EXPONENTS

MATH 101 Lecture Notes

Department of Mathematics, Botswana International University of Science and Technology

January 28, 2016

1 Natural Number Exponents

Definition 1 An exponent of a real number states how many times a number is multi-
plied by itself.

Example 2 For example, 26 is the notation used to indicate that 2 is multiplied by itself
6 times. That is,

26 = 2| × 2 × 2 {z
× 2 × 2 × 2}
6 factors

The number 2 is called the base and the positive integer 6 is called an exponent or power.
When a number is written as a power of some base, then we say that it is expressed in
exponential form. The number 26 is the 6th power of 2.
In general, if a is any real number and n ∈ N, then the nth power of a is the number an
given by

an = a
| × a ×{za × . . . a}
n factors

Remark 3 Note that if a = 1, then

an = 1n = 1,

so the nth power of 1 is equal to 1. This is because

1n = 1| × 1 ×{z1 × . . . 1} = 1
n factors

(b) The nth power of zero is zero. This is because

0n = 0| × 0 ×{z0 × . . . 0} = 0.
n factors

1
(c) If a is a positive real number, then

−an = −(an ) = −(a

| × a × a{z× · · · × a})
n factors

For example,
−26 = −(26 ) = −(2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2) = −64.
(d) If a is a positive real number, then

(−a)n = (−a)(−a)(−a) . . . (−a)

| {z }
n factors

For example,
(−2)6 = (−2)(−2)(−2)(−2)(−2)(−2) = 64.
Note that
(−2)7 = (−2)(−2)(−2)(−2)(−2)(−2)(−2) = −128.

The First Law Of Exponents

Observe that

26 = (2 × 2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2)
= 24 × 22

On the other hand 6 = 4 + 2. Therefore,

24+2 = 26 = 24 .22 .

In general, if n, m ∈ N, then

an × am = an+m (1)

That is, when multiplying two powers of the same base, simply add their exponents.
Equation (1) is called the first law of exponents.

Example 4 Simplify the following expressions.

(a) x3 .x9 (b) x3 .x9 .x5 (c) (3y 6 )(27y 2 ).

Solution

(a) Using the first law of exponents, we have

x3 .x9 = x3+9 = x12

2
(b) We already know from part (a) that x3 .x9 = x12
Therefore

x3 .x9 .x5 = x12 .x5

= x12+5
= x17

(c) We note that 27 = 33 , so that

(3y 6 )(27y 2 ) = (3y 6 )(33 y 2 )

= (3.33 )(y 6 .y 2 )
= 31+3 y 6+2
= 34 y 8

The Second Law Of Exponents

When dividing two powers of the same base, subtract the exponents. That is,
am
= am−n (2)
an
Alternatively,
am 1
n
= n−m
a a
Remark 5 (a) If m = n, then from (2) we have
am
= am−m = a0 .
am
On the other hand, we know that
am
= 1,
am
therefore we conclude that for every real number a,

a0 = 1.

(b) Note that when we choose n := 2m, then from (2)

am
= am−2m
a2m
which is equivalent to
am
= a−m
am+m
Now using the first law of exponents, we have
am 1
a−m = = .
am am am

3
Therefore, for every natural number m,
1
a−m = . (3)
am
(c) Now multiplying equation (3) by am yields

am · a−m = 1.

Dividing by a−m , we get

1
am = . (4)
a−m
For example,
23 1
4
= 23−4 = 2−1 = .
2 2
Note that also,
23 1 1 1
4
= 4−3 = 1 = .
2 2 2 2
Example 6 Simplify the following expressions
2x9 (2y 3 )(3y 5 )
(a) (b) .
3x5 15y 4

Solution:

(a) Using the second law of exponents, we have

2 x9 2 2
· 5 = x9−5 = x4 ·
3 x 3 3

(b)

(2y 3 )(3y 5 ) 2 y 3 .y 5
=
3.5y 4 5 y4
2 y 5+3
= (by first law)
5 y4
2 y8
=
5 y4
2 8−4
= y (by second law)
5

(18x2 y 3 )(5y 4 x)
Exercise 7 Simplify (a)
30y 9

4
The Third Law Of Exponents
If a real number a is raised to a power m, and the result is raised to a power n, then the
result is a raised to power mn. That is,
(am )n = amn
For example,
(23 )7 = 23×7 = 221 .
Example 8 Simplify completely (a) (a3 )4 (b) (2x3 )2
Solution:
(a) From the third law of exponents, we have
(a3 )4 = a3×4 = a12

(b) Note that

(2x3 )2 = (2x3 )(2x3 )
= 2 × 2 × x3 .x3
= 22 .x3+3
= 22 .x6

The Fourth Law Of Exponents

If a and b are real numbers, and m ∈ N, then
(ab)m = am bm .
That is, to raise a product to a power, raise each factor to the power. For example,
(2 × 3)5 = 25 35 or (2 × 3)5 = 65 .

Example 9 Remove the brackets and simplify

a) (x2 y 3 )4
b) (2x2 y 3 )4 (3x3 )

Solution: From the 4th law of exponents, we have

(x2 y 3 )4 = (x2 )4 (y 3 )4
= x(2×4) y (3×4) (using the 3rd law)
= x8 y 12
(b) Again from the 4th law of exponents, we have
(2x2 y 3 )4 3x3 = 24 (x2 y 3 )4 3x3 = 24 x8 y 12 · 3x3 (from(a))
4 (8+3) 12 st
= 3·2 x y (by using the 1 law)
4 11 12
= 3·2 x y

5
Remark 10 From the fourth law of exponents, we can derive the property
 a  m am
= m, (5)
b b
for each natural number m. That is to raise a quotient to a power, raise both numerator
and denominator to that power.

Example 11 Evaluate the following

 −2expressions
2 2
(a) 25 · 2−3 (b) −3 (c) .
2 3

Solution: (a)

Remark 12 From the last two examples, we can state the following
(a) To raise a fraction to a negative power, invert the fraction and change the sign of the
exponent. That is,
 a −m  b m
= . (6)
b a
For example,  −5  5
2 3
= .
3 2
(b) To move a number raised to a power from the numerator to the denominator, change
the sign of the exponent. That is,
bm 1
n
= −m n . (7)
a b a
For example,
2−3 1 1
2
= −(−3) 2 = 3 .
5 2 5 2 × 52
(c) To move a number raised to a power from the denominator to the numerator, change
the sign of the exponent. That is,
an
= an b−m . (8)
bm
For example,
23
= 23 × 52 .
5−2

2 Negative Exponents
Recall that for any real number a, we have
an
a0 = 1 and = an−m .
am
If n = 0, then
a0
m
= a0−m = a−m .
a

6
That is,
1
m
= a−m .
a
Thus the above equation can be used to extend our discussion on natural number expo-
nents to integer exponents.

Example 13 Simplify (a) x−3 x5 (b) (2x−4 )−3 .

Solution: Using negative exponents, we have

1 5 x5
x−3 x5 = x = 3
x3 x
5−3
= x by the 2nd law
= x2

Alternatively from the 1st law of integer exponents

x−3 x5 = x(−3)+5 = x2 .

(b) By the 3rd law of integer exponents, we have

(2x−4 )−3 = 2−3 · (x(−4)(−3) ) = 2−3 · x12

x12
=
23
Example 14 Simplify the following expressions, leaving your answer in positive expo-
nents only.  −3  
−7 2 3 x y 2
(a) a (2a ) (b) · .
y x

Solution: (a) Using rule (4) of exponents,

a−7 (2a2 )3 = a−7 (2a2 )3 = a−7 23 a2×3 = a−7 23 a6 ,

when we have used rule (3) of exponents to obtain the last equality. By commutativity
of real numbers and rule (1) of exponents,

a−7 (2a2 )3 = 23 a−7 a6 = 23 a−7 a6 = 23 a−7+6 = 8a−1 .

Hence
8
a−7 (2a2 )3 = .
a1
(b) By identity (5),
 −3  
x y 2 x−3 y 2
· = −3 · 2 .
y x y x
Using the equation (7),
 −3  
x y 2 1 y2
· = 3 −3 · 2 .
y x xy x

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Using equation (8),
 −3  
x y 2 y3 y2
· = 3 · 2.
y x x x
Now by the first rule of exponents,
 −3  
x y 2 y 3+2 y5
· = 3+2 = 5 .
y x x x

Note that by identity (6),

 −3  
x y 2  y 3  y 2
· = ·
y x x x
 y 3+2
=
x
 y 5
= ,
x
where we have used rule (1) of exponents to arrive at the second equality.

3 Radicals
√ √
Recall that 4 is equal to 2 and − 9 is equal to −3. That is,
√ √
4=2 and − 9 = −3.
√ √ √
The symbol 5 is the square
√ root of 5. Note that 5 has the same meaning as + 5. It
is sometimes written as 2 5.
√
Definition 15 Let a ≥ 0 be a real number. Then a is the number b ≥ 0 that satisfies
the equation
b2 = a.
√
To find 25, we find a nonnegative real number b such that the product of b with itself
is 25. There is only one such number, and it is 5.

Remark 16 Note that there is no real number b ≥ 0 that satisfies the equation

b2 = −1.
√
Therefore, −1 does not give us a real number.
√
The symbol 3 4 is the cube root of 4.
√
Definition 17 Let a be any (positive or negative) real number. Then 3
a is the number
b that satisfies the equation
b3 = a.
√ √
Example 18 Find (a) 3 8 and (b) 3 −8.

8
 √
Solution: (a) To find 3 8, we find a number b such that when multiplying b by itself 3
times we obtain 8. There is only one such real number, and it is 2. Therefore,
√3
8=2 because 2 × 2 × 2 = 8.

(b) Note that when multiplying −2 by itself 3 times, we obtain −8. Therefore,
√
3
−8 = 2 because (−2) × (−2) × (−2) = −8.
√
Remark
√ 19 (a) 2
a is also called the principal second root of a.
(b) a is also called the principal third root of a.
3

In general, we can define the principal nth root of a as

Definition
√ 20 Let n be any positive integer. Then the principal nth root of a, denoted by
n
a, is the number b such that
bn = a.

If n is even, we must have a ≥ 0 and b ≥ 0.

√
Example
√ 21 (a) 4
16 = 2 because 24 = 16.
(b) 5 32 = 2 because
√ 25 = 32.
(c) Note that −32 = 2 because (−2)5 = −32.
5

Properties of nth Roots

Let n be a nonnegative integer and a, b be real numbers. Then
√ √ √
(1) n ab = n a × n b.

Fore example,
√
2
√2
√
2
16 × 25 = 16 × 25
= 4×5
= 20.
√ √
Note that 2 16 × 25 = 2 400 = 20.
r √
a n
a
(2) n
= √n
.
b b
Fore example,
r √
3
3 8 −8
− =√3
27 27
−2
=
3
2
= − .
3

9
Alternatively,
r √
3
3 8 8
− = √
27 3
−27
2
=
−3
2
= − .
3
√ √ √
Example 22 Find (a) 9 + 16 (b) 9 + 16.
√ √
Solution:
√ (a) √ 9 + 16 = 3 + 4 = 7
(b) 9 + 16 = 25 = 5.
√ √ √
Remark 23 Note that 9 + 16 6= 9 + 16. In general
√ √ √
a + b 6= a + b.
√ √ √
Example 24 Find (a) 25 − 16 (b) 25 − 16.
√ √
Solution:
√ (a) √ 25 − 16 = 5 − 4 = 1.
(b) 25 − 16 = 9 = 3.
√ √ √
Remark 25 Note that 25 − 16 6= 25 − 16. In general, if a and b are positive real
numbers with a > b, then √ √ √
a − b 6= a − b.
p√ √
(3) m n a = mn a.

For example,
√ √ √
q
4 3 4×3 12
4096 = 4096 = 4096 = 2.
Note that √ √
3 4
4096 = 16 and 16 = 2.
Therefore,
√ √
q
4 3 4
4096 = 16 = 2.
√
(4) n an = a if n is odd.

For example, √ p
3 5
23 = 2 and (−3)5 = −3.
(5) If n is even and a > 0, then
√ p
(a) n an = a and (b) n (−a)n = +a.

Note that if n is even, then (−a)n = (−1)n an . For example,

√4
34 = 3

10
by part (a) of (5). Moreover, by part (b) of (5), we have
p6
(−5)6 = 5.

Note that p p √
6 6
(−5)6 = 6 (−1)6 .56 = 56 = 5.
s −4  7 
√3
√
3 4 2a6 27b
Example 26 Simplify (a) 16 + 5 2 (b) × .
3b2 8a

Solution: (a) Note that from the first property of radicals, we have
√
3
√3
√ √
3
16 + 5 2 = 3 8 × 2 + 5 2
√
3
√3
√
3
= 8× 2+5 2
√
3
√ 3
√3
= 23 × 2 + 5 2.

Using property (4), (because n = 3 is odd), we have

√3
√
3
√
3
√
3
16 + 5 2 = 2 × 2 + 5 2
√3
= 7 2.

(b) Since the fraction m is raised to a negative exponent, we invert this fraction in order
to change the negative sign of the exponent to positive. Then we obtain
s −4  7  s 2 4  7 
2a 6 27b 3b 27b
4 4
2
× = 6
× .
3b 8a 2a 8a
By property 5 of exponents, we have
s −4  7   2 4  3 7 
4 2a6 27b 3b 3b
2
× = 6
× .
3b 8a 2a 8a
Therefore, s −4
33 b7 3 × 33 b2+7 34 b9
 
4 2a6
× = = .
3b2 8a 2 × 23 a6+1 24 a7

Rational Exponents
For any rational exponent in lowest terms, where m and n are integers and n > 0, we
define √
m
a n = ( n a)m ,
or equivalently, √
m n
an = am .
If n is even, then we require that a ≥ 0.
Note that if m = 1, then √
1
n
an = a,
which is the definition of the nth root.

11
 1 √ √
3
Example 27 (a) 8 3 = 3 8 = 23 = 2.
1
p 2  p 2
(b) (−8) 3 = 3 (−8) = 3 (−2)3 = (−2)2 = 4.
3 1 1 1 1 1
(c) 81− 4 = = √
3
3 = √ 3 = 3 = .
81 44
81 4 3 27
34

Remark 28 The laws of exponents are still valid when m and n are rational numbers.

Example 29 Simplify the following

√ 2
!− 34
73 2
3 2a 3
(a) √ (b) x− 5 25 x3 5 (c) 5 .
28 3b 3

Solution: (a) By definition

√ 1 1
73 (73 ) 2 (73 ) 2
√ = 1 = 1 .
28 28 2 (7 × 4) 2

Using laws of exponents, we have

√ 3
73 72
√ = 1 1
28 72 42
3 1
72−2
= 1
42
7
= .
2
(b) By laws of exponents,

− 25 5 3 3 1  5 3
3 3

x (2 x ) 5 = 2 (2 ) (x ) 5 5

x5
3 3
25× 5 · x3× 5
= 2
x5
9
23 · x 5
= 2 .
x5
Therefore, by the first law of exponents, we have
2 3 9 2
x− 5 (25 x3 ) 5 = 8x 5 − 5
7
= 8x 5 .

(c) We first change the negative exponent to positive exponent to get

2
!− 34 5
! 43
2a 3 3b 3
5 = 2 .
3b 3 2a 3

12
Using laws of exponents, we have

2
!− 34 3 5 3
2a 3 3 4 (b 3 ) 4
5 = 3 2 3
3b 3 2 4 (a 3 ) 4
  34 5
3 b4
= · 2
2 a4
  34 5
3 b4
= · 1.
2 a2

Rationalizing the Denominator and Numerator

It is often useful to express the denominator of an expression as a rational. If the denom-
inator is irrational, it can be converted to a rational by multiplying both the numerator
and denominator by an appropriate expression. This procedure is called rationalizing the
denominator.

Case I
√
√ a
If the denominator is of the form a, multiply the expression by √ . That is,
a
√
b b a
√ = √ ·√
a a a
√
b a
= √ √
a a
√
b a
= .
a
For example,
√
2 2 3
√ = √ ·√
3 3 3
√
2 3
= √ √
3 3
√
2 3
= .
3
Example 30 Rationalize the denominator
4 6
(a) √
5
(b) √5
2 3 a2
√
5
√5
Solution: Note that if we multiply 23 by 23 , we obtain
4 4 3 15 3 15
 3  3 6
√
5
·√
5
= (2 ) · (2 ) = 2 5 · 2 5 = 2 5 .
2 3 2 3

13
Therefore,
4 4 6
 5  1 √
5
√
5
· √
5
= 2 5 = 2 5 · 2 5 = 2 × 2.
2 3 2 3
√
5
23
Thus multiplying by √
5
will still yield an irrational denominator.
23
√
5
To completely get rid of the radical 23 in the denominator, we must multiply by
√5
22
√5
.
22
Then, √ √
5 5 1
4 4 22 4 22 4 · (22 ) 5
√5
= √5
·√5
= √5
= √ 5
,
23 23 22 23 × 22 25
where we have used the first property of radicals to derive
√ the second equality. By the
2 51 2 5 5
third and fourth property of radicals, (2 ) = 2 5 and 2 = 2, respectively. Therefore,
2
4 4 · 25 2 7
√
5
= = 2 · 25 = 25 .
23 2
√
5
(b) In this case, we multiply the numerator and denominator by a3 to get
√
5
√
5
6 6 · a3 6 · a3
√5
= √
5
√
5
= √
5
a2 a2 · a3 a2+3
√5
Since a5 = a, it follows that
√
5
√5
6 6 · a3 6 · a3
√5
= √ 5
= .
a2 a5 a

Case II
√ √
the form a + b, then multiply the numerator and denominator
If the denominator√is of √
by the conjugate a − b. Note that
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
( a + b)( a − b) = a( a − b) + b( a − b)
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
= a a− a b+ b a− b b
√ √ √ √
= a a− b b
= a − b.

That is, if a and b are real numbers, then

√ √ √ √
1 a− b a− b
√ √ = √ √ √ √ = .
a+ b ( a + b)( a − b) a−b

For example,
√ √ √ √ √ √
1 7− 2 7− 2 7− 2
√ √ = √ √ √ √ = = .
7+ 2 ( 7 + 2)( 7 − 2) 7−2 5

14
Example 31 Rationalize the denominator
3 1
(a) √ √ (b) √
3
√
7− 2 7− 35

Solution:
√ (a)
√ In this case, multiply both the numerator and denominator by the conju-
gate ( 7 − 2) to get
√ √
3 3( 7 − 2)
√ √ = √ √ √ √
7− 2 ( 7 − 2)( 7 + 2)
√ √
3( 7 + 2)
=
√7 − 2√
3( 7 + 2)
= .
5
(b) Note that, for any real numbers a and b, we have

(a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 ) = a(a2 + ab + b2 ) − b(a2 + ab + b2 )

= a × a2 + a(ab) + a(b2 ) − b(a2 ) − b(ab) − b(b2 )
= a3 + a2 b + ab2 − ba2 − ab2 − b3
= a3 − b 3 .
√ √
Therefore, to get rid of the radicals 3 a − 3 b, we multiply
√ both
√ the numerator and
denominator by (a2 + ab + b2 ). Therefore, taking a = 3 7 and b = 3 2, we have
√ √ √ √
1 ( 3 7)2 + 3 7 3 2 + ( 3 2)2
√
3
√ = √ √ √ √ √ √
7− 32 ( 3 7 − 3 2)(( 3 7)2 + 3 7 3 2 + ( 3 2)2 )
√3
√ √3
72 + 3 7 × 2 + 22
= √ √
( 3 7)3 − ( 3 2)3
√3
√ √
49 + 3 14 + 3 4
=
7−2
√3
√ √
49 + 3 14 + 3 4
= .
5

15