Topic 2

DC Motor Drives
(Part III)
Part I:
 Review of basic characteristics of DC motors:
 Permanent magnet motor
 Separately excited motor
 Self exited motor
 DC motors operating modes

Part II:
 Single phase converter drives
 Three phase converter drives

Part III:
 DC to DC converter drives
 Chopper based DC drives
 Closed loop control of DC motors
 Applications of DC motors in electric traction, process
industries, computers and robotics.
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Introduction

Powering a 4.5V Load with a 9V Source

Let's say there is a 9 V source that can power a load that needs 4.5 V
dc. How do you do that?
• If a potential divider is used, there will be a significant amount of
power loss because the divider has a resistor.
• Apply a pulsed waveform that has a higher conversion efficiency by
applying 9V half the time and 0V the other half. It outputs a 4.5V
average voltage. Although the output voltage is not 4.5V
continuously, it is produced on average. Depending on the
application, the voltage ripple can either be filtered or tolerated.

A set of switches is needed to connect and disconnect the load from

the power supply.
 INTRODUCTION

9V

Time

9V
ON OFF ON OFF
4.5V

Time
 DC-DC Converter Drives
 A DC-DC converter drive, or chopper-based drive, is connected between a
fixed-voltage DC source and a DC motor to vary the armature voltage. DC-
DC converter drives are widely used in traction applications worldwide. The
DC output voltage is controlled by varying the duty cycle. Like a transformer,
a DC-DC converter can be used to step down or step up a DC voltage.

 In addition to armature voltage control, a DC-DC converter can provide

regenerative braking of the motors and return energy back to the supply. This
energy-saving feature is particularly attractive for transportation systems with
frequent stops, such as mass rapid transit (MRT).
 A DC motor can be operated in one of the four quadrants by controlling the
armature or field voltage (or currents). It is often required to reverse the
armature or field terminals to operate the motor in the desired quadrant.
 The possible control modes of a DC-DC converter drive
are:
(a) Power control
(b) Regenerative brake control
(c) Rheostatic brake control
(d) Combined regenerative and rheostatic brake control 6
T is the chopping period

k = t1/T is the duty cycle

f = 1/T is chopping frequency

• The chopper circuit consists of semiconductor switching devices (like transistors)
connected in a specific configuration. These devices are controlled by a pulse width
modulation (PWM) signal. The control system generates a PWM signal that controls the
on-off times of the semiconductor devices in the chopper circuit. The load is the device or
machinery that the chopper drive is controlling, such as an electric motor.
• When the semiconductor device is on (conducting), the input voltage is applied to the
load. When the device is off (non-conducting), the input voltage is blocked from reaching
the load.
• By adjusting the duty cycle of the PWM signal (ratio of on-time to off-time), the effective
voltage applied to the load is controlled. A longer on-time provides a higher average
voltage, and a shorter on-time reduces the average voltage.
 Principle of Power Control

Figure 1. Converter-fed DC drive in power control

 The DC-DC converter is used to control the armature voltage of a DC motor.
The DC-DC converter switch could be a transistor or forced-commutated
thyristor.
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 The average armature voltage is Va = kVs
where k is the duty cycle.

 The power supplied to the motor is Po = VaIa =kVsIa

where Ia is the average armature current of the motor and it is ripple free.

 Assuming a lossless DC-DC converter, the input power is Pi = Po = kVsIs. The

average value of the input current is Is =kIa

 The equivalent input resistance of the DC-DC converter drive seen by the
source is V V 1
s s
Req = =
Is Ia k

 By varying the k, the power flow to the motor (and speed) can be controlled.
For a finite armature circuit inductance, the maximum peak-to-peak ripple
current (at k=0.5) is V R
s m
∆I max = tanh
Rm 4 fL m

where Rm and Lm are the total armature circuit resistance and inductance
respectively.

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 Principle of Regenerative Brake Control
• Say, the motor runs normally. Suddenly va is reduced (below
Eg). The current ia will reverse its direction.
• Since ia is negative, torque Te is negative.
• Power is also negative, which implies that power is
“generated” back to the supply.
• In other words, during the deceleration phase, kinetic energy
from the motor and load inertia is returned to the supply.
• This is known as regenerative braking-an efficient way to
brake a motor. It is widely employed in electric vehicle and
electric trains. If we wish the motor to operate continuously
this mode, the machine have to be driven by a mechanical
source.
• The mechanical source is a “prime mover”.
• We must force the prime mover it to run faster so that the
generated Eg will be greater than va.
Principle of Regenerative Brake Control

Figure 2. Regenerative braking of DC separately excited motors

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 In regenerative braking, the motor acts as a generator and the kinetic energy
of the motor and load is returned back to the supply. It requires rearranging
the switch from powering mode to regenerative braking.
 Assume that the armature of a separately excited motor is rotating due to the
inertia of the motor (and load).
 If the transistor is switched on, the armature current rises due to the short-
circuiting of the motor terminals. If the DC-DC converter is turned-off, diode
Dm would be turned on and the energy stored in the armature circuit
inductances would be transferred to the supply, provided that the supply is
receptive.
 The average voltage across the DC-DC converter is Vch = (1-k)Vs

 If Ia is the average armature current, the regenerative power can be found

from Pg = IaVs(1-k)

 The voltage generated by the motor acting as a generator is

Eg = keIfω = Vch + RmIa = (1-k)Vs + RmIa
where ke is machine constant and ω is the machine speed in rad per second.

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 Therefore, the equivalent load resistance of the motor acting as a generator is
Eg Vs
Req = = (1 − k ) + R m
Ia Ia

 By varying the duty cycle k, the equivalent load resistance seen by the motor
can be varied from Rm to (Vs/Ia + Rm) and the regenerative power can be
controlled.
 The condition for the permissible average voltage across the converter is
0 ≤ ( E g − Rm I a ) ≤ Vs
which gives the minimum braking speed of the motor as
Rm I a
E g = k e ω min I f = R m I a or ω min =
ke I f

the maximum braking speed of the motor is

Vs R I
keωmax I f − Rm I a = Vs or ωmax = + m a
ke I f ke I f
 The regenerative braking would be effective only if the motor speed is
between these two speed limits (e.g., ωmin < ω < ωmax). At any speed less than
ωmin, an alternative braking arrangement would be required.
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 Principle of Rheostatic Brake Control

Figure 3. Rheostatic braking of DC separately excited motors

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 If the supply is nonreceptive during the regenerative braking, the line voltage
would increase and regenerative braking may not be possible.
 In this case, an alternative form of braking is necessary, such as rheostatic
braking.
 In rheostatic braking, the energy is dissipated in a rheostat and it may not be
a desirable feature. In MRT systems, the energy may be used in heating the
trains. The rheostatic braking is also known as dynamic braking.

 The average current of the braking resistor is Ib = (1-k)Ia

 The average voltage across the braking resistor is Vb = (1-k)RbIa

 The equivalent load resistance of the generator is

Eg
Req = = Rb (1 − k ) + Rm
Ia
 The power dissipated in the resistor Rb is Pb = IaVb(1-k)

 By controlling the duty cycle k, the effective load resistance can be varied
from Rm to Rm+ Rb and the braking power can be controlled. The braking
resistance Rb determines the maximum voltage rating of the DC-DC converter.

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Principle of Combined Regenerative and Rheostatic Brake Control

Figure 4. Combined regenerative and rheostatic braking

 Regenerative braking is energy-efficient. On the other hand, the energy is dissipated
as heat in rheostatic braking. If the supply is partly receptive, which is normally the
case in practical traction system, a combined regenerative and rheostatic brake
control would be the most energy efficient.
 During regenerative braking, the line voltage is sensed continuously. If it exceeds a
certain preset value (20% above the line voltage), the regenerative braking is removed
and a rheostatic braking is applied. It allows an almost instantaneous transfer from
regenerative to rheostatic braking if the line becomes nonreceptive.
 In every cycle, the logic circuit determines the receptivity of the supply. If it is
nonreceptive, thyristor TR is turned on to divert the motor current to the resistor Rb. TR
is self-commutated when transistor Q1 is turned on in the next cycle.
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 Two-Quadrant & Four-Quadrant DC-DC Converter Drives

 During power control, a dc-dc converter-fed drive operates in the 1st quadrant, where
the armature voltage and armature current are positive (Fig. 1b).
 In a regenerative braking, the dc-dc converter drive operates in the 2nd quadrant,
where the armature voltage is positive and the armature current is negative (Fig. 2b). .

Figure 5. Two-quadrant transistorized DC-DC converter drive

 Two-quadrant operation as shown in Figure 5 is required to allow power and
regenerative braking control.
 Figure 5. Two-quadrant transistorized DC-DC converter drive

Power Control
Transistor Q1 and diode D2 operate. When Q1 is turned on, the supply voltage Vs is
connected to the motor terminals. When Q1 is turned off, the armature current flows
through the freewheeling diode D2 and decays.
Regenerative Control
Transistor Q2 and diode D1 operate. When Q2 is turned on, the motor acts as a
generator and the armature current rises. When Q2 is turned off, the motor, acting
generator, returns energy to the supply through the regenerative diode D1.
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Four-Quadrant DC-DC Converter Drives

Figure 6. Four-quadrant transistorized DC-DC converter drive

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Forward Power Control
Transistor Q1 and Q2 operate. Transistor Q3 and Q4 are off. When Q1 and Q2 are turned
on together, the supply voltage Vs appears across the motor terminals and the armature
current rises. When Q1 is turned off and Q2 is stilled turned on, the armature current
decays through Q2 and D4. Alternatively, if both Q1 and Q2 are turned off, the armature
current is forced to decay through D3 and D4.

Forward Regeneration
Transistor Q1, Q2 and Q3 are turned off. When Q4 is turned on, the armature current,
which rises, flows through Q4 and D2. When Q4 is turned off, the motor, acting as a
generator, returns energy to the supply through D1 and D2.

Reverse Power Control

Transistor Q3 and Q4 operate. Transistor Q1 and Q2 are off. When Q3 and Q4 are turned
on together, the armature current rises and flow in the reverse direction. When Q3 is
turned off and Q4 is turned on, the armature current decays through Q4 and D2.
Alternatively, if both Q3 and Q4 can be turned off, the armature current is forced to decay
through D1 and D2.

Reverse Regeneration
Transistor Q1, Q3 and Q4 are turned off. When Q2 is turned on, the armature current,
which rises, flows through Q2 and D4. When Q2 is turned off, the motor, acting as a
generator, return energy to the supply through D3 and D4.

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 Closed-Loop Control of DC Motors

Figure 7. Closed-loop position or speed control in a DC motor drive

To design a high performance servo motor control such as high speed of
response, low steady state error, and high degree of stability, it is important
to know the transfer function of the motor.

It is then combined with the transfer function of the rest of the system in
order to determine the dynamic response of the drive for changes in the
desired speed and position or for a change in load

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For analyzing small-signal dynamic performance of the motor-load
combination around a steady-state operating point, the following equations
can be written in terms of small deviation around their steady-state values:
d
∆vt = ∆ea + Ra ∆ia + La (∆ia )
dt
∆ea = k E ∆ωm
∆Tem = kT ∆ia
d
∆Tem = ∆TWL + B∆ωm + J (∆ωm )
dt
d
∆ωm = (∆θ m )
dt
If we take the Laplace transform of these equations, where the Laplace
variables represent only the small-signal Δ values in the above equation,
Vt ( s ) = E a ( s ) + ( Ra + sLa ) I a ( s )
E a (s) = k E ω m (s)
Tem ( s ) = k T I a ( s )
Tem ( s ) = TWL ( s ) + ( B + sJ )ω m ( s )
ω m ( s ) = sθ m ( s )
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 Figure 8. Block diagram representation of the motor and load (without any feedback)

These equations for the motor-load combination can be represented by

transfer function block as shown in Figure 8. The inputs to the motor-load
combination are the armature terminal voltage Vt(s) and the load torque
TWL(s). Applying one input at a time by setting the other input to zero, the
superposition principle yields

kT Ra + sLa
ω m ( s) = Vt ( s ) − TWL ( s )
( Ra + sLa )( sJ + B ) + k T k E ( Ra + sLa )( sJ + B) + k T k E

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This equation results in two closed-loop transfer function:

ω m (s) kT
G1 ( s ) = =
Vt ( s ) TWL ( s ) = 0
( Ra + sLa )( sJ + B) + k T k E

ω m (s) Ra + sLa
G2 ( s) = =
TWL ( s ) V ( s ) =0 ( Ra + sLa )( sJ + B) + k T k E
t

As a simplification to gain better insight into the DC motor behavior, the
friction term, which is usually small, will be neglected by setting B = 0 in
G1(s). Moreover, considering just the motor without the load, J in G1(s) is
then the motor inertial Jm. Therefore,

ω m (s) kT 1
G1 ( s ) = = =
Vt ( s ) sJ m ( Ra + sLa ) + k T k E  2 La J m Ra J m 
TWL ( s ) = 0
k E  s +s + 1
 kT k E kT k E 

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We will define the following constant:

Ra J m La
τm = = mechanical time constant, τe = = electrical time constant
kT k E Ra

Using τm and τe in the expression for G1(s) yields,

1
G1 ( s ) =
(
k E s 2τ mτ e + sτ m + 1 )
Since in general τm >> τe, it is a reasonable approximation to replace s τm by
s(τm+ τe) in the fore going expression. Therefore,
1 ω m (s) 1
G1 ( s ) = G1 ( s ) = ≈
(
k E s 2τ mτ e + s (τ m + τ e ) + 1) Vt ( s ) k E (sτ m + 1)( sτ e + 1)

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The physical significance of the electrical and the mechanical time constant
of the motor should also be understood. The electrical time constant τe
determines how quickly the armature current builds up as shown in Figure 9,
in response to a step change ∆vt in the terminal voltage, where the rotor
speed is assumed to be constant.

The mechanical time constant τm determines how quickly the speed builds
up in response to a step change ∆vt in the terminal voltage, provided that
the electrical time constant τe is assumed to be negligible and, hence, the
armature current can change instantaneously.

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 Neglecting τe in G1(s), the change in
speed from the steady state condition can
be obtained as
Vt ( s )
ωm ( s) =
k E (sτ m + 1)

In time domain,

∆vt
∆ω m (t ) =
kE
(
1 − e −t / τ m )

Figure 9. Mechanical time constant τm; load torque is assumed to be constant.

where τm is the mechanical time constant with which the speed changes in
response to a step change in the terminal voltage as shown in Figure 9(a).
The corresponding change in the armature current is plotted in Figure 9(b).
Note that if the motor current is limited by the converter during large
transients, the torque produced by the motor is simply kTIa,max.

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Applications of DC Motor Drives

1.Industrial Automation:
1. Conveyor systems
2. Robotic arms
3. Machine tools
2.Transportation:
1. Electric vehicles
2. Trains
3. Mass rapid transit (MRT) systems
3.Renewable Energy Systems:
1. Wind turbines
2. Solar power storage systems
4.Household Appliances:
1. Washing machines
2. Electric drills
3. Vacuum cleaners
5.Medical Equipment:
1. MRI machines
2. Surgical tools
https://youtu.be/SLVGqzy_3lo
6.Aerospace:
1. Flight simulators
2. Satellite positioning systems https://youtu.be/rU2CuCc8kC0
 1. Review of DC motors
2. Introduction to DC drive
End 3.
4.
Classification of DC motor drives
Review of the characteristics of DC motors
5. Four-quadrant operation of a drive system
6. Configuration of DC motor drives
7. Review of single-phase and three-phase
converters
8. Single-phase and three-phase DC motor drives
9. DC to DC converter drives (Power control,
Regenerative brake control, Rheostatic brake
control, Combined regenerative and rheostatic
What brake control)
10. Two-Quadrant & Four-Quadrant operation of DC-
have we DC Converter Drives

learned? 11.
12.
Closed loop control of DC motors
Applications of DC motors drives
13. Numerical Examples
14. Useful videos

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