SOC 106 LECTURE NOTE FOR 100 LEVEL (SECOND SEMESTER)

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION:

Social stratification can be defined as the nature of the hierarchies of possessions in the
social system.

Whilmont (1985) described stratification as that which suggests short status inequalities
along certain measureable dimensions. This cut across different societies. For instance, in
the Lebanon, Pakistan and Iran, Wilmont also argued that religion will determine one’s
political role, while in India, one’s caste is important. International community however,
it is believed that one’s passport and currency determines how one is treated.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OPEN AND CLOSED STRAFIFICATION

SYSTEMS:

Stratification systems differ in the ease with which they permit people to move in or out
of particular strata. Where people can change their status with relative ease, such
arrangement is referred to as an open system while where people have great difficulty in
changing their status, the arrangement is called a closed system.

To understand these systems, there is the need to know the distinction between achieved
status and ascribed status. Achieved status is a social position attained by a person largely
through his or her own effort. These are common in open stratification systems. This
includes education, occupation, etc.

Ascribed status on the other hand, is a social position assigned to a person without regard
for that person’s unique characteristics or talents and they are typical of closed systems.
This include positions that are being held by most traditional rulers in most of the African
societies i.e. hereditary.

SOCIAL MOBILITY

Social mobility is the act of moving from one social status to another within a particular
social economic place of a person at any point in time
 TYPES OF SOCIAL MOBILITY:

This can assume several forms but the most pronounced are the horizontal mobility and
vertical mobility.

1. HORIZONTAL_MOBILITY:
This is the one in which movement from one position to another takes place, but without
a change in rank. For example, a university undergraduate might change from political
science as a major to sociology. Or a man may transfer his service form one parastatal to
another while retaining the same job title. In both cases, there is a change in position, but
not in rank
2. VERTICAL MOBILITY:
This refers to movement up or down the social hierarchy. That is, movement from one
social position to another of a different rank. This can involve moving downward or
upward in a society’s stratification system. For example if an auto mechanic became a
lawyer, this shift constitutes upward mobility. On the other hand, if auto mechanic
became a garbage collector, this change involves downward mobility. This kind of social
mobility is quite common.
There are two types of vertical social mobility. One is the movement above or below the
status one’s parents. This is called intergenerational mobility. This type is difficult to
measure because the criteria for success change over time.
Intra-generational mobility refers to the movement of a person relative to his or her past
rank. This kind of mobility is much easier to measure than the former. People are more
likely to be mobile as they change in education level, or marital status.
SOCIETY AND SOCIAL INTERACTION
A. CONCEPT OF SOCIETY :

A society is a fairly large number of people who live in the same territory, are relatively
independent of people outside their area, and participate in a common culture

B. CONCEPT OF SOCIAL GROUPS:

A social group is a gathering of at least two people who have a shared purpose and
interact on a regular basis. A group may stretch from simple to complex and includes
 family, friends, age-group, football team, ethnic group and choir in a church or the
women fellowship. A group is different from a crowd because the latter (crowd) may not
have the characteristics of regularity interrelated roles, nor is a crowd always predictable.
A crowd is often temporary and fleeting-it gathers for some occasion such as an accident,
celebration, etc and thereafter disperses.

TYPES OF SOCIAL GROUPS

In general there are three types of groups; primary, secondary and reference groups.

1. PRIMARY GROUP:
This is a group usually small in size and whose members interact regularly on a face to
face basis. Primary groups are close knit such as a family where role expectations are
diffuse and the authority structure may also be blurred.
In a University, it is not the questions of all those pursuing the same course being
considered groups, from within this group some four or five students may “hang out”
regularly as primary groups. There is normally some emotional attachment to primary
groups in which no topic is too personal or private as a family, play group or a clique
such as “those five students”. It is characterized by intimate, face-to-face association and
cooperation.
It also plays a pivotal role both in the socialization process and in the development of
roles and statuses. Indeed, primary groups can be instrumental in a person’s day to day
existence. When we find ourselves identifying closely with a group, it is probably a
primary group.
2. SECONDARY GROUP
This is based on more formal and stipulated expectations and role relationship. The lines
of authority are clearly defined. In other words, it is formal, impersonal group in which
there is little social intimacy or mutual understanding.
Secondary groups are associated with work situations. As society becomes modernized
and complex, there is some commitant tendency towards secondary groups. Thus,
increasingly, individuals find themselves in goal specific relationships over which they
have little emotional attachment. Such relationship as with one’s bankers, insurance,
 revenue department, etc all of which are now features of urban life, are instances of “non-
emotional” secondary groups.
Our definition above does not by any means imply mutual exclusivity. Indeed, we could
have primary groups within secondary groups (such as the example of five students
within a large class) but never vice versa. In a given organization for example, there is
usually a small close knit group of workers such as those who belong to the Adashe,
Esusu or a contribution and others might be in tea or coffee “fellowship”.
3. REFERENCE GROUP:
This is a group in which the individual does not hold membership but which he/she uses
as model for aspiration and evaluation. It is a group to which the individual refers in
making evaluation and judgments. Reference groups provide individuals with mirrors for
self evaluation and therefore mold behavior.
In the 1960s and early 1970s a whole cult revolved around James Brown, an American
soul musician. His admirers took after his outfits, J.B shirts, 30 inch bottom JB trousers
and, of course, music and dance steps.
4. PEER GROUPS :
These are based on intimate face to face relationship and have homogenous criteria for
membership. Groups such as dance groups and the different age groups in Achebe’s
novels or in Camara Laye Africa Child are all forms of peer groups. Peer groups are
powerful agents of socialization particularly in the formative years and have influence
over the youth.
Issues such as entry to particular schools, choice of disciplines or career or even deviant
experiences such as smoking, use of alcohol or even sexual activities are greatly
influenced by peer groups. Peer groups have a compelling influence on the individual.
This sometimes subtle, sometimes blatant urge to be in line or not to be left out is called
peer pressure.
5. IN GROUP:
This can be defined as a group with which we identify and to which we belong. Simply
put, it comprises everyone who is regarded as “we” or “us”
The m-group may be as; narrow as a teenage chique or as broad as an entire society. In-
group members typically feel distinct and superior, and see themselves as better than
 people in the out-group. Proper behavior for the m-group is simultaneously viewed as
unacceptable behavior for the out-group. This double standard enhances the sense of
superiority.

In-group typically provide us with our social identities

-Those aspects of our self-concept that we derive from a sense of belonging to groups and
the feelings and emotional significance we attach to this belonging.

6. OUT-GROUP:
An out-group is a group with which we do not identify and to which we do not belong.
Out-groups are perceived to be more stereotyped, to share common traits and
characteristics. An out-group is viewed as “thy” or “them”.
7. INTEREST AND PRESSURE GROUPS:
These are groups formed around specific interest which members seek to project and
protect. Pressure groups have specific goals like human rights, (Amnesty International),
children’s welfare (save the children); Women’s Rights (Women in Nigeria; or simply a
just and more human society (Nigerian Labour Congress).
Some pressure groups are adhoc and emerged to respond to specific situations. For
instance, after the annulment of June 12, 1993 elections, the odu’a people’s Congress
emerged to lead the resistance from the Yoruba perspective. Others are however more
permanent such as Civil Liberty Organization and many civil rights campaigners.
Irrespective of type, the objective is to bring pressure to b ear on the powers that be,
which often involves several lobby groups which engage lawmakers to support or kill
specific legislations.
8. INFORMAL GROUPS:
These are small groups which form in bureaucratic settings and differ from formal groups
in that the former has loose structures and may have no written laws. Their existence is
sometimes unknown to the management as they do not always follow formal code.
Most people engaged in formal organizations belong to some form of informal groups
making bye-laws, asking friends to cover for them and even trading jobs. People who
work shifts could trade jobs to enable them take an afternoon off to watch a football
game.
 In secondary school too, students in a given class or house might have their own laws. It
is for instance almost universally accepted that colleagues are reluctant submit names of
noise makers for fear of reprisal.
9. THERAPY GROUP:
These are form around some identified afflictions and the purpose is to cure members of
these afflictions be this a drive, addiction or a vice. Popular therapy groups are
Alcoholics Anonymous for the treatment of alcoholism, Gamblers Anonymous for
compulsive gamblers. In an era of HIV/AIDS, these are now support Groups through
which people carrying the virus or full blown AIDS come together.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

Social institution is defined by Horton and Hunt as an organized system of social

relationship which embodies certain common values and procedures and at the same time
meets certain basic needs of the society such as food, shelter and clothing.

Henry Prah Fairchild: defines social institutions as the sum total of the patterns relations,
processes and material instrument built up around any major social interest. Any
particular institution may include traditions, Morales, laws, functionaries, along with such
physical instrument such as building, machines, communication devices, etc.

THE PROCESS OF INSTITUTIONALIZATION

According to Horton and Hunt (1980), institutions are structured processes through which
groups and individuals strive to carry on their activities.

Social institution as an organized set of beliefs and practices is different from the group
which embodies these beliefs and practices. The later (group) could be referred to as
association, when these beliefs, practices and other human activities become systematic,
expected, regular, structured, patterned and predictable; we then say they are
institutionalized

When we say that a social institution embodies common values, common procedures and
system of relationship, we infer that it consists of shared ideas, values and goals,
 standardized behavior patterns which members adhere to, and a network of roles and
statuses around which the behavior patterns revolve.

The family for example, is made up of a set of common values, norms and goals. These
include love, affection, children, family life, responsibility and respect. It has a set of
common procedures which are child care system, family routine life and activities. The
network of roles and statuses associated with the family include husband, wife, father,
mother, children, son, and daughter.

TYPES OF SOCIAL INSTITUTION

(A) THE FAMILY

Family is a kinship-structured human grouping made up of adults’ male and female
including their offspring and who live together in a more or less permanent relationship
socially approved by the society.
The relationship that is approved by the society for this adult male and female is known
as marriage. Marriage is defined as a contract between spouses of the opposite sex that
makes children born to them legitimate.
For our purpose, we are accepting the definition that define marriage as a more
permanent set of socially recognized relationship existing between husband and wife and
which involves, but not limited to, sexual relations.
This definition sees marriage as the basis for family formation. To see marriage as a
socially approved relation not limited to sexual interaction implies that the adult members
involved have much to desire from each other for uniting and living together. Their
relationship does not start and end with sexual relation.
PRE-REQUISTES OF MARRIAGE:
In most societies, there exists certain preconditions or requirements that must be met
before marriage can come into being, these are the approval or consent and involvement
of the spouses families, payment of bride wealth, and a religious ritual or ceremony. The
essence of these is to give legality and legitimacy to the marital relationship.
1. Involvement of Spouses’ Families:
In most traditional societies, custom requires that parents are the ones who decide who
their son or daughter takes as a marital partner. Involvement of the spouses’ families is
 important for at least one principal reason, and that is to avoid inter marriage, which
custom or law forbid. Also, there are some marriage traditions and customs that can only
be performed by the family of the proposing spouse. But nowadays, such is not the case
as couples meet and marry outside their native countries.
1. Bride Wealth/Price:

No marriage contract can be said to be conclusive without the payment of bride

wealth/price or dowry, which is a symbolic payment in cattle or money made by husband
to be and his family to the girl and her parent in order to formalize the marriage.

2. Religious Ceremony or Ritual

Most marriage require to be rounded off by some form of religious ceremony before they
are regarded as legal and conclusive. This takes place in the form of church wedding or
traditional wedding ceremony; and it represents solemnization in which supernatural
powers are called upon to bless and sanction the marriage union.

TYPES OF M ARRIAGE

Two types of marriage are distinguished based on the mode of contract and number of
spouses.

(A) . Marriage based on mode of contract:

In this type, we have:
1. Traditional Marriage: This is the type that is contracted according to native laws and
customs. It involves a period of courtship and exchange of bride wealth. In some
societies, it incudes fattening ceremonies.
2. Church or Religious Marriage: this is the type that is entered into and contracted
according to the religious principles, doctrines and injunctions. It involves some
exchange of bride –wealth and rituals depending on religious principles, blessings of the
couple by the priest, or Imam in charge of the (wedding); exchange of rings and signing
of matrimonial certificate.
In most cases, there is a mixture traditional ceremonies which are carried out first before
carrying out the church rituals.
3. Legal or Court Marriage: This is the tyupe that is contracted in the court registry or
any other authority so designated. It involves oath taking in form of affidavit, signing of
the court marriage register/certificate by the couple and exchange of wedding rings.
In some cases, couples first of all contract their marriage process in the law court before
engaging in traditional or church marriage.
(B) Marriage based on Number of Spouses: In this, we have:
(1) Monogamy: This is marriage of one man to one woman. There are two forms. One is the
straight –life monogamy, where re-marriage is not permitted or preferred in case of
divorce or death of spouse. The other is serial monogamy, where there is re-marriage
after divorce or death of spouse.

Monogamy is characteristic of western industrial societies and recently of third world

countries because of rising wave of economic depression and world-wide campaign for
manageable family size. Most religions, especially Christianity, advocate monogamy.

(1) Polygamy: This is marriage between three or more persons. Three different forms
are distinguished thus:
(a) Polygyny: Marriage of one man to two or more woman. This is traditionally
associated with Africans. The reasons are that the societies were agrarian and
polygyny was a source of cheap labour on the farms.
- The number of wives and children a man had determined the number of labour force
on his farms
- Again, it was veritable measure of achieved status.
- Bride wealth in those days was cheap and people could easily afford the requirements
for marriage. Islamic law permit marriage of one man to as many as four wives.
(b) Polyandry: This is marriage of one woman to two or more men. It was practiced by
the Todas, a non-Hindu tribe in India and few pre-literate societies.
(c) Group Marriage: This involves a simultaneous marriage of several men to several
women. All of one sex regard all of the other sex equally as spouses. This is not a
common practice and would, present some difficulties to make it work. It is
unimaginable in the present generation considering the level of civilization and
 development. There are other types of marriages that have been identified in some
societies in the past. These are based on customs and traditions. Among these are:
(a) Ghost Marriage: This is a practice where a man marries a wife and bears children for2 a
dead brother who had no wife before he died. This was common practice among Nuer
and Yoruba speaking people of Dahomey
(b) Levirate: This is a customary practice that allows a man to marry or inherit the wife of
his dead brother.
(c) Hilirate: This is also a customary practice where a son is allowed to marry or inherit the
wife (not his own biological Mother) of his dead father. In both Levirate and Hilirate,
there is the practice of wife inheritance.
(d) Sororate: This is where a man is encouraged to marry the sister of his dead wife. The
reason for this is either for replacement, to ensure continuity or care for the children (if
any) of the dead wife (sister).
(e) Prescribed, Preferred or Preferential Marriage: This is a customary practice that
makes it mandatory for one to choose marriage partner from a particular or preferred
category of persons, groups, race or ethnicity.
(f) Bethrotal Marriage: This is a type that was arranged for couple by either parents of
spouse or elders of the families concerned. The bethrotal ceremony may be done at a time
the spouse were born without their knowledge and consent, and were only informed later.

FUNCTIONS/IMPORTANCE OF THE FAMILY

These functions are classified as follows:

1. Procreation Function: The family is the basic social institution charged with legal right
to reproduce human species. It is through procreation that the continuity of the society is
ensured by reproducing and replacing its members. In no society can one find procreation
encouraged outside the family setting even in the most promiscuous and permissive of all
societies. It is within the family set-up that adequate role positions have been prepared for
the caring of the children that are born.
2. Socialization Function: The first social unit to which the child is born is the family. As
such, the first and basic training the child receives is from the siblings and other members
of the family who act as role models to him. Informal socialization starts here in the
 family. The cultural tenets, basic skills, moral code and orientation are first received in
the family. Newly born children need to be taught the customary ways of their society. In
the helpless years of their infancy, they need to be cared for and provided for. Without
being taught the rudiments of their societies, they cannot grow up into functional adults.
3. Sexual Relation: Through socialization, the family regulates the sexual drives and
directs the moral behavior of members. The family enforces the societal rule regarding
sexual behavior, marital choice and ensures that morally sound children are reproduced.
No society allows its members to engage in random sexual behaviour. There are always
rules which specify who may have sex and who may not, whom one may have sexual
access to and whom one may not mate with, and others. Hence most, if not all societies,
have norms which prohibit sex outside marriage and the family.
4. Emotional Needs and Support: The family provides succor and emotional support to its
members. In times of distress, death, affliction, illness, etc members rally round the
affected and cushion the effects through emotional support. As a social unit, members
share in the grief and sorrows, and provide warmth and love. The family therefore,
creates conditions for mutual affections. Such help to check emotional disorder, physical
illness and other ailments that could lead to mental problems. The emotional function is
characteristic of African societies
5. Statuses placement / Relation function: A person’s family of birth determines his initial
status in society. When we are born, we enter into the statuses of our parents: we belong
to the same racial, ethnic, religious and social class of our parents. It is from our parents’
classification that we must start out in life and then possibly change it over the course of
time for better or for worse. Thus, not only material goods and wealth are inherited from
the family but also a variety of ascribed and achieved statuses.

With regard to this function, the family confers status on its members by providing and
opening up opportunities for members to train in various professions. Through heritance,
families transfer wealth, political and religious statuses to their children. For example, in
monarchical societies, ruler ship is transferred to heir at the death of the monarch.
 6. Political Function: As a basic unit of social organization, political consciousness and
orientation are inculcated into members of the family especially those born into
politically active families.
Political socialization of children take different forms either through orientation,
teaching, participation, discussion, electoral processes, etc. Political attitudes and
orientations are first shaped in the family.

(7) Economic Function: Human beings need food, shelter, and clothing in order to survive.
These basic needs of life are provided by the family. Within the family set-up, those who
are unable to take care of themselves by reasons of illness, unemployment, youth or old
age find ready assistance from other siblings or family members who are productive and
active and who earn income. Parents also recognize a social duty to fend for their
children or family members. The family is regarded as a unit of production. The family
satisfies the economic needs of the new members. It gives orientation towards value of
productive labour and acquisition of basic skills. As a productive unit, the basic division
of labour needed for production, distribution and consumption are provided by members.
The spirit of entrepreneurism is imbibed from the enterprising families e.g. Dangote,
Adenuga, etc. some business and economic en terprises have been established as sole
proprietorship or partnership from among members of the family.

(8) Psychological and Security Functions: The family makes it possible for members to
feel their psychological worth and secure in the family. The parents provide the
opportunities for companionship, affection and emotional balance.

In times of troubles and difficulties, the children recline on their parents who are
expected to provide the needed security and psychological needs required. In many
societies, family members so much identify with one another such that anything that
affects any one member of the family affects the entire family. An attack against a
member is taken as one against the whole family. There is a mutual responsibility among
members to protect one another. Physical protection even in modern society is a role
which most families will be quite ready to play in the lives of their members. The family
makes it possible for children to appreciate their human worth and position in the society
at large.
(9) Religious Function: The family, the churches and other religious institutions play
complimentary roles in socializing the child morally.

It is in the family that the first religious teaching and orientation are made available to the
child. The first religious organization the child belongs to is made possible through the
family.

(10) Value System Functions: As a value system, the family is regarded as a value- carrying
rather than value-generating social institution. It is the smallest social unit charged with
the responsibility of helping individual members to internalize the values, standards,
norms, ideals and orientation of the society at large. It teaches the new members the
veritable ways of life (culture) of the society.

(B) THE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

The issue of learning and acquisition of knowledge crept off from the informal system of
socialization to a much more organized system. The need arose as civilization continues
to grow and new problems emerged demanding new orders.

Education is an organized, systematic and conscious learning process and behavior

through which a society transmits its culture through an institutionalized system and
process. The institutionalized social system includes the school (involving the teachers,
management, trustees, parents and the students), the work groups and organization,
voluntary and involuntary associations and any other system one finds himself in his
everyday life. The school is a social system in which individual traits and social
interaction in form of learning processes take place between the instructors on one hand
and the learners on the other. The achievement on harmony between different roles
people fill in the system in order to achieve integrative whole on part of the learner is the
task of the school. Only when it has been able to perform the task of properly socializing
the individual to public expectation that the school is said to have performed its function.
 FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION

The functions cut across all societies irrespective of level of development, and it include:

1. Cultural Transmission and Innovation: The primary role of any school system is to
transmit the accumulated pool of cultural knowledge from one generation to the other.
Technical knowledge and skills which are by-products of culture would be irrelevant if
the school does not help to disseminate and transmit them for relevant need.
New ideas and innovations are relevant change agents. Functional education creates
opportunities for new discoveries and creative achievement for technological growth and
development.
2. Social and Cultural Integration: In a country with diverse cultures, it creates
awareness, unity and tolerance. Heterogeneous population with its diverse cultures is
integrated through teaching a lingua franca, common history, citizenship education, and
the likes. Durkheim argues that the major role of school as a system is the teaching of
values that would maintain social order. This is done effectively through moral education
and instilling of moral conscience which in the long run, produces an integrated and
harmonious society.
3. Social Control: The educational system does not function as a social control mechanism
in the areas of quelling riots, etc. To borrow from Durkheim, the school functions in such
ways that the moral values taught in it are able to act as self-police to the individual who
has internalized them. There is self- restraint, calmness, patience, tolerance, learning to
queue up, waiting for turn, elimination of frequent frustration and constant interruption.
The individual is patriotic, always nationalistic in outlook and seeking what he could do
for his country rather than what his country will do for him.
4. Personal Development: Formal education enhances the personal abilities and capacities
of the individual as well as contributes to his self-realization. In the schools, an individual
learns a variety of knowledge, habits and skills which help him to develop intellectually,
socially and emotionally.
5. Manpower Development, Screening and Selection Function: In modern society,
formal education is an important agency for manpower development. Schools and
 universities provide qualitative and specialized training for jobs, and thus meet the
society’s need for an educated labor force.
6. Training of political Leaders: All politically autonomous units or societies require well-
informed and capable political leaders to manage and direct the affairs of the state. Such
national and local leaders require sound education in order to provide needed leadership
at the various governmental levels, and it is the educational system that ensures the sound
education.

3. THE ECONOMIC INSTITUTION

The economic institution is that social system which harness, integrates and organizes the
natural and human resources for the production, distribution and consumption of goods and
services. These are produced with the aid of the factors of production.

FUCTIONS OF THE ECONOMIC INSTITUTION

1. Human and societal needs are satisfied through the economy.

2. The economic institution and society
3. Work which is a basic element in the economy is a status symbol and a source of identity.
This is because the type of work or occupation an individual engages in determines his
status, authority and income.
4. Work has become one of the central activities by which an individual’s worth is judged
by himself and by others. It is the basis for individual’s self-esteem.
5. The economic institution structure powers and social relations in the society and in
international circles because your manufactures and wealth influence what you welded in
international circles.
4. THE POLITICAL/LEGAL INSTITUTION
This generally refers to the structures and processes through which interest is aggregated
and expresses, power and influence are exercised and rules governing behavior are made.
The political institution therefore is concerned with the regulation and control of human
interaction, interests and values, social relations, power and authority and other social
phenomena which influence our daily lives at all levels.
 FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL/LEGAL INSTITUTION
1. It is responsible for the protection of the state against external aggression and threat.
2. The state has, as a major task, the maintenance of internal order.
3. Another function is the definition; establishment and pursuit of societal goals and values.
Government defines the goals to be pursued by it and its members, establishes structures
that make it possible for members to pursue and attain their goals in relation to national
goals.
4. The government has the responsibility to authoritatively allocate values, goods and
services to the citizenry. These values are in the areas of social services like good roads,
schools, water, hospitals, economic/social security, electricity, old age welfare services,
etc.
5. The state makes adequate provision for recruiting and changing government at specified
periods. It does this through the electoral processes and ensuring the legitimacy of its
existence.

5. THE RELIGIOUS INSTITUTION

Religion is a set of human activities organized around the sacred, the supernatural being,
which consists of belief systems, ritual practices, codes of conduct and cultic
organizations. The emergence of religion is as old as recorded history. It is regarded as
one of the oldest social institutions.

FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION

1. Integrative Functions: When religion is seen as a unified system of belief and practices
relative to sacred things and things set apart and forbidden, it unites into one single
community all those who adhere to the beliefs. This brings about conformity and upholds
the norms and values of the society.
2. Sanctification Function: Religious rituals ensure symbolization and certification of
passage of various stages of life and the entry into a new status (rites of passage). It also
reinforces our faith in this direction.
3. Moral and Disciplinary Functions: When the values and norms of a society are upheld
by religions, morals and disciplines are invariably reinforced. It therefore regulates our
behaviour through its rules, codes, doctrines, etc.
4. Economic Functions: Religion provides jobs and remunerations to officials who occupy
various positions in the hierarchy.
5. Solace and Tranquility: Religious beliefs and faith provide peace of mind and comfort.
It provides cover and system for people to forget sorrows and pains.
6. Transcendental: On the transcendental plane, religion serves as a link between the
individual, the ancestors and the supernatural. Religion provides an organized system of
the universe under which man defines, identifies and relate with the supernatural Being
and his ancestors. Rituals, limitations, songs, sacrifices, dance, and incantations provide
the mechanism for the union.

DEVIANCE, CRIME AND SOCIAL CONTROL

(A) DEVIANCE
Deviance is behavior that a considerable member of people in a society views as
reprehensible and beyond the limits of tolerance. In most cases, it is both negatively
valued and provokes hostile reactions. Deviance does not exit independently of norms.
Without norms, and without its application in interpreting behavior, there is no deviance.
In the course of their daily lives, people use the normative schemes available to them and
make judgments regarding the desirability or undesirability of this or that behavior. They
then translate their judgments into favourable or unfavourable consequences for those
who engage in the behavior.
(B) THE SOCIAL FUNCION OF DEVIANCE
Although deviance may undermine social organization, it may also facilitate social
functioning in a number of ways.
First, as it was pointed out, reacting publicly to deviance can promote conformity. Such
reactions create a community of the “goo”, those who know the cost of deviating and
who can now define themselves as an in-group in contrast to the out-group of deviants.
Secondly, because norms are not always clear, each time the members of a group censure
some acts as deviance, they highlight and sharpen the contours of a norm. Their negative
reactions clarify precisely what behavior is disallowed by the “collective conscience”.
Third, by directing attention to the deviant, a group may strengthen itself. A shared
enemy arouses common sentiments and cements feelings of solidarity. The emotions
surrounding “aint it awfu” deeds quicken passions and solidity “our kind of people” ties.

Campaign s against witches, traitors, perverts and criminals reinforce social cohesion
among “the good people”.

Fourth, deviance is a catalyst for change. Every time a rule is violated, it is being
contested. Such challenges serve as a warning that the social system is not functioning
properly.

For instance, high robbery rates clearly indicate that institutions for socializing youth are
faltering, that power relations are being questioned, and that the moral structures of the
society require re-examination. Therefore, deviance is often a vehicle for placing on a
society’s agenda the need for social repair and remedies. By the same token, deviant
activity can simultaneously be a call for an examination of old norms and a new model.
For example, the Reud, Martin Luther King (Jnr.), and his supporters called the nation’s
attention to the in humanity of southern segregation laws through civil disobedience. In
due course, the civil rights movement led to these laws being changed.

CRIME

Crime is concerned with acts which is found in the law books and forbidden by the state,
and derives mostly form higher norms.

There are two contrasting notions of criminal law consensus and conflict.

The first (Consensus) conceives laws as ‘aggregation or embodiments of the values and
norms of the diverse groups in society regarding conducts that should be prohibited so
that peace, safety and security can be guaranteed. Violators of such laws are punished in
order to protect societal norms and values.
 The second (conflict) perspective questions the basis of such consensus pointing instead
to “coercive, exploitative and repressive” aspects of criminal laws which merely reflect
the interests and powers of dominant class at the particular point in time. Such dominant
class may be part of colonial structures or even the Apartheid regime in South Africa
before 1994 independence.

TYPES OF CRIME

1. Person offence: Crime committed against the person hood of the individual. This
category includes assault and homicide. Usually in law, such crimes are referred to as
torts.
2. Property crime: This is a situation where property which belongs to others are taken
away, damaged or otherwise trespassed.
3. White collar crimes: Crimes which involve connivance between people in the
bureaucracy to defraud such organizations be these private or public. It is a category
which involves the use of one’s office. This includes embezzlement, and fraud both of
which are common in Nigeria
4. Sexual Crime: This category relates to crimes abut intimacy and violations which may
be attendant on it. There is a legal age for sex and where sexual acts are with under-aged
partners or minors rather than consenting adults, a crime is already committed. There is
also the question of consent and where this is violated, rape emerges.
5. Drug offences: This category relates to banned substances which people use for
recreation or to get high. These include cannabis, heroine, and cocaine. In Nigeria, there
are many forms of illegally brewed drinks whose alcoholic content is not determined or
regulated such as kain-kain, king-kana, sapele water, push-me- i-push –you, goscolo, etc.
these drinks are outlawed but are at affordable prices, in a context of wide poverty, keep
patronage high. In addition to the police, the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency
(NDLEA) also prosecutes the use, sale and distribution of outlawed drugs in Nigeria.
6. Cyber Crime: In the modern age of Information Communication Technology (ICT) of
computers, and internet, crimes are also committed using computers and the cyber space.
Mostly called ‘yahoo-yahoo’, this category of crimes involves sending messages through
the email. The typical message would indicate someone has some huge amounts of
 money which he/she needs to transfer; individual are called upon to make their accounts
available. For agreeing to the request, you are compensated with hefty amount of the total
deal. The culprits are somehow able to use account numbers provided to withdraw money
without the account owner’s knowledge.

SOCIAL CONTROL:

This means the ways through which people are led to conform to the norms of social
groups. Society at different levels adopts different means of social control, among which
are as follows:

1. Socialization: Most social group control the behavior of their members by socializing
them to behave in a socially acceptable manner. Children and adults alike are socialized
to play their expected roles through habits and preferences. Socialization shapes the
customs and habits of members of any social group.
2. Social Pressure: In most cases, people need acceptance by the groups they desire, so
they tend to succumb to pressure from the members of such groups to behave in a
socially acceptable manner. Group pressure is a form of social control when it is a
primary group situation. For example, religious converts usually show greater zeal in
performing religious activities. This is with the hope of gaining more acceptances by the
group.
3. Informal Group Control: This consists of primary group members’ like the family, peer
group, neighborhood and so on. Within the informal group, control is not formalized. The
group members control the behavior of a derailing member instantly. When a member
deviates, he may be ridiculed, laughed at, criticized or even ostracized. In some primary
group situations, deviants commit suicide rather than face the ridicule and ostracism of
the other members.
4. Secondary Group Control: This is found in a more formal setting than the primary
group. For instance, members of a secondary group are bound by certain formalized code
of conduct as a guide to its members. Other forms of secondary group control for instance
are civil service rules, official regulations and standardized procedures. In most
secondary groups, the informal consequences of formal organization also serve as a
system of social control. For instance, no normal person will like to be disgraced at
 labour union meetings, religious service or workers end of the year dinner. Such informal
controls as ridicule, laughter, gossip, etc, generally assist in controlling deviance form the
formal group norms.
5. Formal Control Agencies: Many informal and simple societies have to a large extent
depended on informal mechanisms to control the behavior of their members.

However, in modern day, large cities with complex organization and ways of life,
formalized laws and deviance control agencies are resorted to.

The criminal justice system consisting of the police, courts, prisons, remand homes,
psychiatric hospitals are employed to control the behavior of deviating members. There is
hardly any modern city or town that does not resort to the use of criminal justice
agencies. This is necessary because in modern cities, individuals are lost in crowds,
people barely know their neighbors, community ties are non-existent, while nuclear
families and kinship ties are limited and so on. All these make the use of formal agencies
for deviance control inevitable.

A. STUDY OF SOCIAL INTERNACTION

This can be defined as reciprocally influenced behavior and relates to the fact that other
people influence our social action and vice versa.
In everyday life, interaction is both formal and informal with latter (informal) more
common place. As a student you may visit the Dean of student Affairs, the Head of
Department or Dean of your faculty. Any of these would be formal interaction on
stipulated laws and procedure.
Rather than any formal codes or language, informal interaction, may be characterized by
“gisting”, yarning” and other ways which indicate mutual familiarity.

(B) STATUSES

This refers to any of the full range of socially defined positions within a large group or
society-from the lowest to the highest position.

ASCRIBED STATUS: An ascribed status is assigned to a person by society without

regard for the person’s unique talents or characteristics. Age and gender are common
 ascribed statues. For example, age is assigned to us according to the passage of time.
Race, ethnicity, and family background are also common bases for assigning statuses to
individuals.

ACHIEVED STATUS: This comes to us largely though our own efforts on the basis of
individual choice and competition. Examples are choir director, physician, college
student, pastor, nurse practitioners, pickpocket, prostitute, president, hairstyle list,
teacher, etc.

(C) ROLES: social role is a set of expectations for people who occupy a given social
position or status.

Roles allow us to formulate our behavior mentally so that we can shape our action in
appropriate ways. They permit us to assume that in some respects, we can ignore personal
differences and say that people are interchangeable.

For example, every American knows the difference between a physician and a carpenter.

Hospitalized for emergency surgery, we probably won’t ask many questions about who is
handling the emergency, as long as it is a physician and not a carpenter.

(D)MICRO SOCIOLOGY; This is concerned with “small scale “aspects of social life
such as interpersonal relations, group and family.

MACRO-SOCIOLOGY, on the other hand, focus on “large scale “ aspect of society

such as structure of power , the economy , unemployment ,taxation, etc.

RACE

Race is defined as bio-physical characteristics which enable people to adapt to, as well as
survive in a given physical environment. Such characteristics included skin pigmentation,
shape, the nostrils and other physical features. Three main racial groups may be identified
as: Negroid, Caucasoid and mongoloid, which correspond to African/black, white and
Chinese. A comparison of the three races would indicate differences in physical
characteristics, which in turn facilitate survival in hot environment of blazing sun in
Africa, cold and snowy environment in Europe and China.
 Race has been long transformed from mere physical features to a range of social and
economic issues which confer or deny advantages. However, in everyday life, there are
differences because of institutionalized racism.

The most extraordinary form of racial discrimination was Apartheid in South Africa
which singled out and corralled the people of Africa origins who outnumber the whites
by over 5:1 into particular areas of the country.

INEQUALITY

This is about the differential shares of people between the 10 percent and the bottom 30
percent, poverty line and levels of education. It should be notated that inequality and
differentiation are not the same even as the latter (differentiation) often constitutes a basis
for the former (inequality).

GENDER

This is the social and cultural interpretation of sex in terms of roles because their
performance depends, not on biological differences but on social and cultural
assignments .This is brought home by what are considered men and women role in some
ethnic groups.

(D)