IC Engines and Reciprocating

Machines

CHAPTER 2
Operating Characteristics
and Engine Performance

FOUR-STROKE-CYCLE SPARK-IGNITION
(PETROL) ENGINE

2
•1
3

4
•2
5

6
•3
SI

FOUR-STROKE-CYCLE SPARK-IGNITION
(PETROL) ENGINE

8
•4
FOUR-STROKE-CYCLE COMPRESSION-
IGNITION (DIESEL) ENGINE

10
•5
11

12
•6
13

14
•7
 15

FOUR-STROKE-CYCLE COMPRESSION-
IGNITION (DIESEL) ENGINE

16
•8
PETROL vs DIESEL ENGINE – Difference

17

18
•9
19

20
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 COMPARISON BETWEEN THE SPARK-IGNITION
AND COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES

Thermal efficiency:
Petrol engines can have thermal efficiency
ranging between 20% and 30%. Diesel engines
have improved efficiencies, between 30% and
40%.
Noise:
Diesel engines are noisier. The combustion
process is quieter in the petrol engine and it
runs smoother than the diesel engine.
Cost:
Due to their heavy construction and
injection equipment, diesel engines are more
expensive than petrol engines. 21

TWO-STROKE-CYCLE PETROL ENGINE

1.Induction and compression
stroke: The piston moves down the
cylinder and initially uncover the
exhaust port (E) releasing the
burnt gases to the atmosphere.
Such a movement also compresses
the charge in the crankcase.
Further movement of the piston
uncover the transfer port (T)
allowing the compressed mixture to
be transferred to the inside of the
cylinder pushing out any remaining
of the burnt gases 22
•11
 TWO-STROKE-CYCLE PETROL ENGINE
2.Power and exhaust stroke: The
piston moves in the direction of
the cylinder head, sealing off all
ports and compressing the
mixture. Further movement of the
piston increases the volume in the
crankcase, creating suction so
when the inlet port is uncovered
fresh charge is sucked in the
crankcase. Just before reaching
the TDC, a spark plug ignites the
compressed mixture, raising the
pressure and temperature of the
mixture very rapidly. The burnt
gases expand forcing the piston to
move down the cylinder. 23

TWO-STROKE-CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE

• The piston moves away from the cylinder
head and when it is half way down its power
stroke the exhaust valves open allowing the
burnt gases to escape through the exhaust
valves.
• When the piston moves down near the end of
the power stroke, the inlet ports are
uncovered, allowing fresh air from the blower
to be admitted.
• The piston moves upward toward the cylinder
head sealing off the inlet ports and helping
the fresh air to push any remaining burnt
gases through the exhaust valves and the
exhaust valves close.
24
•12
 TWO-STROKE-CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE

• The piston continues to move upward

compressing the charge of air and raising the
temperature and the pressure to about 30 to
40 bars. Before the piston reaches the TDC
fuel is injected into the charge.
• The heated charge vaporizes the fuel and
ignites it. The rapidly burning mixture raises
the pressure and temperature very rapidly
inside the cylinder and forces the piston to
move away from the cylinder head in the
power stroke.

25

TWO-STROKE-CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE

26
•13
 COMPARISON OF THE TWO AND FOUR-STROKE
CYCLE PETROL ENGINES
Four-stroke engine Two-stroke engine

Four stroke of the piston and Two stroke of the piston and
two revolution of crankshaft one revolution of crankshaft

One power stroke in every two One power stroke in each

revolution of crankshaft revolution of crankshaft

Heavier flywheel due to non- Lighter flywheel due to more

uniform turning movement uniform turning movement

Power produce is less Theoretically power produce is

twice than the four stroke
engine for same size

Heavy and bulky Light and compact

Lesser cooling and lubrication Greater cooling and lubrication
requirements requirements 27

COMPARISON OF THE TWO AND FOUR-STROKE

CYCLE PETROL ENGINES
Four-stroke engine Two-stroke engine

Lesser rate of wear and tear Higher rate of wear and tear

Contains valve and valve Contains ports arrangement

mechanism
Higher initial cost Cheaper initial cost
Volumetric efficiency is more Volumetric efficiency less due
due to greater time of induction to lesser time of induction
Thermal efficiency is high and Thermal efficiency is low, part
also part load efficiency better load efficiency lesser
It is used where efficiency is It is used where low cost,
important compactness and light weight
are important.
Ex-cars, buses, trucks, tractors, Ex-lawn movers, scooters,
industrial engines, aero planes, motor cycles, mopeds,
power generation etc. propulsion ship etc. 28
•14
 GENERAL LAYOUT

29

VALVES

 Allow fresh air-fuel mixture to enter

and the burn gases to leave from the
cylinder.
 The valves are the doors of the
combustion chamber
 The conventional automotive engine
is fitted with mechanically operated
poppet valves for both inlet and
exhaust.
 The poppet valve consists of two
parts, the head and the stem
 The heads of the inlet and exhaust
valves are different diameter, for
better engine breathing, a inlet
valve has a larger diameter than the 30
•15
exhaust valve
 VALVE MATERIALS

Inlet valves run much cooler than exhaust

valves and may be made of materials such as
carbon steel,
nickel steel or
chrome-molybdenum alloys or
tungsten steel,
which may be hardened and will withstand high
stresses.
The exhaust valves are primarily made of high heat
resistant metals such as
nichrome,
silicon-chromium, or
cobalt-chromium alloys.
31

VALVE SEATS

• The purpose of valve seats in an

automatic engine is to provide a perfect
seat the valves, when the valves are
closed. The valve seat of an engine can
be machined in to the cylinder block or
cylinder head. Therefore the valve
seats are internal parts of the cylinder
block or cylinder head.
• Poppet valve are used in almost all
internal-combustion engines with
operate on the four-stroke cycle, this is
mainly due to their relative simplicity
of manufacturing and reliability
service, valves operate at combustion
temperature of 2200° C and its open
and close 70,000 times per hour.

32
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 VALVE SEAT ANGLE

• The inlet valve face angle is generally kept 45°

to 30°. Similarly the exhaust valve face angle is
generally kept above the 45°.
• A smaller face angle provides greater valve
opening, but poor sealing because of the
reduced pressure, for a given valve spring load.
• Normally the greater or high valve face angle
used in exhaust valve because of high heat
dissipation Characteristics.

33

VALVE GUIDES

• Allow the valves to move up and down provide proper

alignment of the valve face with the valve seat. It can
help transfer heat from valve stem to the guides. It may
be an integral part of the engine block or head or inserts
in to the cylinder block or head.
• If the clearance between steam and guide is excessive,
the amount of heat dissipation is dropped, the valve is
improperly guided and the combustion chamber
insufficiently sealed. The clearance between the valve
steam and guide is in the order of 0.04 to 0.09mm.
• When an engine is Over hauled the clearance between
the valve stems and their guides should be checked by
micrometer measurements.
• When the valve-guide clearance exceeds, a new one
should replace the guide and/or the valve.

34
•17
Valve Guides
Materials used for valve guides
a) Cast-iron
b) Phosphor bronze (usually inlets only)
c) Case-hardened mild-steel

35

VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM

• The valve-timing diagram is important in the

operation of the four-stroke cycle.
• The opening and closing moments of the
valves measured in crankshaft degrees are
referred to as valve timing.
• The valve-timing diagram of a low speed
engine is different from that of a high-speed
engine.
• The following stretches illustrate the above
differences.

36
•18
VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM

For high speed SI engine For low speed SI engine-

• Inlet valve opens 15 degree •Inlet valve opens 10 degree

before T.D.C before T.DC

• Inlet valve closes 58 degree •Inlet valve closes 10 degree

after B.D.C after B.D.C

• Exhaust valve opens 60 •Exhaust valve opens 25 degree

degree before B.D.C before B.D.C

• Exhaust valve closes 25 •Exhaust valve closes 5 degree

degree after T.D.C after T.D.C

• Spark begins 30 degree •Spark begins 15 degree before

before T.D.C during the T.D.C during the compression
compression stroke stroke

37

VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM

38
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For low speed diesel engine For high speed diesel engine

• Inlet valve opens 15 degree • Inlet valve opens 12 degree

before T.DC before T.D.C

• Inlet valve closes 35 degree • Inlet valve closes 48 degree

after B.D.C after B.D.C

• Exhaust valve opens 40 • Exhaust valve opens 42

degree before B.D.C degree before B.D.C

• Exhaust valve closes 10 • Exhaust valve closes 12

degree after T.D.C degree after T.D.C

• Fuel injection begins 15 • Fuel injection begins 25

degree before TDC during degree before T.D.C during
the Compression stroke the compression stroke

• Fuel injection timing is maximum 29

degree and minimum 23 degree before
39
T.D.C during compression stroke.

VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM

40
•20
 Typical valve timings
A good average valve setting for modern car
engine is as follows:
• Inlet opens at 10 to 15 degree before T.D.C
• Inlet closes at 50 to 55 degrees after B.D.C
• Exhaust opens at 50 to 55 before B.D.C
• Exhaust closes at 10 to 15 degrees after T.D.C

Similarly a typical valve setting for a modern

high-speed car engine as follows:
• Inlet opens at 15 to 25 degree before T.D.C
• Inlet closes at 53 to 58 degrees after B.D.C
• Exhaust opens at 55 to 65 before B.D.C
• Exhaust closes at 15 to 25 degrees after T.D.C
41

SIDE VALVE MECHANISM

• In side valve engines, the valves
are located in the cylinder block
and are operated directly from
the camshaft
• In order for a diesel engine to
operate, all of its components
must perform their functions at
very precise intervals in relation
to the motion of the piston. To
accomplish this, a component
called a camshaft is used.
• A camshaft is a long bar with
egg-shaped eccentric lobes, one
lobe for each valve and fuel
injector. 42
•21
SIDE VALVE MECHANISM
• The valves are maintained closed by
springs. As the valve is opened by the
camshaft, it compresses the valve
spring.
• The camshaft is located in the cylinder
block.
• The crankshaft drives the camshaft
through a pair of mating gears, called
timing gears, each installed at one of
their ends.
• The camshaft gear carries exactly
double number of teeth to that of
crankshaft gear. This enables the
camshaft to rotate at half the speed of
the crankshaft so that each valve
opens only once in every two
revolutions of crankshaft

43

SIDE VALVE MECHANISM

44
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Advantages

• The production of side valve arrangement

(engine) is cheap.
• Side valve engines are quiet in operation.
Although it is less accessible for maintenance.
• Overall engine height can be low
• Less complicated casting of cylinder head.
• Special valve stem, oil-sealing arrangements
are not required.
• The engine does not need rocker arm push rod,
so that the cylinder head design is simple

45

Disadvantages

• The design of the combustion chamber is limited

and the specific output from a side-valve engine
is lower than the over head- valve engine.

• Side valve engine have a longer - flame travel

path, which is increase the possibility of
knocking.

46
•23
OVERHEAD VALVE MECHANISM

• In this valve mechanism, a

push rod and a rocker arm,
to push the valve against
the spring pressure are
required.
• The rocker arm rotates
about the rocker arm shaft
under the force exerted by
the push rod.
• The clearance in this valve
mechanism is kept
between the rocker arm
and the valve stem. This
can be adjusted by the
47
screw adjuster also.

OVERHEAD VALVE MECHANISM

• A suitable gear train or chain is
provided to convert the drive from
crankshaft to camshaft.
• In high-speed engines, the frequency
of vibration of the valve spring
coincides with the normal operating
frequency of the valve hence leads to
resonance and increasing the surging
effect.
• To overcome this problem, nowadays
compound spring is used. Compound
spring means “One spring within the
other of different natural
frequencies”.
48
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 49

Advantages

• It can provide more rapid opening and

closing of the valves. So that the engine
can breath better and volumetric efficiency
is greater.
• The engine parameter is improved,
especially at high speed.
• The overhead-camshaft arrangement
Ensures, accurately maintained valve
timing.
• Compression ratio can be made higher.
• Cylinder block casting is less complicated.

50
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 VALVE CLEARANCE

• When the valve is closed, a slight or some

amount of clearance is necessary between the
rocker arm and the valve is the case of
overhead valve engine. And the clearance
between the valve tappet and the valve tip in
the case side head valve engine. This clearance
is known as valve tappet clearance or valve
clearance.
• This clearance allows for expansion of the
valve stem, at high operating temperature of
the engine. If the clearance is not given, the
valve will not seat properly, then the result will
be loss of compression, which is lead to power
loss. 51

VALVE CLEARANCE
There is usually more clearance on the exhaust valve than
that of inlet valve. Because the exhaust valve exposed to high
temperature of burning gases. But the inlet valve is cooled by
incoming fresh A/F mixture or Air. The valve tappet clearance
is adjusted by an adjusting screw provided on the valve
tappets are shown in fig.

52
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 VALVE OVERLAP
• Both the inlet and exhaust valves of the same
cylinders are open at the same time is called
valve overlap. It normally occurs about T.D.C
between the exhaust and intake strokes
•

53

• VALVE LEAD:
The opening of a valve before either TDC or
BDC is called valve lead. [(Or the valve opens
before its stroke]. If the exhaust valve opens
during the power stroke before the exhaust
stroke begins. If the inlet valve opens before the
start of the intake stroke, it’s called as valve
lead.

• VALVE LAG:
The closing of a valve after TDC or BDC is
called valve lag. It occurs when the inlet valve
remains open after the piston has reached BDC.
It also occurs when the exhaust valve does not
close until after the piston has reached TDC.
54
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 PERFORMANCE CHARCTERISITICS

Engine performance is an indication of the

degree of success with which it does its assigned job.
The conversion of chemical energy contained in
the fuel into the useful mechanical work.
The basic performance parameters are numerated and
discussed below.
1. Power and mechanical efficiency
2. Mean effective pressure and torque
3. Specific output
4. Volumetric efficiency
5. Fuel-air ratio
6. Specific fuel consumption
7. Thermal efficiency
8. Specific weight

55

PERFORMANCE CHARCTERISITICS

The performance of the engine depends on

inter-relationship between power developed,
speed and the specific fuel consumption at each
operating condition within the useful range of
speed and load.

56
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Indicated Work

57

Indicated Work

58
•29
1. Power and mechanical efficiency

59

1. Power and mechanical efficiency

60
•30
 1. Power and mechanical efficiency

iii. Frictional Power

The difference between I.P. and B.P. is called
fictional power, F.P.

iv. Mechanical Efficiency

The ratio of B.P. to I.P. is called mechanical
efficiency.

61

2. Mean effective pressure and torque

"Mean effective pressure" is defined as

hypothetical pressure which is thought to be acting on
the piston throughout the power stroke.
If it is based on I.P., it is called indicated mean
effective pressure (IMEP).
If it is based on B.P., it is called brake mean
effective pressure (BMEP).
Similarly, frictional mean effective pressure (FMEP) can
be defined as:
FMEP = IMEP - BMEP
The torque and mean effective pressure are related by
the engine size.
Since the power (P) of an engine is dependent on
its size and speed, therefore it is not possible to compare
engine on the basis of either power or torque.
Mean effective pressure is the true indication of •31
62
the relative performance of different engines
 3. Specific output

Specific power output of an engine is defined as the

power output per unit piston area

Specific output

63

4. Volumetric efficiency
The volumetric efficiency is used to measure the
effectiveness of an engine's induction process.
It is defined as the ratio of actual volume (reduced to
N.T.P.) of the charge drawn in during the suction stroke
to the swept volume of the piston.
The average value of this efficiency is from 70 to 80
per cent but in case of supercharged engine it may be
more than 100 per cent, if air at about atmospheric
pressure is forced into the cylinder at a pressure greater
than that of air surrounding the engine.
Ƞvol = ma/ ρa Vd
Where,
ma = mass of air in kg
ρa = density of air in kg/m3
Vd= displacement volume in m3

64
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 5. Fuel-air ratio

• A mixture that contains just enough air for complete

combustion of all the fuel in the mixture is called a
chemically correct or stoichiometric fuel-air ratio.
• A mixture having more fuel than that in a chemically
correct mixture is termed as rich mixture and a
mixture that contains less fuel (or excess air) is
called a lean mixture.
• The ratio of actual fuel-air ratio to stoichiometric
fuel-air ratio is called equivalence ratio and is
denoted by

65

Equivalent ratio & Relative A/F ratio

66
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 Relations

67

6. Specific fuel consumption (SFC)

68
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 7. Thermal efficiency

69

BASIC MEASUREMENTS

To evaluate the performance of an engine following

basic measurements are usually undertaken.
1. Measurement of speed
The speed is measured by
(i) Revolution counters
(ii) Mechanical tachometer
(iii)Electrical tachometer
2. Measurement of fuel
The fuel consumed by an engine can be measured by
(i) Fuel flow method
(ii) Gravimetric method
(iii)Continuous flow meter
3. Measurement of air consumption
(i) Viscous-flow air meter:
(ii) Air box method •35
70
 (i) Air box method

• It consists of an air tight chamber fitted with a sharp

edged orifice of known coefficient of discharge.
• The orifice is located away from the suction connection
to the engine.
• Due to the suction of the engine, there is a pressure
depression in the air box or chamber which causes the
flow through the orifice.
• For obtaining a steady flow, the volume of chamber
should be sufficiently large compared with the swept
volume of the cylinder; generally, 500 to 600 times the
swept volume.
• It is assumed that the intermittent suction of the
engine will not affect the air pressure in the air box as
volume of the air box is sufficiently large, and pressure
in the box remains same.
• A water manometer is used to measure the pressure
difference causing the flow through the orifice. The
depression across the orifice should not exceed 100 71 to
150 mm of water.

(i) Air box method

72
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 (ii) Viscous-flow air meter:
• Alcock viscous-flow air meter is another design of air
meter.
• It is not subjected to the errors of the simple types of flow
meters. With the air-box the flow is proportional to the
square root of the pressure difference across the orifice.
• With the Alcock meter the air flows through a form of
honeycomb so that flow is viscous. The resistance of the
element is directly proportional to the air velocity and is
measured by means of an inclined manometer.
• Felt pads are fitted in the manometer connections to damp
out fluctuations.
• The accuracy is improved by fitting a damping vessel
between the meter and the engine to reduce the effect of
pulsations.

73

Measurement of Brake Power

The B.P. of an engine can be determined by a brake of
some kind applied to the brake pulley of the engine. The
arrangement for determination of B.P. of the engine is known as
dynamometer.
The dynamometers are classified into following two classes:
(i) Absorption dynamometer
(ii) Transmission dynamometer
(i) Absorption dynamometer
Absorption dynamometers are those that absorb the
power to be measured by friction. The power absorbed in friction
is finally dissipated in the form of heat energy.
Common forms of absorption dynamometers are pony brake, rope
brake, hydraulic brake, fan brake and electrical brake
dynamometer.
(ii) Transmission dynamometer.
These are also called torque meters. These are very
accurate and are used where continuous transmission of load is
necessary. These are used mainly in automatic units. Ex strain
gauge dynamometer
74
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 Measurement of Indicated Power (IP)
The power developed in the engine cylinder or at the
piston is necessarily greater than that at the crankshaft due to
engine losses. Thus,
I.P = B.P + Engine losses
IP is generally determined by with the help of P-V diagram
taken with the help of an indicator.
In case, indicated power cannot be determined directly, It
is made possible by measuring the brake power and also the
engine losses.
If the indicator diagram is available, the indicator power
can be determined by measuring the area of diagram, area with a
planimeter or by ordinate method, and dividing by the stroke
measurement in order to obtain the mean effective pressure.

75

Measurement of Indicated Power (IP)

76
•38
A two stroke cycle internal combustion engine has a mean
effective pressure of 6 bar. The speed of the engine is 1000
r.p.m. If the diameter of piston and stroke are 110 mm
and 140 mm respectively, find the indicated power
developed.

Soln:
n × IME P x A x L x N x k x 10
IP = kW
6
Here, n = 1
k = 1 for two stroke engine
1 ×6 ×0.14 ×3.14 ×0.11 ×0.11 ×1000 ×1 ×10
IP =
6×4
= 13.3 kW
77

A four stroke, four-cylinder SI engine has a swept volume

of 450 cc and compression ratio is 8. The clearance
volume of each cylinder is equal to

78
•39
• A four cylinder four stroke petrol engine develops 14.7 kW
at 1000 r.p.m. The indicated mean effective pressure is 5.5
bar. Calculate the bore and stroke of the engine, if the
length of the stroke is 1.5 times the bore.

Soln:
𝐧 × 𝐈𝐌𝐄𝐏 𝐱 𝐀 𝐱 𝐋 𝐱 𝐍 𝐱 𝐤 𝐱 𝟏𝟎
IP = kW
𝟔
𝟒 × 𝟓.𝟓 𝐱 𝟏.𝟓 𝐃 𝐱 𝟑.𝟏𝟒 𝐱 𝐃 𝐱 𝐃 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟎.𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎
14.7 = W
𝟔× 𝟒
Here, n = 4 (four cylinder engine)
K = ½ (four stroke engine)
D = 0.0879 m = 87.9 mm
L = 1.5 𝐱 87.9 = 131.88 mm
79

A 2-stroke engine having bore = 10 cm and stroke equal to 20

cm produces brake power = 35 kW. Take engine speed = 2000
rpm. The brake mean effective pressure is
Solution:

80
•40
 81

• A four cylinder four stroke SI engine has a

compression ratio of 8 and bore of 100 mm
with stroke equal to the bore. The
volumetric efficiency of each cylinder is
equal to 75%. The engine operates at a
speed of 4800 r.p.m with an air-fuel ratio
15. Given that the calorific value of fuel = 42
MJ/kg, atmospheric density = 1.2 kg/m3,
mean effective pressure in the cylinder = 10
bar and mechanical efficiency of the engine
is equal to = 80%, determine the indicated
thermal efficiency and brake power.

82
•41
83

84
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85

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