Benha University

Faculty Of Engineering (Shoubra)

Electronics And Communications Engineering

CCE304 Measurements and Instrumentations

ELE245 Electrical Measurements and Instrumentations

Lectures 9 : Signal Generators

Dr. Ibtesam Omar

 References

David A. Bell “Electronic instrumentation and measurements”, oxford higher

education/oxford university press, third edition, 2013.

Chapter 13:Signal Generators

 Introduction

▪ The signal generators usually found in electronics laboratories may be classified as:
o Low-frequency (LF) sine-wave generators ⇛ Max. o/p freq. 100kHz
o Radio-frequency (RF) sine-wave generators ⇛ normally equipped with an output
level meter and a calibrated attenuator.
o Function generators ⇛ LF inst. provide three types of o/p waveforms: sine,
square, and triangular.
o Pulse generators ⇛ control of rise time, fall time, delay time, and dc bias level.
o Sweep frequency generators ⇛ o/p sine wave increases gradually from fmin to
fmax over a selected time period.

3
 Low-frequency Signal Generators
Wein Bridge Oscillator
▪ Wein bridge oscillator gives a low distortion output waveform with good frequency
and amplitude stability.
Wein bridge oscillator circuit:
1. Bridge components are R1, R2, R3, R4, C1, and C2.
2. Non-inverting amplifier R3 and R4

From analysis of Bridge balance is obtained at:

R3 R C
= 1 + 1 & f = 1/2𝜋 R1C1R2C2
R4 R2 C2

If R1 = R2 =R & C1 = C2 = C

1
⸫ R3 = 2R4 & f = 2πRC
4
 Wein Bridge Oscillator

▪ Voltage gain of the non-inverting amplifier

is:
R3+R4
A=
R4

▪ R3 = 2R4 ⇛ Av = 3. Amplifier gain must

be slightly greater than this to sustain
(Maintain) oscillations.

To avoid the problem, R3 is split into two

components, R5 and R6, and diodes D1
and D2 are connected in parallel with R6,

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 Stabilize the output Amplitude
▪ When the output amplitude is small ⇛ The voltage drop
across R6 is not large enough to forward bias the diodes.
R5+R6+R4
A=
R4
▪ When the output amplitude is large enough to forward
bias the diodes, ⇛ R6 is short-circuited, and the gain is
reduced to
R +R
A= 5 4
R4

If (R5 + R4)/ R4 is arranged to be less than 3, large

output oscillations will not be sustained, but small-
Figure 13-2 Including the diode circuit in a Wein amplitude oscillations continue.
bridge oscillator stabilizes the output amplitude
6
by reducing the gain of the amplifier at high
output amplitudes.
 Example

A wein bridge oscillator, as shown in fig. has the following

components: R1 and R2 variable from 500 Ω to 5 kΩ and C1 =
C2 = 300 nF. Calculate the maximum and minimum output
frequencies.
Solution:
𝟏 𝟏
fmin= = = 106 Hz
𝟐𝝅𝑪𝑹max 𝟐𝝅𝒙 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝐧𝐅𝒙 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏 𝟏
fmax= = = 1.06 kHz
𝟐𝝅𝑪𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒎 𝟐𝝅𝒙 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝐧𝐅𝒙 𝟓𝟎𝟎

7
 Frequency Range Changing

▪ Frequency of oscillations can be altered by adjustment

𝟏
of either R or C. ⇛ f =
𝟐𝛑𝐂𝐑
▪ The frequency range of a Wein bridge oscillator
can be changed by switching capacitor values and
maintaining C1 = C2.
▪ Frequency adjustment within each range is made
by adjusting R1,& R2 simultaneously while
maintaining R1= R2

Switching the capacitor values provides for Figure 13-3 The frequency range of a Wein bridge oscillator
can be changed by switching capacitor values and maintaining
frequency range changing, and variation of R1& R2 C1 = C2 . 8
facilitates continuous frequency adjustment over
each range.
 Output Controls
▪ The output amplitude of an oscillator may be adjusted by a simple voltage divider
and potentiometer attenuator circuit. Shorting R2 by switch S1, changes the output
voltage range.

9
 Output Controls

• The operational amplifier is connected as a voltage follower (buffer amplifier/unity gain

amplifier) to provide a low output impedance from the signal generator.
Their high input impedance & low
output impedance allow them to interface
effectively between high-impedance sources
& low impedance loads.

10
 Example: A 5 V sine wave from a Wein bridge oscillator is applied to the attenuator circuit
in shown Fig. Calculate resistances for R1, R2, and R3 to give output voltage (VR3) ranges of
0 to 0.1V and 0 to 1V. The input bias current to the operational amplifier is IB = 500 nA.
(Assume I3 ≫ IB, select I3=100μA)
Solution:
S1 Open:
⸪ I3= 100μA
VR3 0.1
⸫ R3= = = 1kΩ (potentiometer)
I3 100 μA

With R1 & R2 in the circuit, VR3 = 0.1 V

⸪ vi = VR1 + VR2 + VR3
⸫ VR1 + VR2 = 5 - 0.1 = 4.9 V
VR1 + VR2 4.9
⸫ R1+ R2 = = = 49 kΩ 11
I3 100 μA
 Example….Cont.
S1 Closed:
With R2 switched out of the circuit VR3 = 1V
VR3 1V
⸫ I 3= = = 1mA
R3 1kΩ

⸪ vi = VR1 + VR3
⸫ VR1 = Vi - VR3 = 5 - 1= 4 V
VR1 4
⸫ R1 = = = 4 kΩ
I3 1mA

⸪ R1+R2 = 49 kΩ
⸫ R2 = 49 - 4 = 45 kΩ
12
 Block Diagram
▪ An LF signal generator normally consists of :
− sinusoidal oscillator
− sine-to square wave converter
− attenuator output stage.
▪ When required, the square-wave shaping circuit is switched into the system
between the oscillator output and the attenuator input.

Figure 13-5 Block diagram of a sine/square-wave generator. 13

Sinusoidal- or square-wave output is selected at the attenuator input.

 Application

▪ A dual-trace oscilloscope is connected

to monitor the input & output
waveforms of the amplifier under test.

▪ Frequency meter is included to give

an accurate indication of signal
frequency.
Figure 13-5 Block diagram of a sine/square-wave generator.
Sinusoidal- or square-wave output is selected at the attenuator
14
input.
Review
13-1.1 Sketch the circuit of a wein bridge oscillator. Explain the circuit
operation, and write the equations for output frequency and amplifier gain.

Practice Problem
13-1.1 A Wein bridge oscillator circuit as in has C1 = C2 = 250 nF, and R1 = R2 =
(variable from 200Ω to 3 kΩ). Calculate the maximum and minimum output
frequencies. Determine capacitor value required to give f max= 300 Hz.
Ans: fmin = 212 Hz , fmax = 3.18 kHz, C= 2.7 µF

15
 Function Generators
▪ The sine/square-wave generator described above could be used as a function generator
if a circuit for converting the square wave into a triangular wave is employed,
▪ The usual method of generating both square & triangular waves is to use an integrator
& Schmitt trigger circuit as the following arrange.

A function generator
produces sine, square, and
triangular waveform outputs.

Figure 13-7 A basic function generator circuit consists of an integrator and a Schmitt trigger circuit. The 16
integrator
output is a negative-going ramp voltage when the Schmitt output is positive, and vice versa
 Function Generators
Function:
a) At any moment o/p of Schmitt Trigger (ST) ⇛ v1 = +V. So, the o/p of integrator will decrease
continuously with time.
b) At some moment v2(t) will go bellow the LTP of the ST. So the o/p of the ST will change from +V to -V.
c) If i/p to integrator will be negative, o/p of the integrator will start to increase.
d) After a while. v2 will go above UTP of Schmitt Trigger. Then the o/p of ST will become +V again.
e) This way it will cycle for ever.

+V

-V
v2(t) Per. Triangular v2(t) Per. square
wave wave
𝟏 𝒕𝟏
v2(t)= − ‫׬‬ v (𝝉) d𝝉 + C
𝑹𝟐𝑪𝟏 𝒕𝟎 1
17
 Function Generators
Frequency is how much:
Frequency of square wave and triangular wave is same there time period also same .
So, what is the time period ?
𝑼𝑻𝑷−𝑳𝑻𝑷
a) For v2(t) increasing from LTP to UTP like straight line uniformly. So, time period =2t1 = 2(𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒐𝒇v (t) )
2
UTP−LTP
b) Time period (T) = 2C1 ( )
I2
c) ⸫ R1 is a frequency control. 𝟏 𝒕
v2(t)= − 𝑹 𝑪 ‫ 𝟏 𝒕׬‬v1(𝝉) d𝝉 + C
d) Frequency range is selected by switching different capacitor values 𝟐 𝟏 𝟎
𝒅v2(t) v1 I2
into the circuit = =
𝒅𝒕 𝑹𝟐𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟏

+V

-V
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 Sine Wave Conversion
▪ If diodes D1& D2 and resistors R3 and R4 were not present in the circuit shown R1 and R2
would simply behave as a voltage divider. vo = vi R2
R1+R2
▪ If vR2 exceeds +V1. At this point D1 forward biased,

vo = vi R2//R3
R1+ R2//R3

▪ If vR2 below -V1, ⸫ D2 forward biased

vo = vi R2//R4
R1+ R2//R4

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With R3 = R4 the negative half-cycle of the output is similar
in shape to the positive half-cycle.
Sine Wave Conversion

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 Function Generator Block Diagram
▪ The integrator output is fed into the Schmitt trigger and the sine-wave converter.
▪ A switch is provided for selection of sine, triangular, or square waves.

21
Function Generator Performance

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Review:
13-2.1 Sketch square/triangular-wave generator that uses an
integrator and a Schmitt trigger circuit. Carefully explain its
operation, and discuss how the output frequency may be
adjusted. +V

Practice Problem: -V
13-2.1 The integrator in Fig. has R2 = 5.6 kΩ, and C1 = 0.2 µF.
The Schmitt circuit has ±0.75 V trigger points and the supply voltage is ±15 V, If R1 = 1 k Ω determine the
output frequency when its moving contact is at the center point.
1 1
Ans: v1 = vR1 = (±14) = ±7V
2 2
I2 = VRR2 = Rv1 = 5.6±7kΩ = 1.25 mA
2 2
UTP−LTP 0.75−(−0.75)
T = 2C1 ( ) = 2 x 0.2 µF ( ) = 480µs
I2 1.25 mA 23

f = 1/(t) = 2.08 kHz

 End of Lecture
With Best Wishes