LECTURE 1 SET THEORY

Lecture Outline

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Definition and Basic Concepts
1.4 Set Operations and Set algebra
- Intersection, Union, Complement
1.5 Summary
1.6 References

1.1 Introduction

In this lecture you are going to learn about sets. It is important

that we discuss sets and set algebra as it provides a form of
logical language through which you can communicate
important concepts and ideas. It is also essential that we
discuss the algebra of sets as it is applied in solving counting
problems of a logical nature. We shall see in the statistics
course, that set theory provides the base/background for you to
understand probability and statistics which are important
decision making tools.

1.2 Objectives

At the end of this lecture you shall be able to:

1 Define a set and set concepts
2 Illustrate sets by drawing Venn diagrams
3 Perform set operations

1.3 Definitions and Basic concepts

Definition: Set
 A set is a collection of distinct individual items or things or
objects.

The individual objects are called elements of the set. Sets are
normally denoted by capital letters and the elements by small
letters. The elements of the set are always enclosed in curly
brackets.
In order for us to identify a set it is necessary to have some
means of identifying its elements.

 The collection of mathematical books in the library is a

set.
 The cash crops grown in Kenya is a set
 The color of the eyes of the students in second year in
Kabete Campus is a set

Requirements of a Set:

(i) A set must be well-defined. i.e. it must not leave any

room for ambiguity e.g. a set of cash crops. This raises
the question of where and when?
(ii) A set of cash crops currently grown in Kenya is a well
defined set. Each cash crop will appear once and only
once.
e.g. the cash crops grown in my village. {Coffee, Sugar cane,
Tea, Coffee} is wrong since Coffee is repeated twice.
{Coffee, Sugar cane, Tea} is correct.
(iii) The order of presenting the elements in immaterial.
The following sets are the same {Coffee, Sugar cane,
Tea} = {Sugar cane, Coffee, Tea} = {Tea, Sugar cane,
Coffee}

There are two ways of designating a set.

1. Roster Method
If a set contains only a finite number of elements, and not too
many, we, may write the names of these elements within
braces. Thus the set of whole numbers less than ten can be
written as {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. If the number of elements
of the set is large, as for example in the set of whole numbers
less than 20, we prefer to use the form {0, 1, 2, …,19}
Such a way of listing the elements of a set is called the roster
method of designating a set.

2. Set- Selector Method

Another way we can designate a set is to use a variable, for
instance x , and defining a property. Here we must know the
domain of x , that is, the set of all possible replacements that
can be made for x . The defining property then becomes the set-
selector in that it retains only those replacements of x for
which the property holds.
Thus, we can represent the set of all prime numbers by

P=
{ x
↓ ↓
: x is a prime number
↓
variable such that defining property − set − selector }
This is read: “P is the set of all x such that x is a prime
number.”
The domain of x is the set of all whole numbers excluding zero.

Set Membership

To designate that 7 belongs to the set P we use the belonging

symbol “ ∈ ” and write 7 ∈ P. which is read “ seven is an element
of the set P.” Or “seven belongs to the set of prime numbers.”
In plural sense we may present it as follows: 3, 5, 7 ∈ P . To
show that 8 is not an element of P we write 8 ∉ P.

Example 1.1
A divisor of a given whole number is another whole number
which divides the given number exactly. The set of divisors of
30 is D = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30}

or D = {n: both n and

30
n
are whole numbers }

If, however, we are asked to list the set of prime divisors of 30,
we would write : F = {2, 3, 5} or F =
30
{n: n is prime number and is a whole number }
n

Activity 1.1

1. Find the set of divisors of 60

2. Find the set of prime divisors of 6

Set of Ordered- Pairs

Example 1.2

If a single coin is flipped once, the set of possible falls is

{Heads, Tails} which we can abbreviate to {H,T}. this could
also be written as {T, H}. since the order of appearance of the
elements of the set does not alter the set.
(b)If two coins are tossed once, then there are four possible
outcomes {HH, HT, TH, TT}.

Example 1.3

Two dice are thrown once. List the set of possible outcomes. To
aid our thinking, let one die be red and the other black, both
with white markings. Let us think of the red showing as the
first, and the black die showing as the second, of an ordered
pair of outcomes. Thus red-three and black-four would be
recorded as (3,4). Then we can designate our set of all possible
outcomes as S = {(R,B): 1≤R≤6 ;1≤B≤6 } where it is understood
that R and B represent integers. We can also use the roster
form: S = {(1,1), (1,2), …,(1,6), (2,1), …,(2,6), (3,1), …,(6,6)}

Questions (a) are these elements ordered pairs?

(b) How many elements are there in S?

Activity 1.2

Write the following sets by the roster method

(1) The whole numbers less than your age
(2) The perfect square whole numbers
less than 150
(3) The unit fractions (numerator 1)
greater than 1/10
(4) The possible outcomes of a single coin
tossed three times
(5) For each of the exercises use the
symbol ∈ and ∉ to indicate a member
belonging to the set and a member not
belonging to the set.

Equal Sets

We can define a certain set of integers as those whose decimal

numeral end in “0” or “5.” Call this the set A. We can define
another set of integers as those which are multiples of 5. Call
this the set B. Clearly every element of set A is also an element
of B, and every element of set B is an element of set A. In this
case we say the sets are equal.
Definition Two sets A and B are said to be equal if A and B
have exactly the same elements. We write this as A = B.

It is of importance that we note the difference between equal

ordered pairs and equal sets. In ordered pairs, the order of
occurrence of elements is of prime importance. Thus for
ordered pairs, ( x , y)=(r , s) if and only if x=r and y=s if x and y
are different elements, then ( x , y)≠( y , x ) because x≠ y (and y≠x ).

Question Under what condition does ( x, y)=( y ,x ) ?

Subsets

Let us have A being the set of whole numbers less than 10: A =
{0, 1, 2, …, 9} and B the set of odd numbers less than 10: B =
{1, 3, 5, 7, 9}. We notice that every element of B is an element
of A. In this case we say “the set B is a subset of the set A,” and
write: B ⊂ A
Equally A is a superset to B denoted using the symbol ⊃ .
A ⊃ B.

Definition: If A and B are sets, then set A is a subset of set B if

and only if every element of set A is an element of set B.
Note: Under this definition a set is always a subset of itself, and
we can write B ⊂ B . B is called an improper subset of itself,
while all other subsets of B are called proper subsets.

The Null Set

Let us attempt to list all subsets of A = {a, b, c}. Certainly each

of the following are subsets {a, b, c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a},
{b}, {c}. There is, however, another subset, a set with no
elements in it. We write this set as {} or Ø, and we call it the
empty set or null set. E = {} or E = Ø.
It is easy to define a set that is a null set. Let E be the set of real
2
number. Find the set {x : x +1=0} . Since there are no squares or
real numbers which are negative numbers, there is no solution
2
to x +1=0 in our domain of discourse. The solution set is the
2
empty set. On the other hand, the solution to x =0 is the real
number zero. Hence the solution set is {0}, which is not empty.
This shows that {} ¿ {0}

Question How many subsets are there of {a, b}?

Universal set

The universal set is the set that contains all elements of interest
to the researcher or analyst. We normally denote the universal
set by U. For example, U = {all primary school pupils in
Kenya} The following are some of the subsets of U:
SN = {all primary school pupils in Nakuru}
S6= {all standard six pupils in Kenya}

Activity 1.3

1. State which of the following are true and which

are false. Give a reason for each.
(a) {} = {0} (b) {} = Ø (c) {} = { Ø} (d) {1} = {1}
(e) {} ⊂ {0}
(f) {1} ∈ {1,{1}} (g) {1} ⊂ {1, {1}} (h) {1} ∈ {1, 2} (i)
{0} ⊂ {0, 1, 2}
2
(2) Show that the number of subsets of {a, b} is 2 .
(3) Show that the number of subsets of {a, b, c, d, e}
5
is 2
(4) What is the number of subsets of a set with n
distinct elements?
1.4 Binary Operations on Sets

The operations by which sets are combined in order to obtain

other sets of interest gives rise to set algebra. These operations
are intersection, union, difference, symmetric difference and
complementation.

1.4.1 Intersection

Let us first consider two sets of people in a restaurant – those

drinking coffee and those eating hamburgers. We shall suppose
that some of these people are drinking coffee and eating
hamburgers. They form a third set, which is called the
intersection of the first two sets. The process of assigning to
two given sets a third set, which contains those elements that
are in the first set and in the second set, is called the operation
of forming the intersection of the given sets. If A and B are
given sets, then this operation is designated the symbol A∩B

Definition: A set I is the intersection of sets A and B if I consists

of all elements that are in both A and B. This may be written as
a formula: A∩B={x : x∈ A ⋯and x ∈ B }

Example 1.4

Let A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and P = {2, 5, 3, 7}, then A∩P={3,5,7 }

Example 1.5
Let B = {2, 4, 6, 8}, then the intersection of B and set P of
example 1 is the set {2}. Hence : B∩P={2} . The intersection of B
and the set A of example 1.4 is the null set {}. Hence :

Definition : If a A and B are sets, and A∩B={} , then A and B

are called disjoint sets.

1.4.2 Union

Let us now consider a second binary operation on sets that uses

the inclusive “or” concept. Considering the coffee and
hamburger consumers referred to the above it is possible to
form a new set including those persons who are in one group or
in the other. The new set is called the union of the given sets. If
A and B are given sets, then the operation of forming the union
of these sets is designated by the symbol A∪B

Definition: A set U is the union of sets A and B if U consists of

all elements that are in A or in B. As a formula:
A∪B={x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}

Example 1.6

Let A = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8} and B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}

then A∪B ={0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. If also C = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7}
C∪B = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9}

1.4.3 Set Difference

Set difference is also known as set disjunction, denoted (-)

A-B consists of a set of elements in A but not in B.

1.4.4 Symmetric Difference

The symmetric difference between two sets A and B consists of
elements that are in A but not in B or elements in B but not in
A, denoted by the Greek letter Δ.
Thus A Δ B = { x: x ∈ A ∪B and x ∉ A∩B } same as (A ¿ B) ¿ (A ¿ B)ʹ

1.4.4 Unary Operation on Sets – Complementation

An important unary operation on sets is called

“complementation.” In defining this operation we consider a
universal set U and any of its subsets. For example, in a
restaurant the set of all patrons present may be considered as
the universal set. The coffee drinkers form a subset. Then the
non-coffee drinkers are all the patrons except those drinking
coffee. They form the complement of the set of coffee drinkers.

Definition: If A is a subset of U, the process of assigning to the

subset A the set of all the elements of U not in A is called
complementation.
This set is denoted by the symbol A' and is called the
complement of set A. as a formula;
A' = { x: x ∈U and x∉ A }

Example 1.7

Let E be the set of players on a football squad. Let A be the set

of players in action during a game. Then A' is the set of those
members of the squad that are on the bench or absent from the
field.

Example 1.8

Let A be the empty set , Ø. Then we obtain. Ø' = U and U' = {}

1.5Venn Diagrams
Subsets of a given universal set U and operations on these sets
can be illustrated geometrically by drawings called Venn
diagrams. The universal set U is represented by the points
interior to a rectangle and subsets of U by the area bounded by
closed curves inside this rectangle.

U U
A

Fig1 A' fig2 A∪B

U U U

A B
A B A B

Fig3 A∪B fig 4 A∩B fig 5 (

A∩B )'

From our definition of union and intersection we can prove

(and venn diagrams illustrate) that A∩B ⊂ A and A∩B ⊂ B , and
these relations hold even when A∩B is empty set. Thus for any
subset A of a universal set U, we have the relation Ø ⊂ A ⊂ U .

Activity 1.4

1. in each of the following, give a description in

words, and illustrate with venn diagrams. (let U
 be the universal set)
(a) A∪ A ' (b) A∩ A ' (c) A∪B ' (d) A∩B ' (e) A∪ A (f)
A∩ A (g) U∩ A
(h) U∩ A ' (i) ( A∪B )∩( A '∪B' ) (j) ( A∩B ' )∪( A '∩B) (k)
( A∩B )∪( A '∩B' )
(2) Let U be the set of nonnegative integers. Find
A∩ A ' A∪B , A ' and B ' if
(a) A={x : x is odd }, B={x : x <100} (b)
A={x 2 : x< 10}, B={x 3 : x <10}
(c) A={x : x <100 and x is prime } B={x : x=n and n<5}
(3) two dice, one red and the other black, are
thrown. Let E be the set of the thirty-six possible
outcomes. Let A be the set of all outcomes, in which
the red die shows 3 or more, and B the set of all
outcomes, which the black die shows a 4 or greater.
List the elements of U, A, B, A', B', A∪B , and A∩B .
(4) If a penny and a die are thrown, there are 12
possible outcomes. List them. If A is the set of all
outcomes in which the penny shows heads and B
the set of all outcomes in which the die shows 1, 2,
or 3, list the elements of A, B, A∪B , and A∩B .

1.6Set Enumeration

Set enumeration is concerned with the number of elements

contained within the various areas defined by union or
intersection. Suppose that an accountancy partnership
currently employs 16 staff. Given that 3 of the staff have no
formal qualifications, and of the 7 staff who are graduates, 5
are also qualified Association members, it is possible to
evaluate:
(a) the number of staff who are non-graduate,
qualified members of the Association and
 (b) the number of graduates who are not qualified
members of the Association.
These two values can be calculated as follows:
(i) Since 3 of the staff have no formal qualifications, there
must be 16 – 3 = 13 staff who have at least one of the
two qualifications.
(ii) There are 7 staff who are graduates, which means that
16 – 7 – 3 = 6 staffs which are non-graduate, qualified
members of the Association. The answer to (a).
(iii) 5 of the staff are qualified Association members and
graduates. Thus, there are 7 – 5 = 2 of the staffs who
are graduates only. The answer to (b).

This is presented in a venn diagram

S
3

A
G
x 5
2

Where
A={staff who are association members}
G={staff who are graduates}
A∩G={staff who both association members and graduates}
'
( A∪B ) ={staff with no formal qualification }
We have
 '
n( S )=16 , n( A )=5+ x , n(G)=7 , n( A∩G)=5 and n( A∪G ) =3
Therefore
'
n( A∪G) +n( A )+ n( G)−n( A∩G)=n( S )

Thus
2 + 7 + 5 + x -5 = 16
Hence
x =6
We have used the following property of union of two sets
n( A∪B )=n( A )+n (B )−n ( A∩B)
n( A∪B )' =n(U )−n ( A∪B)
Where U is the universal set.

1.7Laws of set algebra

Arising from the set operations that we learned so far in this

lecture, we have the following laws:

1.7.1 Laws of Union and Intersection

(i) Commutative
(1) A∩B=B∩ A (2) A∪B=B∪ A
(ii) Associative
(3) ( A∪B )∪C= A∪(B∪C ) (4) ( A∩B )∩C= A∩( B∩C )
Here the parentheses indicate the operation to be performed
first.
(iii) Distributive
(5) A∩( B∪C )=( A∩B )∪( A∩C ) distributive law of intersection
(6) A∪( B∩C )=( A∪B )∩( A∪C ) distributive law of union

1.7.2 Laws of Complementation

We now introduce two important relations known as De
Morgans’s Laws. They relate sets to the universal set U, as
follows: (7) ( A∪B )'= A '∩B ' (8) ( A∩B )'= A '∪B '
Other properties of set operations are: (9) A∪Ø =A (10)
A∪U =U (11) A∩U = A
(12) A∩Ø =Ø (13) A∪ A= A (14) A∩ A= A (15) A∪A'=U (16)
A∩A'=Ø
(17) (A')'=A

1.8Summary

In this lecture we have defined the notion of a set

and the basic concepts of sets. We have also
introduced ourselves to the operations on sets.
Finally we have learned how to depict sets
diagrammatically using Venn diagrams.

1.9References

Business Mathematics and Statistics

A. Francis