Torsional pendulum-Rigidity Modulus

Aim:

To determine the moment of inertia of the given disc and the rigidity modulus of a given
wire by the method of torsional oscillations.

Apparatus:

Uniform circular disc, thin wire, two equal masses, stop-clock, screw gauge and metre
scale.

Formula:

1. Moment of Inertia of the disc

2m  d 22  d12  To2
I  kg.m2
T T
2
2
1
2

2. Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire

8 Il
n 2 4
Newton/metre2
To r

Explanation of symbols:

Symbol Explanation Unit

m Mass of one of the equal masses placed on the disc. Kg
d1 Minimum distance between centre of suspension wire and the metre
centre of any one of the masses
d2 Maximum distance between centre of suspension wire and the metre
centre of any one of the masses.
T0 Time period when there is no mass placed on the disc seconds
T1 Time period when equal masses are placed at a distance d1 seconds
T2 Time period when equal masses are placed at a distance d2 seconds
l Length of the suspension wire metre
r Radius of the given wire metre
Procedure:

One end of a long, uniform wire whose rigidity modulus is to be determined is clamped by
a vertical chuck. To the lower end, a heavy uniform circular disc is attached by another chuck. The
length of the suspension wire ‘l’ (from top portion of chuck to the clamp) is fixed to a particular
value (say 60 or 70 cm). The suspended disc is slightly twisted so that it executes torsional
oscillations. Care is taken to see that the disc oscillates without wobbling. The first few
oscillations are omitted. By using the pointer (a mark made on the disc) the time taken for 10
oscillations is noted. Two trials are taken and the mean time period T (time for one oscillation) is
found.

Two equal masses are placed on the disc symmetrically on either side, close to the
suspension wire (at the minimum distance). The closest distance ‘d1’ from the center of the
cylindrical mass and the center of the suspension wire is found. The disc with masses at distance
d1 is made to execute torsional oscillations by twisting the disc. The time taken for 10 oscillations
is noted. Two trials are taken and the mean time period ‘T1’ is determined.

Two equal masses are now moved to the extreme ends, so that the edges of the masses
coincide with the edge of the disc and the centres are equidistant. The distance ‘d2’ from the center
of the cylindrical mass and the centre of the suspension wire is noted. The disc with masses at
distance ‘d2’ is allowed to execute torsional oscillations by twisting the disc. The time taken for 10
oscillations is noted and the mean time period ‘T2’ is calculated. The mass of one of the cylinders
placed on the disc is found. The diameter of the wire is accurately measured at various places
along its length with screw gauge. From this, the radius of the wire is calculated. The moment of
inertia of the disc and the rigidity modulus of the wire are calculated using the given formulae.

To find the time period of oscillation:

Length of the suspension wire ( l ) = ……………. x 10-2 m

Time for 10 oscillations Time period

Position of the equal (time for one
masses on the disc Trial – 1 Trial – 2 Mean oscillation)

Seconds Seconds Seconds Seconds

T0 =
Without masses
T02 =

With masses at T1 =
d1 = ………….x10-2m T1 2=

With masses at T2 =
d2 = …………x10-2m T2 2=

Measurement of radius of the wire (r):

Least count (L.C) = 0.01 mm Zero Error (ZE) =……div

Zero Correction (ZC) = ± (L.C×ZE) mm

PSR HSC OR=PSR+(HSR×L.C) CR=OR+ ZC

S. No
×10-3m div ×10-3m ×10-3m
1

Mean diameter (d) = ………………..×10-3m

Radius of the wire (r) = d/2 = ………………..×10-3m

Calculation:

Time period of oscillation (without masses) T0 =…………………seconds

Time period when masses are at distance ‘d1’ T1 =………………….seconds
Time period when masses are at distance ‘d2’ T2 =…………………..seconds
Closest distance between suspension wire
and the center of cylindrical mass. d1 =…………………….x 10-2 m
Farthest distance between suspension wire
and the center of cylindrical mass. d2 =……………………..x 10-2 m
Mass of one of the cylinders m =……………………….x 10-3 kg
Length of the suspension wire l =…………………………x 10-2 m
Mean radius of the wire r = ………………………...x 10-3 m

2m  d 22  d12  To2
I  kg.m2
Moment of Inertia of the disc T22  T12

I = ……………….kg m2

Rigidity modulus of material of the wire 8 Il

n Newton/metre2
To2 r 4

n = ……………….N/m2
 MELDE’S STRING EXPERIMENT-STANDING WAVES

Aim:

To determine the frequency of an electrically maintained vibrator using Meld’s apparatus

in longitudinal and transverse modes of vibrations

Apparatus required:

Electrically maintained tuning fork, fine thread, scale pan, weights and meter scale.

Formula

Transverse drive mode : In this arrangement the vibrations of the prongs of the tuning fork are in
the direction perpendicular to the length of the string.

The time, during which the tuning fork completes one vibration, the string also completes one
vibration. In this mode, frequency of the string is equal to the frequency of the tuning fork.

Therefore from equation (5),

Frequency (6)
Where
The total mass M is equal to the mass M' of the weight in the scale pan plus the mass M0 of the
scale pane, M = M' + M0.

Longitudinal drive mode: In this arrangement the tuning fork is set in such a manner that the
vibrations of the prongs are parallel to the length of the string.
The time, during which the tuning fork completes one vibration, the string completes half of its
vibration. In this mode, frequency of the fork is twice the frequency of the string.

Frequency (7)

Using equation (6) and (7) we can calculate the frequency of electrically maintained tuning fork in
two different modes of vibration.

Procedure
Transverse mode of vibration of the string
The apparatus is arranged with the length of the string being parallel to the prong of the tuning
fork on which one end of the string is attached. The other end of the string carrying a scale pan is
passed over a pulley fixed at one end of the table. When the tuning fork is excited, it vibrates
perpendicular to the length of the string

1. Excite the tuning fork by switching on the power supply (advisable to use voltage more
than 6V)
2. Adjust the position of the pulley in line with the tuning fork.
3. Change the load in the pan attached to the end of the string.
4. Adjust the applied voltage so that vibrations and well defined loops are obtained.
5. The tension in the string increases by adding weights in the pan slowly and gradually.
6. For finer adjustment, add milligram weight so that nodes are reduced to points at the edges.
7. Count the number of loop and the length of each loop. For example, if 4 loops formed in
the middle part of the string. If ‘ ’ is the distance in which 4 loops are formed, then
distance between two consecutive nodes is /4.
8. Note down the weight placed in the pan and calculate the tension.

Longitudinal mode of vibration of the string

The apparatus is arranged with length of the string being perpendicular to the prong of the fork. In
this case, when the tuning is vibrated parallel to the length of the string. The experiment is
performed exactly as in the previous case. The scale pan is detached from the string and its mass
and length is determined using common balance and meter scale. Hence linear density is
calculated.

Observations and Calculations

Tabulation I : Transverse mode of vibration of the string
Mass of the scale pan = __________ x10-3kg

Mass of the scale No. of Total length Length of one

pan + mass in the loops of the loops loop (l )
Trial No. M/l2
pan (M x10-3kg) (L) x10-2 m x10-2 m

Frequency of the vibrating string in Transverse mode

.......Hz

Tabulation II : Longitudinal mode of vibration of the string

Mass of the scale pan = __________x10-3kg

Mass of the scale No. of Total length Length of one

pan + mass in the loops of the loops loop (l )
Trial No. M/l2
pan (M x10-3kg) (L) x10-2 m x10-2 m

Frequency of the vibrating string in longitudinal mode

........Hz

Result:

The frequency of the vibrator using Melde’s Apparatus

(i) in the transverse mode of vibrations was found to be ------------------------ Hz
(ii) in the longitudinal mode of vibrations was found to be ------------------------ Hz
 AIR WEDGE

Aim:

To determine the thickness of a thin wire using the interference pattern formed by air wedge
between two glass plates

Apparatus required:
Travelling microscope, two optically plane glass plates, given fiber (or) wire (or) thin
sheet of paper, reading lens,sodium vapour lamp.

Theory:

Two plane glass plates are inclined at an angle by introducing a thin material (e.g. thin fiber (or)
hair), forming a wedge shaped air film. Thin film is illuminated by sodium light, interference
occurs between the two rays one reflected from the front surface and the other obtained by internal
reflection at the back surface. Since in the case of a wedge-shaped film, thickness of the material
remains constant only in direction parallel to the thin edge of the wedge, straight line fringes
parallel to the edge of the wedge are obtained.

Formula

Thickness of the given fiber (or) wire (or) thin sheet of paper is given by
𝝀𝑳
t=
𝟐𝜷

Where  is the wavelength of sodium light in m  is the distance of the wire from the edge of
contact (l) in m  is the width of one fringe in m

Procedure:

Two optically plane glass plates are placed one over the other and tied by means of a rubber band
at one end. The given material of fiber (or) wire (or) paper is introduced on the other end, so that
an air-wedge is formed between the plates. This set up is placed on the horizontal bed plate of the
travelling microscope. Light from the sodium vapour lamp (S) is rendered parallel by means of a
condensing lens (L). The parallel beam of light is incident on a plane glass plate (G) inclined at an
angle of 45° and gets reflected. The reflected light is incident normally on the glass plates in
contact. Interference takes place between the light reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of
the glass plates and is viewed through the travelling microscope (M). Hence large number of
equally spaced dark and bright fringes are formed which are parallel to the edge of contact.

The microscope is adjusted so that the bright (or) dark fringe near the edge of contact is made
to coincide with the vertical cross wire and this is taken as the nth fringe.
The reading from the horizontal scale of the travelling microscope is noted. The microscope is
moved across the fringes using the horizontal traverse screw and the readings are taken when the
vertical crosswire coincides with every successive 5 fringes (5, 10, 15, 20...). The width of every
20 fringes is calculated and the width of one fringe is calculated. The mean of this gives the fringe
width (β).
The distance between the tide end and the object is measured as 'L'. Substituting 'β 'and 'l' in the
given formula, the thickness of the given material can be determined.
To Find the Bandwidth (β)

Least Count of theMicroscope

Least Count = 1 M. S. R/ No. of V. S. D

1 M. S. R = 0.05cm

No. of V. S. D = 50

Least Count = 0.05 cm/50 = 0.001cm

Observation: The distance between the tied end and the thin wire = ____________ x 10-2 m.

Order of Microscope readings (x 10-2 m) Difference for __ β

fringes fringes (x 10-2 m)
M.S.R V.S.C T.R (x 10-2 m)

n+

n+

n+

n+

n+

n+

n+

n+

n+

n+
To find the distance between the edge of contact and the wire

L.C = 0.001 cm

Calculations:

Thickness of the given fiber (or) wire (or) thin sheet of paper is given by

Result

The thickness of the given thin wire by using an air wedge was found to be _______x10-2 m
 Young’s modulus - Non uniform bending
Aim:

To determine the Young’s modulus of the material of a uniform beam supported on two
knife-edges and loaded at the middle.

Apparatus Required:

Rectangular beam, Slotted weights, Knife-edges, Travelling microscope, Metre scale,

Screw gauge and Vernier calipers.

Formula:
Young’s modulus of the materialof the beam:
Mgl 3
E Newton/metre2
4bd 3 y

Explanation of symbols:

Symbol Explanation Unit

M Mass for the depression ‘y’ kg
l metre
Length of the beam between the knife edges

g m/s2
Acceleration due to gravity

b Breadth of the beam metre

d Thickness of the beam metre
y Depression for mass ‘M’ metre
Procedure:

The given specimen beam is placed horizontally on the two knife edges. Let the distance
between two knife edges be ’l’ (say 60×10-2m). At the midpoint of the beam say 50 th
cm, a pin is
placed vertically using honey wax pointing the tip of the pin upwards and a weight hanger with
dead load is suspended at that position using twine. The slotted weight are loaded and unloaded so
that the specimen beam is brought to elastic mood. When the twine is hanged with dead load
alone, the travelling microscope screws are well adjusted to focus the tip of the pin just touch the
horizontal crosswire. At this time, the reading is noted for W gram as shown by the vertical
scale. Add 50gm slotted weight to the dead load. Now when viewed through the travelling
microscope, due to non-uniform bending of the beam, the tip of the pin does not touch the
horizontal crosswire. To make the tip of the pin to touch the horizontal crosswire, the fine
adjustment screw on the top of the vertical scale is adjusted carefully in one direction (by
screwing).
 Then the readings are noted for w+50 gram. Another 50 gram is added to the weight
hanger and similar adjustments are made. The reading is noted for w+100 gram. Also the readings
are noted for w+150, w+200 and w+250 grams each time during loading. The experiment is
repeated for unloading also and the readings are noted with similar procedure. But the fine
adjustments screw which is on the top of the vertical scale is adjusted carefully in the direction
opposite to the direction made during loading. The total reading is determined for both loading
and unloading. The difference between the values is found for depression (y) made by certain
mass (M).
The distance ‘l’ between the knife-edges A and B is measured. The thickness of the beam
is measured with the help of screw gauge at different places on the beam; from the observed
values the mean thickness of the beam is found. The breadth of the beam is measured using
vernier caliper. Hence Young’s modulus ‘E’ can be calculated using the given formula.

Young’s modulus Non-Uniform bending

Determination of thickness of the beam using screw gauge (d):

Least count (L.C) = 0.01 mm Zero Error (ZE) =……div

Zero Correction (ZC) = + …… mm

S. No PSR HSC OR=PSR+(HSR×LC) CR=OR+ZC

×10-3m div ×10-3m ×10-3m
1
2
3
4
5
Mean (d) =……………..×10-3m
Determination of breadth of the beam using vernier calipers (b):

Least count (L.C.) = 0.01 cm Zero Error (ZE) = + ……div

Zero Correction (ZC) = + …… cm

OR = MSR+(VSC x
MSR VSC. CR = OR + ZC
S. No. LC)
×10-2m div ×10-2m
×10-2m

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Breadth of the beam (b) =………………………..×10-2m

Determination of the depression ‘y’ using travelling microscope:

TR = MSR+ (VSC x LC)

L.C = 0.001 cm
Distance between the two knife edges l = …………..×10-2m M =50 x10-3kg

Microscope reading
S. No Mean of Depression
Loading Unloading loading & for M kg ‘y’
Load
MSR VSC CR MSR VSC CR unloading

Unit x10-3kg cm div cm cm div cm cm cm

1 W
2 W+
3 W+
4 W+
5 W+
Mean (y) =

Calculation:
Mass for the depression ‘y’ M =……….……………..x 10-3kg
Length of the beam between the knife-edges l = ……………..……….x 10-2m
Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 m/second2
Breadth of the beam b = ……………..………. x 10-2m
Thickness of the beam d = …………….……… x 10-2m
Depression for ‘M’ kg y = ……………………… x 10-2m

Young’s modulus of the material

Mgl 3
E Newton/metre2
4bd 3 y

E = …………………..…………..N/m2
 LASER Experiment (i) –Diffraction grating

Aim:
(i) To determine the slit width of diffraction grating using Laser.
(ii) To determine the number of lines per metre in the diffraction grating.

Apparatus Required:
Laser source, screen, stand, and meter scale, grating.

Explanation of symbols

Symbol Explanation Unit

θ Angle of diffraction degree

N Number of lines per metre in the grating lines/m

n Order of diffraction ---

λ Wavelength of the laser source metre

XR Distance of the nth order spot in the right from the central spot metre
of the diffraction pattern
XL Distance of the nth order spot in the left from the central spot of metre
the diffraction pattern

x Distance of different orders from the central spot (cm) metre

D Distance between the Laser source and diffraction grating metre

 Laser grating experimental set up

Observation:

To find the slit width of diffraction grating using laser:

Calculations:

Results:

(i) Slit width of diffraction grating using laser, d = -------------------------- (m)

(ii) Number of lines per metre in the diffraction grating, N = -------------- lines/m

LASER Experiment (ii) – Optical fibre

Aim:
To determine the acceptance angle and numerical aperture of an optical fibre.

Apparatus Required:
Laser source, white screen, stands, and meter scale, optical fibre cable, optical fibre connections,
numerical aperture jig and mandrel for optical fibre.
Explanation of symbols:

Symbol Explanation Unit

θ Angle of diffraction degree

n Order of diffraction No unit

θa Acceptance angle degree

r Radius of the circle/spot metre

d Distance between the fibre end and screen metre

To find the Acceptance angle and Numerical aperture of the
optical fibre:

Calculations:

Result:
(i)The acceptance angle of the given optical fibre, θa =
(ii) The numerical aperture of the given optical fibre ,NA =