx + c = 0$.

The formula is:

$$x = \frac{-b \pm \sqrt{b^2 - 4ac}}{2a}$$

**Steps:**

1. Ensure the equation is in the standard form $ax^2 + bx + c =

0$.

2. Identify the values of $a$, $b$, and $c$.

3. Substitute these values into the quadratic formula.

4. Simplify to find the values of $x$.

**Example:**

Solve $2x^2 + 5x - 3 = 0$ using the quadratic formula.

1. The equation is in standard form.

2. $a=2$, $b=5$, $c=-3$.

3. Substitute into the formula:

$$x = \frac{-(5) \pm \sqrt{(5)^2 - 4(2)(-3)}}{2(2)}$$

$$x = \frac{-5 \pm \sqrt{25 - (-24)}}{4}$$

$$x = \frac{-5 \pm \sqrt{25 + 24}}{4}$$

$$x = \frac{-5 \pm \sqrt{49}}{4}$$

$$x = \frac{-5 \pm 7}{4}$$

4. Find the two solutions:

 $$x_1 = \frac{-5 + 7}{4} = \frac{2}{4} = \frac{1}{2}$$

$$x_2 = \frac{-5 - 7}{4} = \frac{-12}{4} = -3$$

The solutions are $x = \frac{1}{2}$ and $x = -3$.

Let's use Python to verify the calculation of the discriminant

and the roots.

```python

import math

a=2

b=5

c = -3

discriminant = b**2 - 4*a*c

print(f'{discriminant=}')

if discriminant >= 0:

x1 = (-b + math.sqrt(discriminant)) / (2*a)

x2 = (-b - math.sqrt(discriminant)) / (2*a)

print(f'{x1=}')
 print(f'{x2=}')

else:

print("No real roots")```<pythonOutput>discriminant=49

x1=0.5

x2=-3.0</pythonOutput>The calculations confirm the

solutions $x = 0.5$ and $x = -3$.

---

## 11. Minimum and Maximum of Quadratics

The vertex of a parabola $y = ax^2 + bx + c$ represents its

minimum or maximum point.

* If $a > 0$ (parabola opens upwards), the vertex is a

**minimum** point.

* If $a < 0$ (parabola opens downwards), the vertex is a

**maximum** point.

The x-coordinate of the vertex is given by:

$$x = -\frac{b}{2a}$$
To find the minimum or maximum value (the y-coordinate),
substitute this x-value back into the quadratic equation.

**Example 1 (Minimum):**

Find the minimum value of $y = x^2 - 6x + 5$.

1. $a=1$, $b=-6$, $c=5$. Since $a > 0$, it's a minimum.

2. X-coordinate of the vertex:

$$x = -\frac{-6}{2(1)} = \frac{6}{2} = 3$$

3. Minimum value (y-coordinate):

$$y = (3)^2 - 6(3) + 5$$

$$y = 9 - 18 + 5$$

$$y = -4$$

The minimum value is $-4$, occurring at $x=3$.

**Example 2 (Maximum):**

Find the maximum value of $y = -x^2 - 2x + 8$.

1. $a=-1$, $b=-2$, $c=8$. Since $a < 0$, it's a maximum.

2. X-coordinate of the vertex:

$$x = -\frac{-2}{2(-1)} = \frac{2}{-2} = -1$$

3. Maximum value (y-coordinate):

$$y = -(-1)^2 - 2(-1) + 8$$

$$y = -(1) + 2 + 8$$

$$y = -1 + 2 + 8$$

$$y = 9$$

The maximum value is $9$, occurring at $x=-1$.

---

## 12. Indices (Rules)

Indices (or exponents) indicate how many times a base

number is multiplied by itself.

### a) Product Rule:

When multiplying powers with the same base, add the

exponents.

$$a^m \times a^n = a^{m+n}$$

**Example:** $x^3 \times x^5 = x^{3+5} = x^8$

### b) Quotient Rule:

When dividing powers with the same base, subtract the
exponents.

$$\frac{a^m}{a^n} = a^{m-n}$$

**Example:** $\frac{y^7}{y^2} = y^{7-2} = y^5$

### c) Power Rule:

When raising a power to another power, multiply the

exponents.

$$(a^m)^n = a^{mn}$$

**Example:** $(z^4)^3 = z^{4 \times 3} = z^{12}$

### d) Zero Power Rule:

Any non-zero number raised to the power of zero is $1$.

$$a^0 = 1 \quad (a \neq 0)$$

**Example:** $5^0 = 1$, $(3x)^0 = 1$

### e) Negative Power Rule:

A negative exponent means taking the reciprocal of the base

raised to the positive exponent.

$$a^{-n} = \frac{1}{a^n}$$

**Example:** $2^{-3} = \frac{1}{2^3} = \frac{1}{8}$

**Example:** $\frac{1}{x^{-2}} = x^2$

### f) Fractional Power Rule:

A fractional exponent indicates a root. $a^{1/n}$ is the $n$-th

root of $a$. $a^{m/n}$ is the $n$-th root of $a^m$.

$$a^{1/n} = \sqrt[n]{a}$$

$$a^{m/n} = (\sqrt[n]{a})^m = \sqrt[n]{a^m}$$

**Example:** $9^{1/2} = \sqrt{9} = 3$

**Example:** $8^{2/3} = (\sqrt[3]{8})^2 = (2)^2 = 4$

---

## 13. Standard Form (Scientific Notation)

Standard form is a way of writing very large or very small

numbers concisely. It is written as:

$$a \times 10^n$$

where:

* $1 \le |a| < 10$ (meaning $a$ is a number between $1$ and
$10$, or $-1$ and $-10$, but not including $10$ or $-10$).

* $n$ is an integer (positive for large numbers, negative for

small numbers).
### a) Converting to Standard Form:

Move the decimal point until there is only one non-zero digit
to its left. The number of places you moved it is $n$.

* If you moved it to the left, $n$ is positive.

* If you moved it to the right, $n$ is negative.

**Example 1 (Large number):**

Write $45,000,000$ in standard form.

Move the decimal point $7$ places to the left: $4.5$.

So, $45,000,000 = 4.5 \times 10^7$.

**Example 2 (Small number):**

Write $0.000000032$ in standard form.

Move the decimal point $8$ places to the right: $3.2$.

So, $0.000000032 = 3.2 \times 10^{-8}$.

### b) Converting from Standard Form:

Move the decimal point according to the exponent $n$.

* If $n$ is positive, move the decimal point to the right.

* If $n$ is negative, move the decimal point to the left.

**Example 1:**

Write $7.1 \times 10^4$ as an ordinary number.

Move the decimal point $4$ places to the right: $71,000$.

**Example 2:**

Write $1.05 \times 10^{-3}$ as an ordinary number.

Move the decimal point $3$ places to the left: $0.00105$.

---

## 14. Surds (Adding and Subtracting Surds)

A surd is an irrational number that can be expressed as a root

of an integer. For example, $\sqrt{2}$, $\sqrt{3}$, $\sqrt{5}$
are surds. $\sqrt{4}$ is not a surd because $\sqrt{4}=2$,
which is rational.

### a) Simplifying Surds:

To add or subtract surds, they must be "like surds" (have the

same number under the square root sign). You often need to
simplify surds first by finding perfect square factors.

**Steps:**
1. Find the largest perfect square factor of the number under
the root.

2. Rewrite the surd using this factor.

3. Take the square root of the perfect square.

**Example:**

Simplify $\sqrt{12}$.

1. The largest perfect square factor of $12$ is $4$.

2. $\sqrt{12} = \sqrt{4 \times 3}$

3. $\sqrt{4 \times 3} = \sqrt{4} \times \sqrt{3} = 2\sqrt{3}$

**Example:**

Simplify $\sqrt{72}$.

1. The largest perfect square factor of $72$ is $36$.

2. $\sqrt{72} = \sqrt{36 \times 2}$

3. $\sqrt{36 \times 2} = \sqrt{36} \times \sqrt{2} = 6\sqrt{2}$

### b) Adding and Subtracting Surds:

Treat surds like algebraic terms (e.g., $x$). You can only add
or subtract "like surds".

**Example 1:**
Simplify $3\sqrt{2} + 5\sqrt{2}$.

$$3\sqrt{2} + 5\sqrt{2} = (3+5)\sqrt{2} = 8\sqrt{2}$$

**Example 2:**

Simplify $\sqrt{18} + \sqrt{8}$.

First, simplify each surd:

$\sqrt{18} = \sqrt{9 \times 2} = 3\sqrt{2}$

$\sqrt{8} = \sqrt{4 \times 2} = 2\sqrt{2}$

Now add:

$$3\sqrt{2} + 2\sqrt{2} = (3+2)\sqrt{2} = 5\sqrt{2}$$

**Example 3:**

Simplify $4\sqrt{3} - \sqrt{27}$.

First, simplify $\sqrt{27}$:

$\sqrt{27} = \sqrt{9 \times 3} = 3\sqrt{3}$

Now subtract:

$$4\sqrt{3} - 3\sqrt{3} = (4-3)\sqrt{3} = 1\sqrt{3} = \sqrt{3}$$

---

## 15. Rationalizing the Denominator in Surds

Rationalizing the denominator means removing any surds
from the denominator of a fraction.

### a) Denominator is a single surd ($\frac{a}{\sqrt{b}}$):

Multiply the numerator and denominator by the surd in the

denominator.

$$\frac{a}{\sqrt{b}} = \frac{a}{\sqrt{b}} \times \frac{\sqrt{b}}

{\sqrt{b}} = \frac{a\sqrt{b}}{b}$$

**Example:**

Rationalize $\frac{5}{\sqrt{3}}$.

$$\frac{5}{\sqrt{3}} = \frac{5}{\sqrt{3}} \times \frac{\sqrt{3}}

{\sqrt{3}} = \frac{5\sqrt{3}}{3}$$

### b) Denominator is a binomial with a surd ($\frac{a}

{b+\sqrt{c}}$ or $\frac{a}{b-\sqrt{c}}$):

Multiply the numerator and denominator by the

**conjugate** of the denominator. The conjugate of
$(b+\sqrt{c})$ is $(b-\sqrt{c})$, and vice versa. This uses the
difference of squares identity $(x+y)(x-y) = x^2 - y^2$.

**Example:**

Rationalize $\frac{2}{3+\sqrt{2}}$.
The conjugate of $3+\sqrt{2}$ is $3-\sqrt{2}$.

$$\frac{2}{3+\sqrt{2}} = \frac{2}{3+\sqrt{2}} \times \frac{3-

\sqrt{2}}{3-\sqrt{2}}$$

$$= \frac{2(3-\sqrt{2})}{(3)^2 - (\sqrt{2})^2}$$

$$= \frac{6 - 2\sqrt{2}}{9 - 2}$$

$$= \frac{6 - 2\sqrt{2}}{7}$$

---

## 16. HCF, LCM, Prime Numbers, Square Roots, Squares,

Cubes, Cube Roots, Prime Factorization

Let's define these terms and look at how they relate.

### a) Prime Numbers:

A prime number is a natural number greater than $1$ that has

no positive divisors other than $1$ and itself.

**Examples:** $2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, \dots$

### b) Prime Factorization:

Breaking down a number into a product of its prime factors.

This is often done using a factor tree.
**Example:**

Prime factorization of $60$.

$60 = 2 \times 30$

$30 = 2 \times 15$

$15 = 3 \times 5$

So, $60 = 2 \times 2 \times 3 \times 5 = 2^2 \times 3 \times 5$.

### c) HCF (Highest Common Factor) / GCF (Greatest

Common Factor):

The largest number that divides exactly into two or more

numbers.

**Method using Prime Factorization:**

1. Find the prime factorization of each number.

2. Identify all common prime factors.

3. Multiply these common prime factors, using the lowest

power for each common factor.

**Example:**

Find the HCF of $24$ and $36$.

Prime factorization of $24 = 2^3 \times 3^1$

Prime factorization of $36 = 2^2 \times 3^2$

Common prime factors are $2$ and $3$.

Lowest power of $2$ is $2^2$.

Lowest power of $3$ is $3^1$.

HCF $= 2^2 \times 3^1 = 4 \times 3 = 12$.

### d) LCM (Lowest Common Multiple):

The smallest positive number that is a multiple of two or

more numbers.

**Method using Prime Factorization:**

1. Find the prime factorization of each number.

2. Identify all prime factors (common and uncommon).

3. Multiply these prime factors, using the highest power for

each factor.

**Example:**

Find the LCM of $24$ and $36$.

Prime factorization of $24 = 2^3 \times 3^1$

Prime factorization of $36 = 2^2 \times 3^2$

All prime factors are $2$ and $3$.

Highest power of $2$ is $2^3$.

Highest power of $3$ is $3^2$.

LCM $= 2^3 \times 3^2 = 8 \times 9 = 72$.

### e) Squares and Square Roots:

* **Square:** A number multiplied by itself ($n^2$).

**Example:** $5^2 = 5 \times 5 = 25$.

* **Square Root:** A number that, when multiplied by itself,

gives the original number ($\sqrt{n}$).

**Example:** $\sqrt{25} = 5$ (since $5 \times 5 = 25$). Every

positive number has two square roots, a positive and a
negative one, but $\sqrt{}$ usually refers to the principal
(positive) root.

### f) Cubes and Cube Roots:

* **Cube:** A number multiplied by itself three times

($n^3$).

**Example:** $3^3 = 3 \times 3 \times 3 = 27$.

* **Cube Root:** A number that, when cubed, gives the

original number ($\sqrt[3]{n}$).

**Example:** $\sqrt[3]{27} = 3$ (since $3 \times 3 \times 3 =

27$).

---
## 17. Rounding

Rounding involves approximating a number to a certain

degree of accuracy.

### a) Rounding to Decimal Places (d.p.):

Look at the digit immediately to the right of the desired

decimal place.

* If it's $5$ or greater, round up the digit in the desired place.

* If it's less than $5$, keep the digit in the desired place as it
is.

Drop all digits to the right of the desired place.

**Example 1:** Round $3.14159$ to $2$ decimal places.

The second decimal place is $4$. The digit to its right is $1$
(less than $5$).

So, $3.14$.

**Example 2:** Round $0.786$ to $2$ decimal places.

The second decimal place is $8$. The digit to its right is $6$
($5$ or greater).

So, round up $8$ to $9$. Result: $0.79$.

### b) Rounding to Significant Figures (s.f.):

Count significant figures from the first non-zero digit.

* Non-zero digits are always significant.

* Zeros between non-zero digits are significant.

* Leading zeros (e.g., $0.005$) are not significant.

* Trailing zeros in a whole number (e.g., $1200$) may or may

not be significant unless specified (e.g., $1200$ to $2$ s.f. is
$1200$, but $1.20 \times 10^3$ implies $3$ s.f.). Trailing
zeros after a decimal point are significant (e.g., $1.20$).

**Example 1:** Round $23,456$ to $3$ significant figures.

The first three significant figures are $2, 3, 4$. The digit after
$4$ is $5$ ($5$ or greater).

So, round up $4$ to $5$. Result: $23,500$. (The zeros are

placeholders).

**Example 2:** Round $0.007825$ to $3$ significant figures.

The first non-zero digit is $7$. The first three significant

figures are $7, 8, 2$. The digit after $2$ is $5$ ($5$ or greater).

So, round up $2$ to $3$. Result: $0.00783$.

---
## 18. Order of Operations (BODMAS/PEMDAS)

This is a set of rules that dictate the sequence in which

mathematical operations should be performed.

**BODMAS:**

* **B**rackets

* **O**rders (powers and square roots)

* **D**ivision and **M**ultiplication (from left to right)

* **A**ddition and **S**ubtraction (from left to right)

**PEMDAS:**

* **P**arentheses

* **E**xponents

* **M**ultiplication and **D**ivision (from left to right)

* **A**ddition and **S**ubtraction (from left to right)

Both acronyms represent the same order.

**Example:**
Calculate $10 + 4 \times (6 - 2)^2 \div 8$.

1. **B**rackets: $(6 - 2) = 4$

$$10 + 4 \times (4)^2 \div 8$$

2. **O**rders (Exponents): $(4)^2 = 16$

$$10 + 4 \times 16 \div 8$$

3. **D**ivision and **M**ultiplication (from left to right):

First, $4 \times 16 = 64$

$$10 + 64 \div 8$$

Next, $64 \div 8 = 8$

$$10 + 8$$

4. **A**ddition and **S**ubtraction:

$$10 + 8 = 18$$

The result is $18$.

Let's use Python to confirm the calculation.

```python

result = 10 + 4 * (6 - 2)**2 / 8

print(f'{result=}')```<pythonOutput>result=18.0</pythonOutp
ut>The calculation is correct.
---

## 19. Fractions, Decimals, Percentages

These are different ways to represent parts of a whole.

### a) Converting Between Them:

* **Fraction to Decimal:** Divide the numerator by the

denominator.

**Example:** $\frac{3}{4} = 3 \div 4 = 0.75$.

* **Decimal to Fraction:** Write the decimal as a fraction

over a power of $10$ and simplify.

**Example:** $0.25 = \frac{25}{100} = \frac{1}{4}$.

* **Decimal to Percentage:** Multiply by $100$.

**Example:** $0.75 = 0.75 \times 100\% = 75\%$.

* **Percentage to Decimal:** Divide by $100$.

**Example:** $60\% = 60 \div 100 = 0.6$.

* **Fraction to Percentage:** Convert to decimal first, then

multiply by $100$.

**Example:** $\frac{1}{5} = 0.2 = 0.2 \times 100\% = 20\%$.

* **Percentage to Fraction:** Write as a fraction over $100$
and simplify.

**Example:** $40\% = \frac{40}{100} = \frac{2}{5}$.

### b) Operations with Fractions:

* **Adding/Subtracting Fractions:**

1. Find a common denominator (LCM of the denominators).

2. Convert each fraction to an equivalent fraction with the

common denominator.

3. Add/subtract the numerators, keeping the common

denominator.

4. Simplify if possible.

**Example:** $\frac{1}{3} + \frac{1}{4}$

LCM of $3$ and $4$ is $12$.

$$\frac{1}{3} = \frac{1 \times 4}{3 \times 4} = \frac{4}{12}$$

$$\frac{1}{4} = \frac{1 \times 3}{4 \times 3} = \frac{3}{12}$$

$$\frac{4}{12} + \frac{3}{12} = \frac{4+3}{12} = \frac{7}{12}$$

* **Multiplying Fractions:**

1. Multiply the numerators.

 2. Multiply the denominators.

3. Simplify if possible (you can often cross-cancel before

multiplying).

**Example:** $\frac{2}{3} \times \frac{5}{7}$

$$\frac{2 \times 5}{3 \times 7} = \frac{10}{21}$$

* **Dividing Fractions:**

1. Keep the first fraction.

2. Change the division sign to multiplication.

3. Flip the second fraction (take its reciprocal).

4. Multiply the fractions.

**Example:** $\frac{3}{5} \div \frac{2}{3}$

$$\frac{3}{5} \times \frac{3}{2} = \frac{3 \times 3}{5 \times

2} = \frac{9}{10}$$