CONTROL AND COORDINATION

STIMULI → The change in an environment to which the living

organism responds are called STIMULI [in form of some movements].

The response to stimuli is a characteristic property of living

organism. Usually, the living organisms show response in the form of
some movement of their body.Eg → When bright light is focussed on
our eyes or when we touch a hot object – we sense the change and
respond to it with movement in order to protect ourselves.

NOTE → Each kind of change in the environment evokes an

appropriate movement in response.

●​ Animals show response to a stimulus in many different ways –​

​
(a) CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (Brain, Spinal cord)​
​
(b) HORMONAL SYSTEM​

●​ Plants show response to stimulus in a very limited way as they

do not have nervous system.​

CO-ORDINATION → The working together of various organs in a

systematic manner to produce a proper response to a stimulus is
called coordination.

CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION IN ANIMALS →

The multicellular animals except sponges have specialised cells

called NERVE CELL or neuron to respond to stimuli and co-ordinate
their activities.

STRUCTURE OF NEURON →
A neuron is a structural and functional unit of a nervous system. It is
the largest cell of the body. They carry messages in the form of
electrical impulses. A neuron has 3 components:

(i) CELL BODY OR CYTON →

Cell body of neuron contains cytoplasm and nucleus.

(ii) DENDRITES →

These are short branched nerve fibres. Receive information at its tip
and sets off a chemical reaction that creates an electrical impulse.

This impulse travels from the dendrite to the cell body and then along
the axon to its end.

(iii) AXON →

It is a long nerve fibre arises from cell body. Electrical impulses travel
through it.
It has many nerve endings; at these endings, the electrical impulse
sets off the release of some chemicals.

Axon also has an insulating and protective sheath (cover) of myelin

around it made of fats and proteins.

SYNAPSE →

The microscopic gap or junction between the nerve ending of one

neuron and dendrites of another neuron. It contains a chemical
substance called Neuro-transmitter substance (one way).

At synapse, chemicals cross and start a similar electrical impulse in a

dendrite of the next neuron.

➤ In this way nervous impulses travel in the body. A similar synapse

finally allows delivery of such impulses from neuron to other cells,
such as muscles cells or glands.

NOTE →

Nervous tissue is made of an organised network of nerve cells

(neurons), and is specialised for conducting information via electrical
impulses from one part of the body to another.
NCERT QUES:

(i) Identify the parts of a neuron –

Where information is acquired → DENDRITES

(ii) Through which information travels as an electrical impulse →

AXON

(iii) Where this impulse must be converted into a chemical signal for
onward transmission → SYNAPSE

ACTIVITY → 7.1

RESULT →

The sense of smell helps in getting the complete taste of food. In case
of common cold, our nose is blocked which blocks the sense of
smell. That’s why we are unable to taste food properly in cold.

TYPES OF NEURON
There are 3 types of Neuron:

(i) SENSORY NEURON →

These neurons transmit impulses from receptors towards brain and

spinal cord.

(ii) MOTOR NEURON →

They transmit impulses from brain and spinal cord towards muscle
cells (effectors).

(iii) RELAY NEURON →

They occur in spinal cord where they serve as links between sensory
and motor neuron.

RECEPTORS

A receptor is a group of cells in a sense organ which is sensitive to

particular type of stimulus.

The common receptors are:

(i) Photoreceptor – Eyes – Light

(ii) Phonoreceptor – Ears – Sound

(iii) Olfactory receptor – Nose – Smell

(iv) Gustatory receptor – Tongue – Taste

(v) Thermoreceptor – Skin – Heat

NOTE

The receptors merely receive stimulus and cannot interpret the

impulse generated in them. The interpretation is done by brain.

Even brain without receptors cannot detect stimuli.

We cannot detect the right taste of food if our nose is blocked or we
have cold.

EFFECTOR

An effector is a part of our body which can respond to a stimulus

according to the instructions sent by brain or spinal cord.

The effectors are mainly muscles or glands in our body.

REFLEX ACTION

The reflex action is defined as a spontaneous, automatic and sudden

response to a stimulus which is not under the voluntary control of the
brain.

Eg → Withdrawing hands on touching a hot object; blinking of eyes

etc.

REFLEX ARC

The pathway along which the nerve impulses travel is called reflex
arc.

The receptors detect the signal or the input and responding to it by an

output action might be completed quickly. Such a connection is called
a reflex arc.

Ques → Where should such reflex arc connections be made between

the input nerve and the output nerve?

Ans → SPINAL CORD, the point where they first meet.

FLOW CHART:

STIMULI → RECEPTOR → (sensory nerve) → SPINAL CORD → (motor

nerve) → EFFECTOR → RESPONSE
Ques:

How muscles cause movement? How do muscle cells change their

shape?

When a nerve impulse reaches the muscle, the muscle fibre must
move. At the cellular level, muscle cells move by changing their
shape so that they shorten. Hence, muscle cells have special proteins
that change both their shape and arrangement in the cell in response
to nervous electrical impulses.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

It consists of BRAIN & SPINAL CORD.

Brain and spinal cord receive information from all parts of the body
and integrate it.

BRAIN

It is the main co-ordinating centre of the body. It is present inside a

bony box called SKULL or CRANIUM.

The brain is contained in fluid-filled balloons (MENINGES) with

CEREBROSPINAL FLUID, which provides further shock absorption
and protects from mechanical shocks.

THINKING involves more complex mechanisms and neural

connections. Thus, the brain allows us to think and take actions
based on that thinking.

The brain has 3 major parts/regions

1.​ FOREBRAIN​

2.​ MID-BRAIN​

3.​ HIND-BRAIN
1. FOREBRAIN

It is the main thinking part of the brain.

It mainly consists of the CEREBRUM.

CEREBRUM is the site of learning, reasoning, intelligence, and

memory.

All the actions and thoughts are controlled by CEREBRUM.

It has regions or areas →

(a) Sensory Area

The region which receives sensory impulses from various receptors.

Separate areas of the forebrain are specialized for hearing, smell,sight

& so on.

(b) Association area →The area where sensory information is

interpreted by putting it together with information from receptors as
well as with information that is already stored in the brain from past
experiences.

(c) Motor area →A decision is made about the impulse, how to

respond, and then the information is passed on to the motor area,
which controls the movement of voluntary muscles.For example: arm,
leg muscles.

Question → How do we know that we have eaten enough?

Answer → The sensation or feeling full is because of a centre

associated with hunger, which is a separate part of the forebrain.

MID BRAIN

It does not have any further division.

It connects forebrain to hindbrain.

It controls reflex actions of head and neck in response to visual and
audio stimuli.

NOTE -Many involuntary actions (like change in size of pupil) are

controlled by mid brain and hind brain.

HIND BRAIN

It mainly consists of 3 regions:

(i) CEREBELLUM

(ii) PONS

(iii) MEDULLA OBLONGATA

(i) CEREBELLUM →It is responsible for precision of voluntary actions

and maintaining posture, equilibrium, and balance of the body.Eg:
Walking in a straight line, riding a bicycle, picking up a pencil.

(ii) PONS →It regulates respiration.

(iii) MEDULLA OBLONGATA →

All the involuntary actions including blood pressure, salivation,

vomiting, rate of heart beat are controlled by the medulla of the
hind-brain.

SPINAL CORD—It begins in continuation of medulla, extends

downwards.

It is protected by VERTEBRAL COLUMN (BACKBONE) and also

surrounded by meninges which contain cerebrospinal fluid.

There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves arising from the spinal cord.

Nerves from all over the body must run in a bundle in the spinal cord
on their way to the brain.
 ●​ It conducts sensory and motor impulses to and from the brain.​

●​ It acts as centre for the reflex action.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM-

The communication between the central nervous system and the

other parts of the body is facilitated by the peripheral nervous
system.

It consists of 3 types of nerves:

(a) CRANIAL NERVE →

The nerves arise from brain and reaches to various parts of the brain.

There are 12 pairs in number and carry both sensory and motor
nerves.

(b) SPINAL NERVE →

These nerves arise from spinal cord and spread throughout the body
except head region.

There are 31 pairs and carry both sensory and motor neurons.

(c) VISCERAL NERVE →

These are special kinds of nerves mostly arise from spinal cord and
go to brain.

They control the activities of internal organs like heart, kidneys,

lungs, urinary bladder.

HORMONES(Chemical Messengers)-Hormones are the chemical

substances secreted in small amount by endocrine glands to regulate
the biological activities in the living organism
Or Theseare the chemical substances that act like messenger
molecules in the body.