BETHEL MATRICULATION HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL

VELACHERY ,CHENNAI -42

HIGHER SECONDARY SECOND YEAR

PHYSICS
VOLUME II NOTES
2023-2024
 6.RAY OPTICS
Short answer questions( 2 Marks )
1. Define reflection.
The bouncing back of light in to the same
medium when it encounters a reflecting surface is
called reflection of light. 7.Define optical path
Optical path of a medium is defined as the
2. State the laws of reflection distance d' light travels in vacuum in the same
(i) The incident ray, reflected ray and normal to time it travels a distance d in the medium.
the reflecting surface are all coplanar (ie. lie If ‘n’ is the refractive index of the medium. then
in the same plane). optical path is ;d’= n d
(ii) The angle of incidence i is equal to the angle
of reflection r. i = r 8.Define refraction
Refraction is passing of light from one optical
3. What is the angle of deviation due to medium to another optical medium through a
reflection? boundary.

The angle between the incident ray and deviated 9.State snell ‘s law of refraction
ray of light is called angle of deviation The ratio of sine of angle of incident i in the first
medium to the sine of angle of refraction r in the
4.Distinguish convex mirror and concave second medium is equal to the ratio of refractive
mirror? index n2 of the second medium to the refractive
index n1 of the first medium

10. What is the principle of reversibility?

The principle of reversibility states that, light will
be follow exactly the same path if its direction of
travel is reversed.
This is true for both reflection and refraction.

5. Define paraxial rays and marginal rays. 11. Define relative refractive index
Paraxial rays :
The rays travelling very close to the principal axis
and make small angle with it are called paraxial
rays.
Marginal rays :
The rays travelling far away from the principal
axis and fall on the mirror far away from the pole
are called as marginal rays.
12.What is simultaneous reflection or
6.Define refractive index refraction?
Refractive index of a transparent medium is The phenomenon in which a part of light from a
defined as the ratio of speed of light in vacuum c source undergoing reflection and the other part of
to the speed of light in that medium light from the same source undergoing refraction
at the same surface is called simultaneous
reflection (or) simultaneous refraction
13. Define critical angle. The focal length of thin lens is taken as positive
The angle of incidence in the denser medium for for a converging lens and negative for a diverging
which the refracted ray graces the boundary is lens
called critical angle 𝒊𝑪
19. Define power of a lens.
14. Define total internal reflection. The power ‘P’ of a lens is defined as the reciprocal
If the angle of incidence in the denser medium is of its focal length (𝒇)
greater than the critical angle, there is no
refraction possible in the rarer medium.
The entire light is reflected back in to the denser
medium itself, This phenomenon is called total The unit of power is diopter (D)
internal reflection. Power is positive for converging lens and
negative for diverging lens.
15. What are the conditions to achieve total
internal reflection? 20. Write a note on prism.
● Light must travel from denser to rarer A prism is a triangular block of glass or plastic
medium which is bounded by the three plane faces not
● Angle of incidence must be greater than parallel to each other.
critical angle (𝑖 > 𝑖𝐶) Its one face is grounded which is called base.
The other two faces are polished which are called
16. Obtain the reason for glittering of refracing faces of the prism.
diamond. The angle between the two refracting faces is
Glittering of diamond : called angle of prism (A)
The glittering of diamond is due to the total
internal reflection of light happens inside the 21. Define angle of minimum deviation.
diamond. The angle between incident ray and emergent ray
The refractive index of diamond is 2.417 and the is called angle of deviation (d).
critical angle is 24.4 When the angle of incidence increases, the angle
Diamond has large number of cut plane faces. So of deviation decreases, reaches a minimum value
light entering the diamond get total internally and then continues to increase.
reflected from many cut faces before getting out. The minimum value of angle of deviation is called
This gives a sparkling effect for diamond. angle of minimum deviation (D).

17.Write a note on an endoscope. 22. What is called dispersion of light?

Endoscope : The splitting of white light into its constituent
An endoscope is an instrument used by doctors colours is called dispersion of light.
which has a bundle of optical fibers that are used This band of colours of light is called its spectrum.
to see inside a patient’s body. The spectrum consists seven colours in the order
It works on the phenomenon of total internal VIBGYOR
reflection.
It is inserted into the body through mouth or nose
23. Define dispersive power.
or a special hole made in the body. Dispersive power (𝜔) is the ability of the material
The necessary instruments for operation is of the prism to cause prism.
attached at their ends. It is defined as the ratio of the angular dispersion
for the extreme colours to the deviation for any
18.What are the sign conventions for lens on mean colour.
focal length?
The sign of focal length is not decided on the
direction of measurement of the focal length
24. What is Rayleigh’s scattering? (ii) The ratio of sine of angle of incident i in the
The scattering of light by atoms and molecules first medium to the sine of angle of refraction r in
which have size (𝒂) very less than that of the the second medium is equal to the ratio of
wavelength ( 𝜆 ) of light is called Rayleigh’s refractive index n2 of the second medium to the
scattering. refractive index n1 of the first medium.
(i.e) condition for Rayleigh’s scattering is 𝒂 << 𝜆

25. State Rayleigh’s scattering law.

The intensity (I) of Rayleigh’s scattering is 30 Why do stars twinkle?
inversely proportional to fourth power of Actually, the stars do not twinkle. They appear
wavelength (𝜆) twinkling because of the movement of the
atmospheric layers with varying refractive indices
which is clearly seen in the night sky.

26. Why does sky appears blue colour? 31. What is Snell’s window (or) Radius of
According to Rayleigh’s scattering, shorter illumination?
wavelengths (violet) scattered much more than Snell’s window is the restricted area of circular
longer wavelengths (Red) illumination which appears when seen from water
As our eyes are more sensitive to blue colour due to critical angle incidence.
than violet, the sky appears blue during day time.
32.Define acceptance angle in optical fiber
27. Why does sky and Sun looks reddish To ensure the critical angle incidence in the core-
during sunset and sunrise? cladding boundary inside the optical fiber, the
During sunset or sunrise, the light from Sun light should be incident at a certain angle called
travels a greater distance through atmosphere. acceptance angle at the end of the optical fibre
Hence the blue light which has shorter while entering into it.
wavelength is scattered away and less scattered
red light of longer wavelength reaches observer 33.Define the power of a mirror.
This is the reason for reddish appearance of sky The power of a mirror is negative of the
and Sun during sunrise and sunset. reciprocal of its focal length. (i. e.) P =1/−f
This is because, a concave mirror which has
28. Why does cloud appears as white colour? negative focal length is a converging mirror with
When size of particles or water drops are greater positive power.
than the wavelength of light (𝑎 ≫ 𝜆), the intensity
of scattering is equal for all the wavelength. 35. Define silvered lenses.
Since clouds contains large amount of dust and If one of the surfaces of a lens is silvered from
water droplets, all the colours get equally outside, then such a lens is said to be a silvered
scattered irrespective of wavelength. This is the lens. It is a combination of a lens and a mirror.
reason for the whitish appearance of cloud. A silvered lens is basically a modified mirror and
But the rain clouds appear dark because of the its power is given by
condensation of water droplets on dust particles
that make the cloud become opaque

29.State laws of refraction

(i) The incident ray, refracted ray and normal to
the refracting surface are all coplanar (ie. lie in the
same plane).
Short answer questions( 3 Marks )
1.What is the angle of deviation due to
reflection?
The angle between the incident and deviated ray
is called angle of deviation (d) of the light ray.

3. Explain image formation in plane mirror

or
From figure (a), shows that the image distance inside the
d = 180° − (i + r) [i = r] plane mirror is equal to the object distance in
d = 180° −2 i front of the plane mirror
The angle of deviation can also be measured in Let us consider a point object A placed in front of
terms of the glancing angle α.The angle a plane mirror. The point of incidence is O on the
between the incident ray and the reflecting mirror
surface is called glancing angle (α).
From figure (b), d = ∠BOY + ∠YOC = α + α= 2 α

2. Prove that for the same incident light when

a reflecting surface is tilted by an angle θ, the
reflected light will be tilted by an angle 2θ.
AB is the reflecting surface
Both the incident ray IO and the reflected ray
OR1 subtend angle i with the normal N as the A light ray AO from the point object is incident
angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection. on the mirror and it is reflected along OB. The
When the surface AB is tilted to A’B’ by an angle normal is ON.
θ, the normal N is also is tilted to N’ by the same The angle of incidence ∠AON = angle of
angle θ. Remember that the position of the reflection ∠BON
incident ray IO remains unaltered. But the Another ray AD incident normally on the mirror
reflected ray now is OR2. at D is reflected back along DA. When BO and AD
Now, in the tilted system, the angle of incidence, are extended backwards, they meet at a point A'.
∠N'OI = i+θ and the angle of reflection, ∠N'OR2 Thus, the rays appear to come from a point A'
= i+θ are the same which is behind the plane mirror. The object and
The angle between ON' and OR1 is, its image are at equal perpendicular distances
∠N'OR1 = i – θ. from the plane mirror which can be shown by the
The angle tilted on the reflected light is the angle
following explanation.
between OR1 and OR2 which is ∠R1OR2. From
the geometry we can write, Angle ∠AON = angle ∠DAO [Since they are
∠R1OR2 = ∠N'OR2 – ∠N'OR1 = (i+θ) – (i–θ) alternate angles]
∠R1OR2 = 2θ. Angle ∠BON = angle ∠OA’D [Since they are
corresponding angles]
Hence, it follows that angle, ∠DAO = ∠OA’D
 The triangles ΔODA and ΔOD¢A are If the distance between his head H and eye E is
congruent h1 and distance between his feet F and eye E is
∴ AD = A’D h2. The person’s total height is, h. Here it is, h =
This shows that the image distance di inside the h 1 + h2
plane mirror is equal to the object distance do in
front of the plane mirror
By the law of reflection, the angle of incidence
and angle of reflection are the same for the two
4.What are the characteristics of the image
extreme reflections. The normals are now the
formed by the plane mirror?
bisectors of the angles between the incident and
1.Image is virtual, erect and laterally inverted.
the reflected rays at the two points. By geometry,
2.Size of image is equal to the size of the object.
the height of the mirror needed is only half of the
3.The distance of the image behind the mirror is
height of the person
equal to the distance of object in front of it.
4.If an object placed between two plane mirrors
inclined at an angle θ , then the number (n) of
images formed is,
6. Define (1) centre of curvature, (2) Radius of
curvature (3) pole, (4) principal axis, (5) focus
or focal point, (6) focal length, (7) focal plane
(1) Centre of curvature :
The centre of the sphere of which the mirror is a
part is called centre of curvature (C)
(2) Radius of curvature :
The radius of the sphere of which the
5. What is the height of the mirror needed for spherical mirror is a part is called the radius of
a person to see his/her image fully on the curvature (R) of the mirror.
mirror? (3) Pole :
Let us assume a person of height h is standing in The middle point on the spherical surface of the
front of a vertical plane mirror. The person could mirror (or) the geometrical centre of the mirror is
see his/her head when light from the head falls on called the pole (P) of the mirror.
the mirror and gets reflected to the eyes. Same (4) Principal axis :
way, light from the feet falls on the mirror and gets The line joining the pole (P) and the centre of
reflected to the eyes. curvature (C) is called the principal axis (or)
optical axis of the mirror.
(5) Focus or Focal point :
Light rays travelling parallel and close to the
principal axis when incident on a spherical mirror,
converge at a point for concave mirror or appears
to diverge from a point for convex mirror on the
principal axis. This point is called the focus or
focal point (F) of the mirror
(6) Focal length :
The distance between the pole (P) and the Focus
(F) is called the focal length (f) of the mirror.
(7) Focal plane :
The plane through the focus and
perpendicular from M to the principal axis, then
7. Obtain the relation between focal length (f) PF is focal length f and PC is the radius of
and radius of curvature (R) of the spherical curvature R.
mirror.
Let C be the centre of curvature of the mirror.
Consider a ray of light parallel to the principal axis
is incident on the mirror at M. It passes through
the principal focus F after reflection. The line CM
is the normal to the mirror at M. Let i be the angle 8. Explain image formation in spherical
of incidence and the same will be the angle of mirrors
reflection. The image formed by spherical mirror can be
found by ray construction called image tracing.
To locate an image point, a minimum of two rays
must meet at that point.

(i) A ray parallel to the principal axis after

reflection will pass (or appear to pass) through the
principal focus.
(ii) A ray passing (or appear passing) through the
principal focus, after reflection will travel parallel
If MP is the perpperpendicular to the principal to the principal axis.
axis is called the focal plane of the mirror. (iii) A ray passing through the centre of curvature
retraces its path after reflection as it is a normal
incidence. (iv) A ray falling on the pole will get
reflected as per law of reflection keeping principal
axis as the normal.

9. What are the Cartesian sign conventions

for a spherical mirrors?
● The incident light is taken from left to right.
● All the distances are measured from the
pole.
● The distance measured to the right of pole
along the principal axis are taken as
positive
 ● The distance measured to the left of pole In the same time t, light can cover a longer
along the principal axis are taken as distance d' in vacuum as it travels with greater
negative speed c in vacuum
● Heights measured in the upward
perpendicular direction to the principal axis
are taken as positive
● Heights measured in the downward
perpendicular direction to the principal axis
are taken as negative

10. What is the angle of deviation due to

refraction?
Angle of deviation due to refraction :
The angle between the incident and deviated ray
is called angle of deviation.
When light travels from rarer to denser medium it
deviates towards normal. d ‘= nd
Hence the angle of deviation ; d = i −r
When light travels from denser to rarer medium it The value of n is always greater than 1, for a
deviates away normal. Hence medium. Thus, the optical path d' of a medium is
the angle of deviation ; d = r− i always greater than d.

11.Obtain an expression for critical angle.

When light ray passes from denser medium to
rarer medium, it bends away from normal.
So i < r
As i increases, r also increases rapidly and at a
certain stage it just gracing the boundary (r =
10.What is optical path?Obtain an expression 90°). The corresponding angle of incidence is
for optical path. called critical angle (iC)
Optical path of a medium is defined as the
distance d' light travels in vacuum in the same
time it travels a distance d in the medium.
Let us consider a medium of refractive index n
and thickness d. Light travels with a speed v
through the medium in a time t. The speed of
light through the medium is written as
 So in cold regions like glaciers and frozen lakes
and seas, the reverse effect of mirage will
happen.
Hence an inverted image is formed little above
the surface. This phenomenon
called looming.

13.Write a note on the prisms making using of

The critical angle ic depends on the refractive total internal reflection.
index n of the medium Prisms can be designed to reflect light by 90o (or)
by 180o by making use of total internal reflection

12.What are mirage and looming?

Mirage :
In hot places, air near the ground is hotter than air In the first two cases, the critical angle ic for the
at a height. Hot air less dense. material of the prism must be less than 45o. Prism
The refractive index of air decreases with in Figure (b) inverts the object on the same side.
decrease in density. Prism in Figure (c) inverts the object on the other
Because of this, the air near hot ground acts as side
rarer medium than the air at height.
When light from tall object like tree, passes 14.What is Snell’s window (or) Radius of
through a medium whose refractive index illumination?
decreases towards the ground, it successively When a light source like electric bulb is kept inside
deviates away from the normal and undergoes a water tank, the light from the source travels in
total internal reflection when the angle of all direction inside the water.
incidence near the ground exceeds the critical The light that incident on water surface at an
angle. angle less than the critical angle will undergo
This gives an illusion as if the light comes from refraction and emerge out from the water.
somewhere below the ground. The light incident at an angle greater than the
For of the shaky nature of the layers of air,the critical angle will undergo total internal reflection.
observers feels as wet surface beneath the But the light incident at critical angle graces the
object. surface and hence the entire surface of water
This phenomenon is called mirage. appears illuminated when seen from outside.
Looming : On the other hand, when light entering water from
In cold places, the refractive index increases outside is seen from inside the water, the view is
towards the ground, because the temperature of restricted to a particular angle equal to the critical
air close to the ground is less than the air at angle iC
height. The restricted illuminated circular area is called
Snell’s window.
15. Write a note on optical fibres.
Transmitting the signals through optical fibres is
possible due to the phenomenon of total internal
reflection. Optical fibres consist of inner part
called core and outer part called cladding (or)
sleeving.
The refractive index of the core must be higher
than that of the cladding for total internal reflection The secondary focus F2 is defined as a point
to happen. where all the parallel rays travelling close to
Signal in the form of light is made to incident the principal axis converge to form an image
inside the core-cladding boundary at an angle on the principal axis after passing through
greater than lens. For a converging lens, such an image is a
the critical angle. real image and for a diverging lens, it is a virtual
Hence, it advances with repeated total internal image. The distance PF2 is the secondary focal
reflections inside the optical fibre without length f2.
undergoing any refraction. The light travels inside
the core with no appreciable loss in the intensity
of the light .
While bending the optical fibre, it is done in such
a way that the condition for total internal reflection
is ensured at every reflection inside the fibre
If the media on the two sides of a thin lens have
same refractive index, then the two focal lengths
are equal.

17. How are rainbows formed?

Rainbows are formed due to dispersion of
sunlight through droplets of water during rainy
days.
Rainbow is observed during rainfall or after
rainfall or looking water fountain provided the Sun
is at the back of the observer.
16. Define primary and secondary focal points When sun light falls on the water drop suspended
As the thin lens is formed by two surfaces, the air, it splits in to its constituent seven colours.
lens may separate two different media. i.e. the Here waterdrops acts as a glass prism.
media to the left and right of the lens may be Primary rainbow is formed when one total internal
different. Hence, we have two focal lengths. reflection takes place inside the drop. The angle
of view for violet to red in primary rainbow is 400
The primary focus F1 is defined as a point
to 420
where a point source kept produces a parallel
Secondary rainbow is formed when two total
emergent rays to the principal axis after
internal reflection takes place inside the drop. The
passing through lens
angle of view for violet to red in primary rainbow
For a converging lens, such an object is a real
is 520 to 540
object and for a diverging lens, it is a virtual
object. The distance PF1 is the primary focal
17.Obtain the lateral magnification of thin lens
length f1.
Let us consider an object OO' of height h1 placed
on the principal axis with its height The
perpendicular to the principal axis. The inverted 18.Write short notes on silvered lenses
real image II_ is formed which has a height h2 If one of the surfaces of a lens is silvered from
outside, then such a lens is said to be a silvered
lens.
A silvered lens is a combination of a lens and a
mirror.
Light can enter through the transparent front
surface of the lens and get reflected by the sliver
coated rear surface. Hence, light travels two
times through the lens

The lateral (or) transverse magnification m is

defined as the ratio of the height of the image to
height of the object .The inverted real image II’ is
formed which has a height h’

The power P of the silvered lens is,

From the two similar triangles ΔPOO’ and ΔPII’,

we can write,

Here, Pl is the power of the lens and Pm is the

power of the mirror. We know that the power of a
On applying sign convention lens is the reciprocal of its focal length
. But, the power of a mirror is negative of the
reciprocal of its focal length.
This is because, a concave mirror which has
magnification, negative focal length is a converging mirror with
positive power.
Also, a silvered lens is basically a modified mirror.
Thus,

Substituting in above equation

magnification is negative for real image and

positive for virtual image. In the case of a concave
lens, the magnification is always positive and less Suppose the object distance u and image
than one. distance v are to be found, we can very well use
the mirror equation , since the silvered lens is a
modified mirror

5 MARK LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. Derive the mirror equation and the
equation for lateral magnification.
 Lateral magnification:
It is defined as the ratio of the height of the
The equation which gives the relation between
image (h1) to the height of the object(h)..
object distance (u), image distance (v) and focal
length (f) is of spherical mirror is called mirror
equation.
Let an object AB is placed on the principle axis of
a concave mirror beyond the centre of curvature
‘C’
The real and inverted image A’B’is formed
between C and F
By the laws of reflection,

2. Describe the Fizeau’s method to determine

speed of light.

The light from the source ‘S’was first allowed to

fall on a partially silvered glass plate G kept at an
angle of 45° to the vertical.
The light then allowed passing through a rotating
toothed-wheel with N -teeth and N -cuts.
The speed of rotation of the wheel could be varied
through an external mechanism.
The light passing through one cut in the wheel get
reflected by a mirror M kept at a long distance
‘d’(about 8 km) from the toothed wheel.
If the toothed wheel was not rotating, the reflected
light from the mirror would again pass through the
same cut and reach the observer through G.
Working :
The angular speed of the rotation of the toothed It deviates away from the normal in the rarer
wheel was increased until light passing through medium at the point of incidence B
one cut would completely be blocked by the
adjacent tooth. Let that angular speed be ω
The total distance traveled by the light from the
toothed wheel to the mirror and back to the wheel
is ‘2d’ and the time taken be ‘t’.
Then the speed of light in air,

But the angular speed is,

Here θ is the angle between the tooth and the slot

which is rotated by the toothed wheel within that
time ‘t’ . Then,

The refractive index of the denser medium is n1

and that of rarer medium is n2. Here, n1 > n2.
The angle of incidence in the denser medium is i
and the angle of refraction in the rarer medium is
r.
The lines NN’ and OD are parallel. Thus, the
angle ∠DIB is also r.
The angles i and r are very small as the diverging
light from O entering the eye is very narrow.
The Snell’s law in product form for this refraction
is

3. Obtain the equation for apparent depth

It is a common observation that the bottom of
a tank filled with water appears to be raised when
seen from air medium.
Light from the object O at the bottom of the tank
passes from denser medium (water) to rarer
medium (air) to reach our eyes for viewing the
object
 Light is seen from a point A at a depth d. The
Snell’s law in product form,, for the refraction
happening at the point B on the boundary
between the two media is,

Rewriting the above equation for the apparent

depth d',

As the rarer medium is air, its refractive index n2

can be taken as 1, (n2=1).

And the refractive index n1 of denser medium

could then be taken as n itself, (n1=n).

Now, the equation for apparent depth becomes,

The bottom appears to be elevated by d-d',

4. Obtain the equation for radius of

illumination (or) Snell’s window.
when the light entering the water from outside is
seen from inside the water, the view is restricted
to a particular angle equal to the critical angle ic.
The restricted illuminated circular area is called
Snell’s window
5. Derive the equation for acceptance angle
and numerical aperture of optical fiber
To ensure the critical angle incidence in the core-
cladding boundary inside the optical fibre, the
light should be incident at a certain angle called
acceptance angle at the end of the optical fibre
while entering into it.

It depends on the refractive indices of the core n1,

cladding n2 and the outer medium n3. Assume
that the light is incident at an angle called
acceptance angle ia at the outer medium-core
boundary at A
6.Derive the equation for lateral displacement
of light passing through a glass slab.

The lateral displacement depends upon (i) the

thickness of the slab, (ii) the angle of incidence
and (iii) the refractive index of the slab which
decides the angle of refraction.
Thicker the slab, larger will be the lateral
When a ray of light enters a slab it travels from displacement. Greater the angle of incidence,
rarer medium (air) to denser medium (glass). larger will be the lateral displacement. Higher the
This results in deviation of the ray towards the refractive index, larger will be the lateral
normal. When the light ray leaves the slab it displacement
travels from denser medium (glass) to rarer
medium (air) resulting in deviation of the ray away 7.Derive equation for refraction at single
from the normal. spherical surface.
After the two refractions, the light ray emerges in
the same direction as that of the incident ray on
the glass slab with a lateral displacement (or) shift
L. i.e.
There is no change in the direction of the ray but,
the path of the incident ray and refracted ray are
parallel to each other with a shift L,
Consider a glass slab of thickness t and refractive
index n kept in air medium. If the path of the light
is ABCD, the refractions occur at two points B and Let us consider two transparent media with
refractive indices n1 and n2 which are separated
C in the glass slab. by a spherical surface.
The angles of incidence i and refraction r are Let C be the centre of curvature of the spherical
measured with respect to the normal N1 and N2 at surface.
the two points B and C respectively. Let a point object O be in the medium n1.
The line OC is the principal axis that cuts the
The lateral displacement L is the perpendicular spherical surface at the pole P. As the rays
distance CE drawn between the paths of the considered are paraxial rays, the perpendicular
deviated light and the undeviated light at point C. dropped from the point of incidence to the
principal axis is very close to the pole (or) passes
In the right angle triangle ΔBCE through the pole itself.
 Light from O falls on the refracting surface at 8. Obtain Lens maker formula and mention its
N. The normal drawn to the refracting surface at Significance
the point of incidence passes through the centre A thin lens of refractive index 𝑛2 is placed in a
of curvature C. As n2>n1, light in the denser medium of refractive index 𝑛1
Let 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 be radii of curvature of two spherical
medium deviates towards the normal and meets
surfaces ① and ② respectively
the principal axis at I where the image is formed. Let P be pole of the lens and O be the Point
Snell’s law in product form for the refraction at the object.
point N can be written as Here 𝐼1 be the image to be formed due the
refraction at the surface ① and 𝐼 be the final
image obtained due the refraction at the surface
②

Here rarer medium is air and hence n1 = 1 and

let the refractive index of second medium be n2
= n . Therefore
which relates the object distance u and image
distance v with the focal length f of the lens. This
equation holds good for any type of lens

9.Derive the equation for effective focal

length for lenses in contact
Let us consider two lenses ① and ② of focal
lengths 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 placed co-axially in contact
with each other. 10.Derive the equation for angle of deviation
Let the object is placed at ‘O’ beyond the produced by af prism and thus obtain the
principal focus of ① on the principal axis. It equation for refractive index of material of
forms an image at 𝐼1 the prism.
This image 𝐼1 acts as an object for lens ② and
hence the final image is formed at ‘I’
Writing the lens equation for lens ①
Angle of deviation (d):
Let ‘ABC’ be the section of triangular prism.
Here face ‘BC’ is grounded and it is called base
of the prism.
The other two faces ‘AB’ and ‘AC’ are polished
which are called refracting faces.
The angle between two refraction faces is called
angle of the prism ‘A’
Here, ‘PQ’ be incident ray, ‘QR’ be refracted ray
and ‘RS’be emergent ray.
The angle between incident ray and emergent
ray is called angle of deviation (d)
Let QN and RN be the normal drawn at the
points Q and R
The incident and emergent ray meet at a point M Refractive index of the material of the prism
(n) :

11. What is dispersion? Obtain the equation

for dispersive power of a medium.\
Dispersion :
Splitting of white light into its constituent colours
is called dispersion.
The coloured band obtained due to dispersion is
called spectrum.
Dispersive power :
Angle of minimum deviation (D) :
A graph is plotted between the angle of
incidence along x-axis and angle of deviation
along y-axis.
From the graph, as angle of incidence increases,
the angle of deviation decreases, reaches a
minimum value and then continues to increase.
The minimum value of angled of deviation
is called angle of minimum deviation (D).
At minimum deviation,
Dispersive power (ω) is the ability of the material
of the prism to cause dispersion.
It is defined as the ratio of the angular dispersion
for the extreme colours to the deviation for any
mean colour.
Let A be the angle of prism and D be the angle of
minimum deviation, then the refractive index of
the material of the prism is

CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
1. Why are dish antennas curved?
Dish antenna is curved so as it can receive
parallel signal rays coming from same direction.
These parallel signal rays reflect from parabolic
dish and gathered at its focus point where the
antenna receiver is placed.This increases
directivity of antenna and the strength of signal
received is maximum. The parabolic dish antenna
was invented by Henrich Hertz.

2. What type of lens is formed by a bubble

inside water?
Air bubble has spherical shape and is surrounded
by medium (water) of higher refractive index.
When light passes from water to air it get
diverged. So air bubble in water
behaves as a diverging lens (i.e.) concave lens

3. Is it possible for two lenses to produce zero

power?
The power of the combination of two lenses is
given by the sum of the individual
powers of the lenses.
If one lens is converging (convex) lens with focal 5. Why is yellow light preferred during fog?
length ‘f’ , so that its power is Yellow light is longer wavelength than green, blue
P1 = +P and the other lens is diverging (concave) or violet component of white light. As scattered
lens with same focal length intensity is inversely proportional to fourth power
but with a negative sign ,so that its power is P2 =
−P of the wavelength so yellow colour is
So the total power of this combination of these least scattered and produces sufficient
two lenses will be zero illumination.
Ptotal = P1 + P2 = P +(−P) = 0 Moreover the sensitivity of human eye is more for
yellow light which improves the visibility.
4. A biconvex lens has focal length f and
intensity of light I passing through it. What will
be the focal length and intensity for portions
of lenses obtained by cutting it vertically and
horizontally as shown in figure?

7.WAVE OPTICS
Short answer questions( 2 Marks ) Hence the path difference 𝛿 corresponds to a
1.What is Dual nature of light ? phase difference 𝜙 is
A light has both wave as well as particle nature
and hence it is said to have dual nature.
(1) Light propagated as a waves
(2) Light interacts with matter as a particle 8. What are called coherent sources?
Two light sources are said to be coherent, if they
2. Write a note on wave nature of light. produce waves which have same phase or
● Light is transverse electromagnetic wave. constant phase difference, same frequency or
● The wave nature of light was confirmed by wavelength, same waveform and preferably
the experiments on interference and same amplitude.
diffraction.
● Like electromagnetic wave, light can travel 9.Can two independent monochromatic
through vacuum. sources acts as coherent sources?
● The transverse nature of light was proved Two independent monochromatic sources never
by polarization. be coherent, because they may emit waves of
same frequency and same amplitude, but not with
3. Define wave front. same phase.
A wavefront is the locus of points which are in the Due to thermal vibrations, the atoms while
same state or phase of vibration. emitting light undergoes this change in phase.

4.What are the shapes of wavefront for (a) 10. Give the methods to obtain coherent light
source at infinite, (b) point source and (c) line waves.
source? Coherent waves are obtained by following three
(1) A point source located at a finite distance techniques.
gives spherical wavefront. (1) Intensity or amplitude division
(2) A point source located at infinite distance (2) Wavefront division
gives plane wavefront. (3) Source and images
(3) A line source gives cylindrical wavefront.
11.Write a note on intensity or amplitude
5. State Huygen’s principle. division.
Each point of the wavefront is the source of If light is incident on a partially silvered mirror,
secondary wavelets which spreading out in all both reflection and refraction takes place
directions with speed of the wave. simultaneously.
The envelope to all this wavelets gives the As the two light beams are obtained from the
position and shape of the new wavefront at a later same light source, the two divided light beams will
time. be coherent beams.
They will be either in-phase or at constant phase
6. Define interference. difference. (e.g.) Michelson’s interferometer
The phenomenon of superposition of two light
waves which produces increase in intensity at 12. Write a note on wavefront division.
some points and decrease in intensity at some It is the common method used for producing two
other points is called interference of light. coherent sources. We know all the points on the
wavefront are at the same phase.
7. Give the relation between phase difference If two points are chosen on the wavefront by
and path difference. using a double slit, the two points will act as
In the path of the wave, one wavelength
λcorresponds to a phase of 2 π
coherent sources. (e.g.) Young’s double slit The colours exhibited by the surface of oil films
method and soap bubbles are due to interference of
white light undergoing multiple reflections from
13. Write a note on Source and images the top and bottom surfaces of thin films.
method. The colour depends upon,
In this method, a source and its image will act as (1) thickness of the film
a set of coherent source, because the source and (2) refractive index of the film
its image will have waves in-phase or constant (3) angle of incidence of the light
phase difference. (e.g.) Lloyd’s mirror
18. What is diffraction?
14. What are called constructive and Diffraction is bending of waves around sharp
destructive interference? edges into the geometrically shadowed region.
Constructive interference : We observe diffraction only when the size of the
During superposition of two coherent waves, the obstacle is comparable to the wavelength
points where the crest of one wave meets the
crest of other (or) the trough of one wave meets 19. Distinguish between Fresnel and
the trough of the other wave, the waves are in- Fraunhofer diffraction
phase.
Hence the displacement is maximum and these
points appear as bright.
This type of interference is said to be
constructive interference.

Destructive interference :
During superposition of two coherent waves, the
points where the crest of one wave meets the
trough of other (or) vice versa, the waves are out-
of-phase. 20. What is diffraction grating?
Hence the displacement is minimum and these Grating is a plane sheet of transparent material on
which opaque rulings are made with a fine diamond
points appear as dark.
pointer.
This type of interference is said to be Thus grating has multiple slits with equal widths of
destructive interference. size comparable to the wavelength of light
The modern commercial grating contains about 6000
15. What is bandwidth of interference pattern? lines per centimeter.
The band width (β) is defined as the distance
between any two consecutive bright or dark 21. Define grating element and corresponding
fringes. points.
The combined width of a ruling (b) and a slit (a) is
called grating element (e = a + b)
16. What are the conditions for obtaining clear
Points on successive slits separated by a distance
and broad interference bands? equal to the grating element are called corresponding
(1) The screen should be as far away from the points.
source as possible.
(2) The wavelength of light used must be larger. 22. Give the reason for colourful appearance
(3) Two coherent sources must be as close as of the compact disc.
possible On the read or writable side of the disc, there are
many narrow circular tracks whose width are
17. Brilliant colours are exhibited by the comparable to the wavelength of visible light.
surface of oil films and soap bubbles. Why?
Hence the diffraction takes place after reflection 26. Define polarization.
for incident white light to give colourful The phenomenon of restricting the vibrations of
appearance. light to a particular direction perpendicular to the
Thus tracks act as reflecting grating. direction of wave propagation motion is called
polarization.
23. Distinguish between interference and
diffraction. 27. Distinguish between unpolarized and
plane polarized light

Unpolarized light Plane polarized light

A transverse wave A transverse wave

which has vibrations in which has vibrations in
all directions in a plane only one direction in a
perpendicular to the plane perpendicular to
direction of the direction of
propagation is said to propagation is said to
be unpolarized be plane polarized
light light

Symmetrical about the Asymmetrical about

ray direction the ray direction

Produced by It is obtained from

conventional light unpolarized light
sources with help of polarizers

24. What are resolution and resolving power?

Two point sources must be imaged in such a way
28.Define plane of vibration and plane of
that their images are sufficiently far apart that
polarization.
their diffraction patterns do not overlap. This is
Plane of vibration:
called resolution.
The plane containing the vibrations of the electric
The inverse of resolution is called resolving
field vector is known as plane of vibration.
power. The ability of an optical instrument to
Plane of polarization:
separate or distinguish small or closely adjacent
The plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration
objects through the image formation is said to be
and containing the ray of light is known as the
resolving power of the instrument.
plane of polarization.
25. What is Rayleigh’s criterion?
29.How can an unpolarized light can be
According to Rayleigh’s criterion, for tow point
polarized?
objects to be just resolved, the minimum distance
The unpolarized light can be polarized by
between their diffraction images must be in such
following techniques.
a way that the central maximum of one coincides
(1) Polarization by selective absorption
with the first minimum of the other and vice versa.
(2) Polarization by reflection
The Rayleigh’s criterion is said to be limit of
(3) Polarization by double refraction
resolution.
(4) Polarization by scattering
30.What is polarizer and analyser? That is, smaller the value of ′𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛′ better will be
Polariser : the resolving power of the microscope.
The polaroid which plane polarizes the To further reduce the value of ′𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛′ , the optical
unpolarized light passing through it is called a path of the light is increased by immersing the
polarizer objective of the microscope into a bath containing
Analyser : oil of refractive index ‘n’.
▪ The polaroid which is used to examine whether Such an objective is called oil immersed
a beam of light is polarized or not is called objective.
analyser. The term ‘𝒏𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜷′ is called numerical aperture
(NA)
31. Discuss how a plane polarized and
partially polarized light will be analyzed using 34.What are the merits and demerits of
analyser? reflecting telescope?
Plane polarized light : Merits :
▪ If the intensity of light varies from maximum to Only one surface is to be polished and
zero for every rotation of 900 of the analyser, the maintained.
light is said to be plane polarized Support can be given from the entire back of the
Partially polarized light : mirror rather than only at the rim for lens.
▪ If the intensity of light varies from maximum to Mirror weigh much less compared to lens.
minimum for every rotation of 900 of the analyser, Demerits :
the light is said to be partially polarized. The objective mirror would focus the light inside
the telescope tube. One must have an eye piece
32.Distinguish between near point focusing inside obstruction some light.
and normal focusing.
35. What is the use of an erecting lens in a
terrestrial telescope?
A terrestrial telescope is used to see object at
long distance on the surface of earth. Hence
image should be erect.
So an additional erecting lens is used to make
the final image enlarged and erect

36.What is the use of collimator in

spectrometer?
The collimator is an arrangement to produce a
parallel beam of light.

37. What are the uses of spectrometer?

33.Why is oil immersed objective preferred in Spectrometer is an optical instrument used to,
a microscope? (1) study the spectra of different sources of light
The ability of microscope depends not only in (2) measure the refractive indices of materials
magnifying the object but also in resolving two
points on the object separated by a small distance 38. What is myopia? What is its remedy?
A person suffering from myopia or
nearsightedness cannot see distant objects
. clearly.
It occurs when the eye lens has too short focal
length due to thickening of the lens or larger
diameter of the eyeball than usual.
Using concave lens this defect can be rectified. The amount of bending produced at an
obstacle depends upon the wavelength of the
39. What is hypermetropia? What is its incident wave. Since the sound waves have a
remedy? greater wavelength, the diffraction effects are
A person suffering from hypermetropia or pronounced. As the wavelength of light is very
farsightedness cannot see objects close to the small, compared to that of sound wave and even
eye. tiny obstacles have large size, compared to the
It occurs when the eye lens has too long focal wavelength of light waves, diffraction effects of
length due to thinning of eye lens or shortening of light are very small
the eyeball than normal.
Using convex lens this defect can be rectified. 45.Define double refraction.
When a ray of unpolarized light is incident on a
40. What is presbyopia? calcite crystal, two refracted rays are produced.
The least distance for clear vision for aged Hence two images of a single object are formed.
people is appreciably more than 25 cm and the This phenomenon is called double refraction.
person has to keep the object inconveniently The obtained images are called as,
away from the eye. Ordinary image
Thus reading or viewing smaller things held in Extra ordinary image
the hands is difficult for them. Double refraction is also called bi refringence.
This kind of farsightedness arising due to aging
is called presbyopia. 46.Define uniaxial crystal and biaxial crystal.
Crystals like calcite, quartz, tourmaline and ice
41. What is astigmatism? having only one optic axis are called uniaxial
Astigmatism is the defect arising due to different crystals.
curvatures along different planes in the eye lens. Crystals like mica, topaz, selenite and aragonite
Astigmatic person cannot see all the directions having two optic axes are called biaxial crystals.
equally well.
Lenses with different curvatures in different 47.Distinguish between ordinary ray and extra
planes called cylindrical lens is used to rectify ordinary ray.
astigmatism defect.
Ordinary ray Extraordinary ray
42. What are called Airy’s discs?
When a circular aperture like a lens or the iris of They obey the laws of They do not obey the
eye forms an image of a point object, the image refraction laws of refraction
formed will not be a point, but a diffraction pattern
of concentric circles that becomes fainter while Inside the crystal, they Inside the crystal, they
moving away from the centre. travel with same travel with velocities
These are known as Airy’s discs velocity in all along different
directions directions
43. Defined angle of polarization.
The angle of incidence at which the reflected
beam is plane polarized is called polarizing A point source inside A point source inside
angle or Brewste’s angle (𝒊𝑷) the crystal produces the crystal produces
The polarizing angle for glass is ; spherical wavefront for elliptical wavefront for
𝒊𝑷 = 𝟓𝟕. 𝟓° ordinary ray extra ordinary ray

44. Diffraction effects of light waves are very

small when compared to sound waves
Explain?
48.Define Optic axis. 3. Write a note on electromagnetic wave
Inside the double refracting crystal, there is a theory
particular direction in which both the ordinary and Maxwell proposed electromagnetic theory of light.
extraordinary rays travel with same velocity. This According to electromagnetic wave theory, light is
direction is called optic axis. an electromagnetic wave which is transverse in
Along optic axis, the refractive index is same for nature carrying electromagnetic energy.
both rays. No medium is necessary for the propagation of
electromagnetic waves.
3 MARKS QUESTIONS All the phenomenon of light could be successfully
1. What are the salient features of corpuscular explained by electromagnetic
theory of light? theory. But the interaction of light with matter like
Sir Isaac Newton proposed corpuscular theory of photoelectric effect,
light. Compton effect could not be explained by this
According this theory, light is emitted as tiny, theory.
massless and perfectly elastic particles called
corpuscles. 4. Write a short note on quantum theory of
As the corpuscles are very small, the source of light.
light does not suffer appreciable loss of mass By extending Max Plank quantum ideas, Albert
even if it emits light for a long time. Einstein proposed quantum theory of light.
They travel with high speed and they are According to quantum theory, light is not
unaffected by the force of gravity. So their path is continuous but it propagated in the form of
a straight line. discrete packets of energy called photon.
The energy of light is the kinetic energy of these Each photon has energy ‘E’ of 𝑬=𝒉 𝝂
corpuscles. Here 𝒉→Plank’s constant( 𝒉=𝟔.𝟔𝟐𝟓𝑿 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 𝑱𝒔)
When they impinge on the retina of the eye, the
vision is produced. The different size of the 5. Discuss the special cases on first minimum
corpuscles is the reason for different colours of in Fraunhofer diffraction.
light. The equation for first minimum in single slit
The reflection of light is due to repulsion of the diffraction is 𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽=𝝀
corpuscles by the medium and refraction of light Case (1) :If 𝒂<𝝀 then 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽>𝟏 which is not
is due to the attraction of the corpuscles by the possible. Hence diffraction does not takes place.
medium. Case (2) : If 𝒂=𝝀 then 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽=𝟏 (or) 𝜽=𝟗𝟎° . (i.e.)
This theory could not explain, why speed of light The first minimum is at 𝟗𝟎°
is lesser in denser medium than rarer medium Case (3) : If 𝒂>𝝀 (i.e.) 𝒂=𝟐 𝝀 then, 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽=𝟏𝟐 or
and also interference, diffraction and polarization 𝜽=𝟑𝟎° The diffraction is observed with a
. measurable spread. Hence, it is concluded that
2. Write a note on wave theory of light. for observing the diffraction pattern, essentially
Christian Huygens proposed the wave theory of the width of the slit a must be just few times
light. greater than the wavelength of light λ
According to wave theory, light is a disturbance Case(4) : If 𝒂>>𝝀 then 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽<<𝟏 . The first
from a source that travels as longitudinal minimum falls within the width space of the slit
mechanical wave through the ether medium that
itself. Hence, the phenomenon of diffraction is not
was presumed to pervade in all space.
This theory could successfully explain reflection, observed at all.
refraction, interference, and diffraction. But
6.What is Fresnel’s distance? Obtain an
polarization could not explain by this theory as it
expression for it.
is the property of only transverse waves.
Fresnel’s distance is the distance upto which ray
Later the existence of ether in all space was
optics is obeyed and beyond which ray
proved to be wrong.
optics is not obeyed but wave optics becomes 7.State and prove Malus’ law.
significant. Malus’s law :
When a beam of plane polarized light of intensity
𝐼𝑜 is incident on an analyser, the light transmitted
of intensity I from the analyser varies directly as
the square of the cosine of the angle between
the transmission axis of polarizer and analyser.
This is known as Malus’ law.

𝑰 = 𝑰𝒐 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝜽

Proof :
Let the angle between plane of polarizer and
analyser = θ
Intensity of electric vector transmitted by the
7.Discuss polarization by selective polarizer = 𝐼𝑜
absorption. Amplitude of this electric vector = 𝑎
Selective absorption is the property of a material
which transmits waves whose electric field vibrate
in a plane parallel to a certain direction of
orientation and absorbs all other waves.
The polroids or polarizer using this property of
selective absorption to produce intense plane
polarized light.
Selective absorption is also called as dichroism.
Edwin Land developed polarizer in the form of
thin sheets.
Tourmaline is a natural polarizing material. But The amplitude of the incident light was resolved
polaroids are made artificially. in to two components,
A number of needle shaped crystals of quinine (1) 𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 - parallel component to the axis of
iodosulphate with their axes parallel to one transmission of the analyser
another packed in between two transparent (2) 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 - perpendicular component to the axis
plastic sheets serve as a good polaroid. of transmission of the analyser
Recently new type of polaroids are prepared in Here only the parallel component (𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽) will
which thin film of polyvinyl alcohol (colour less be transmitted by the analyser.
crystals) is used. Hence ht intensity of the transmitted light is,
𝐼 ∝ (𝑎 cos )2
𝐼 = (𝑎 cos )2
𝐼 = 𝑘 𝑎2 cos2 𝜃
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒐 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝜽
Case (i) When θ = 0o, cos 0o= 1, 𝑰 = 𝑰𝒐 It is because, the parallel vibrations to the
When the transmission axis of polariser is parallel surface are reflected and the other vibrations are
to that of the analyser, the intensity of light refracted.
transmitted from the analyser is equal to the
incident light that falls on it from the polariser. Few parallel vibrations may also get refracted
resulting in partially polarised refracted light.
Case (ii) When θ = 90o, cos 90o = 0, I = 0
When the transmission axes of polariser and The angle of incidence for which the reflected
analyser are perpendicular to each other, the light is found to be plane polarised is called
intensity of light transmitted from the analyser is polarising angle ip
zero

8. List the uses of polaroids.

1. Polaroids are used in goggles and cameras
to avoid glare of light.
2. Polaroids are used to take 3D pictures i.e.,
holography.
3. Polaroids are used to improve contrast in
old oil paintings.
4. Polaroids are used in optical stress
analysis.
5. Polaroids are used as window glasses to 10. State and prove Brewster’s law
control the intensity of incoming light. Brewster’ s law :
6. Polarised laser beam acts as needle to The angle of incidence at which a beam of
read/write in compact discs (CDs). unpolarized light falling on a transparent surface
7. Polarised light is used in liquid crystal display is reflected as a beam of plane polarized light is
(LCD) called polarizing angle or Brewster’s angle (𝑖𝑃)

9.Explain polarization by reflection. The British Physicist, Sir. David Brewster found
The simplest method of producing plane that at the polarising angle, the reflected and the
polarized light is by reflection. refracted rays are perpendicular to each other.

Consider a beam of unpolarised light incident on Suppose ip is the polarising angle and rp is the
a polished glass surface XY. This light undergoes angle of refraction
reflection as well as refraction.

As it is unpolarized, it consists of vibrations which

are parallel to the reflecting surface (shown as
dots) and also not parallel to it (shown as arrows).

For a particular angle of incidence, the reflected

light is found to be plane polarized and the
refracted light is found to be partially polarized.
 12.Explain polarization by double refraction

Erasmus Bartholinus, a Danish Physicist

discovered that when a ray of unpolarised light
is incident on a calcite crystal, two refracted
rays are produced. Hence, two images of an
object are formed.
This phenomenon is called double refraction
(or) birefringence
11.Write a note on pile of plates.
This phenomenon is also exhibited by crystals
It work on the principle of polarization by like quartz, mica etc.
reflection. When a dot of ink on a sheet of paper is viewed
It consists of a number of glass plates placed one through a calcite crystal, two images will be seen.
over the other in a tube. On rotating the crystal, one image remains
These plates are inclined at an angle (90° − iP) to stationary and the other rotates around it.
the axis of the tube. The stationary image O is produced by ordinary
A beam of unpolarized light is allowed to fall on rays which obey the laws of refraction. The
the pile of plates along the axis of the tube. So the rotating image E is produced by extraordinary
angle of incidence of light will be iP, which is the rays which do not obey the laws of refraction
polarizing angle for glass. The extraordinary ray is found to be plane
The vibrations perpendicular to the plane of polarised. Inside a double refracting crystal the
incidence are reflected at each surface and those ordinary ray travels with same velocity in all
parallel to it are transmitted. directions and the extra ordinary ray travels with
The larger the number of surfaces, the greater the different velocities in all directions.
intensity of the reflected plane polarized light. A point source inside the crystal produces
The pile of plates is used as a polrizer and also spherical wavefront for ordinary ray and elliptical
as an analyser. wavefront for extraordinary ray.
Inside the crystal, there is a particular direction in
which both the rays travel with same velocity. This
direction is called known as optic axis.
Along the optic axis, the refractive index is same
for both the rays and there is no double refraction
along this axis.
 14.What are the uses and drawbacks of Nicol
prism?
Uses :
It produces plane polarized light and funcitons
as a polarizer.
It can also used as an analyser.
Drawbacks :
It cost is very high due to scarcity of large and
flawless calcite crystal.
Due to extraordinary ray passing obliquely
through it, the emergent ray is always displaced
a little to one side.
The effective field of view is quite limited.
Light emerging out of it is not uniformly plane
polarized.

15.Explain polarization by scattering.

The light from a clear blue portion of the sky
13.Discuss about Nicol prism. shows a rise and fall of intensity when viewed
Nicol prism is made by calcite crystal which is through a polaroid which is rotated.
double refracting crystal. This is because of sunlight, which has changed
ABCD is the principal section of a calcite crystal its direction on encountering the molecules of the
with its length is three times of its breadth. earth’s atmosphere.
The face angles are 72 and 108 The electric field of light interacts with the
It is cut in to two halves along the diagonal AB and electrons present in the air molecules.
joined together by a layer of canada balsam, a Under the influence of the electric field of the
transparent cement. incident wave the electrons in the molecules
Let an unpolarized light from monochromatic acquire components of motion in both these
source is incident on the face AC of the Nicol directions.
prism. We have shown an observer looking at 90 to the
Here double refraction takes place, and the ray direction of the sun.
split in to ordinary ray and extraordinary ray. Clearly, charges accelerating parallel do not
For this calcite crystal. radiate energy towards this observer since their
refractive index for the ordinary ray = 1.658 acceleration has no transverse component.
refractive index for the extraordinary ray = 1.486 The radiation scattered by the molecule is
The refractive index of canada balsam = 1.523 therefore polarized perpendicular to the plane of
Here canada balsam does not polarize light the paper.
The ordinary ray is totally internally reflected at This explains the reason for polarization of
the layer of canada balsam. sunlight by scattering.
The extraordinary ray alone is transmitted
through the crystal which is plane polarized.
15.Explain phase difference and path 16.Explain Young’s double slit method
difference. Thomas Young used an opaque screen with two
small openings called double slit S1 and S2 kept
Phase is the angular position of vibration when a equidistance from a source ‘S’
wave is progresses, there is a relation between The width of each slit is about 0.03 mm and they
the phase of the vibration and the path travelled are separated by a distance of about 0.3 mm.
by the wave. As S1 and S2 are equidistant from ‘S’, the light
. In the path of the wave, one wavelength λ waves from ‘S’ reach S1 and S2 in phase.
corresponds to a phase of 2π. So S1 and S2 act as coherent sources which are
the
A path difference δ corresponds to a phase requirement of obtaining interference pattern.
difference ϕ as given by the equation The wave fronts from S1 and S2 get superposed
on the other side of the double slit.
When screen is placed at a distance of about 1 m
from double slit, equally spaced alternate bright
and dark fringes are appears on the screen.
These are called interference fringes.
At the point ‘O’ on the screen, the waves from S 1
and S2 travels equal distances and arrive in-
phase.
Due to constructive interference, bright fringe is
formed at point ‘O’. This is called central bright
For constructive interference, the phase
fringe.
difference should be, ϕ = 0, 2π, 4π . . . Hence,
the path difference must be, δ = 0, λ, 2λ . . . In When one of the slit is covered, then the fringes
general, the integral multiples of λ. disappear and there is uniform illumination
observed on the screen. This clearly shows that
the fringes are due to interference .

For destructive interference, the phase difference

should be, ϕ = π, 3π, 5π . . . Hence, the path
difference must be\

. In general, the half integral multiples of λ.

5 MARK LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS 2. Prove laws of refraction using Huygen’
1.Prove laws of reflection using Huygens principle.
principle. Let XY be the refracting surface
The incident wavefront AB is in rarer medium (1)
Let XY be the Reflecting surface and AB be
The incident rays from L and M are
theIncident plane wavefront.
perpendicular to this incident wavefront.
The incident rays from L and M are perpendicular
Initially the point ‘A’ reaches refracting surface.
to this incident wavefront.
Then the successive points between AB
Initially the point ‘A’ reaches reflecting surface.
reaches the surface.
Then the successive points between AB reaches
Finally, by the time B reaches B1 , the point A
the surface.
would have reached A 1in the
Finally, by the time B reaches B1, the point A
other medium.
would have reached A1
This is applicable to all the points on the
This is applicable to all the points on the wavefront
wavefront AB. Thus the refracted wavefront
AB. Thus the reflected wavefront
A1B1 emanates as a plane wavefront.
A1B1 emanates as a plane wavefront
The line from L1 and M1 perpendiculars to
The line from L1 and M1 perpendiculars to A
A1B1 represent refracted rays.
1B1represent reflected rays.
Let v1 be the speed of light in medium (1) and v2
.As the reflection happens in the same medium,
be the speed of light in medium (2).
the speed of light is same before
Here v1 > v2
and after reflection. Hence, AA1 = BB1
The time taken for the ray to travel from B to B1
is same as the time taken for the ray to travel
from A reaches A1
So AA1 = v2t and BB1 = v1t
Here, c is speed of light in vacuum. The ratio c/v
is a constant, called refractive index of the
medium. The refractive index of medium (1) is,
c/v1 = n1 and that of medium (2) is, c/v2 = n2.
In ratio form

In product form,

n1 sin i = n2 sin r

3.Obtain the equation for resultant intensity

due to interference of light

The phenomenon of superposition of two light

waves which produces increase in intensity at
some points and decrease in intensity at
some other points is called interference of
light.
4.Obtain the equation for Path difference and
band width in Young’s double slit experiment.

Let distance between S1 and S2 is d

Distance of the screen from double slit D
Wavelength of coherent light wave = λ
Hence path difference between the light waves
from S1and S2 to the point ‘P’ is
 Interference due to transmitted light :
If we approximate the incidence to be nearly
normal (i = 0), then the points ‘B’ and ‘D’ are
very close to each other.
The extra distance travelled by the wave
transmitted at ‘D’ is (BC+CD).
Hence the path difference between the waves
transmitted from ‘B’ and ‘D’ is

Interference due to reflected light :

When light travelling in a rarer medium and
getting reflected by a denser medium, undergoes
5.Obtain the equations for constructive and a phase change of π. Hence an additional path
destructive interference for transmitted and difference of λ/2 is introduced.
reflected waves in thin films. Again for normal incidence (i = 0), the points ‘A’
and ‘C’ are very close to each other.
The extra distance travelled by the wave coming
out from ‘C’ is (AB + BC)
Hence the path difference between the waves
reflected at ‘A’ and ‘C’ is

Since additional path difference λ/2 is introduced

Consider a thin film of transparent material of due to reflection at A, the total path difference,
refractive index ‘μ’ and thickness ‘d’
A parallel beam of light is incident on the film at
an angle ‘i’
At upper surface, the light wave is divided in to
two parts. One part is reflected and other part is
refracted.
The refracted part which enters in to the film again
gets divided at the lower surface in two parts. One
is transmitted and the other is reflected back into
the film.
Here interference is produced by both the
reflected and transmitted light.
 (2) Condition for P to be second minimum :
Let us divide the slit AB in to four equal parts of
width a/4
Here various corresponding points on the slit
which are separated by the same width (a/4)
The path difference of light waves from different
corresponding points meeting at ‘P’

6.Discuss diffraction at single slit and obtain

the condition for nth minimum. The condition for ‘P’ to be second minimum,

(3) Condition for P to be nth minimum :

Let us divide the slit AB in to 2n equal parts of
width a/2n
The condition for ‘P’ to be nth minimum,

Let a parallel beam of light fall normally on a

single slit AB. The centre of the slit is C
Condition for maxima :
A straight line through ‘C’ perpendicular to the
To explain maximum intensity, divide the slit in
plane of slit meets the centre of the screen at ‘O’
to odd number of parts.
Let ‘y’ be the distance of point ‘P’ from ‘O’
For first maximum, the slit is divided in to three
The lines joining ‘P’ to the different points on the
equal parts each of width ( a/3). Hence
slit can be treated as parallel lines, making and
angle θ with the normal ‘CO’
All the parallel waves from different pos on the
slits get interfere at ‘P’ to give resultant intensity. For second maximum, the slit is divided in to five
Condition for minima : equal parts each of width ( a/5). Hence
To explain minimum intensity, divide the slit in to
even number of parts.
(1) Condition for P to be first minimum :
Let us divide the slit AB into two half’s each of In general, for nth first maximum, the slit is
width a/2 divided in to (2n+1) equal parts each of width,
The various points on the slit which are separated (a/2n+1). Hence
by the same width (a/2) called corresponding
points
The path difference of light waves from different
corresponding points meeting at ‘P’
7.Discuss the experiment to determine the
wavelength of monochromatic light using
The condition for ‘P’ to be first minimum, diffraction grating.
The wavelength of a spectral line can be very
accurately determined with help of a diffraction
grating and a spectrometer.
 wavelength ‘λ’ be incident normally on the
grating.
As the slit size is comparable to that of
wavelength, the incident light diffracts at the
grating.
Using convex lens, the diffracted waves are
Let all the preliminary adjustments are made on focused on the screen.
the spectrometer. Consider a point ‘P’ on the screen, at an angle
The slit of the spectrometer is illuminated by a ‘θ’ with the normal drawn from the centre of the
monochromatic light, whose wavelength to be grating to the screen.
determined. The path difference (δ) between the diffracted
The telescope is brought in line with collimator to waves from one pair of corresponding points is
view the direct image of the slit.
The given transmission grating is then mounted
on the prism table with its plane perpendicular to
the incident beam of light coming from collimator.
The telescope is turn to one side until the first
order diffraction image of the slit coincides with
the vertical cross wire of the eye piece.
The reading of the position of the telescope is
noted.
Similarly the first order diffraction image on the
other side is made to coincide with vertical cross
wire and corresponding reading is noted.
The difference between two positions gives 2θ
Half of its value gives θ, the diffraction angle for
first order maximum.
The wavelength of light is calculated from,

8.Discuss the diffraction at a grating and

obtain the condition for mth maximum.

Let ‘AB’ represent the plane transmission

grating.
It has number of slits of equal width (a) and
equal number of opaque rulings of equal width
(b)
Let a plane wavefront of monochromatic light of
9. Discuss the experiment to determine the For a healthy eye, the distance of the near point
wavelength of different colours using is 25 cm, which is denoted as D and the far point
diffraction grating. should be at infinity.
Near point focusing

The eye is least strained when image is formed at

near point, i.e. 25 cm. The near point is also called
White light is a composite light which contains all as least distance of distinct vision. The object
wavlengths from violet to red in visible region. distance u should be less than f. The image
When white light is used, the diffraction pattern distance is the near point D. The magnification m
consists of a white central maximum and on both of this lens is given by the
sides continuous coloured diffraction patterns are
formed.
The central maximum is white as all the colours -------(1)
meet here constructively with no phase
difference. Substituting, v = –D and u = –u, as both the
It produces a spectrum of diffraction pattern from distances are measured to the left of the lens.
violet to red on either side of central maximum. Hence,
By measuring the angle (𝜽) at which these
colours appear for various order (m) of diffraction,
the wavelength of different colours could be
calculated using the formula,

------------(2)
where, 𝑵 number of rulings drawn per unit width
of grating
Normal focusing
10. Discuss about simple microscope and The eye is most relaxed when the image is
obtain the equations for magnification for formed at infinity. The focusing is called normal
near point focusing and normal focusing. focusing when the image is formed at infinity.
A simple microscope is a single magnifying To find the magnification m, if we take the ratio
(convex) lens of small focal length which must of the height of image to the height of object
produce an erect, magnified and virtual image of m=h’/h, we will not get a meaningful equation, as
the object. the image is of infinite size and it is also formed
Hence, the object must be placed within the focal at infinity. Hence, we can practically use the
length f (between the points F and P) on one side angular magnification.
of the lens and viewed through the other side of The angular magnification is defined as the
it. The nearest point where an eye can clearly see ratio of angle θi subtended by the image with
is called the near point and the farthest point up aided eye to the angle θ0 subtended by the
to which an eye can clearly see is called the far object with unaided eye.
point.
 The eyepiece serves as a simple microscope that
produces finally an enlarged and virtual image.
The first inverted image formed by the objective
is to be adjusted within the focus of the eyepiece
so that the final image is formed nearly at infinity
(or) at the near point. The final image is inverted
with respect to the object.

Magnification in compound microscope

The lateral magnification produced by the

objective is given by the equation

For unaided eye

For aided eye

From the Figure

This is the magnification for normal focusing.

The magnification for normal focusing is one less
than that of near point focusing. But, the viewing
is more comfortable in normal focusing than near
point focusing. For large values of D/f, the Here, the distance L is measured between the
difference between the two magnifications is focal point of the eyepiece to the focal point of the
negligibly small objective. This is called the tube length of the
microscope as fo and fe are comparatively
11. Explain about compound microscope and
obtain the equation for magnification. smaller than L.
The lens near the object is called as objective. It If the final image is formed at the near point, the
forms a real, inverted and magnified image of the magnification me of the eyepiece is,
object. This serves as the object for the lens close
to the eye called as eyepiece.
The total magnification m for near point focusing
is,
If the final image is formed at infinity (normal
focusing), the magnification me of the eyepiece
is,

The total magnification m for normal focusing is,

On the object side,

12. Obtain the equation for resolving power of

microscope.
A microscope is used to see the details of the
object under observation. Good microscope
should not only magnify the object but also
To further reduce the value of dmin the optical
resolve the two points on an object which are
path of the light is increased by immersing the
separated by the smallest distance dmin. objective of the microscope into a bath containing
Actually, dmin is the resolution and its reciprocal oil of refractive index n.
is the resolving power.
The spatial resolution (radius of central
maximum) is already derived in equation
Such an objective is called oil immersed
objective. The term n sin β is called numerical
aperture NA.

The resolving power RM of microscope is,

In microscope, the object distance is just more

than the focal length f and the image is formed
13. Discuss about astronomical telescope.
at v as shown in the Figure. Hence,
An astronomical telescope is used to get the
magnification of distant astronomical objects like
stars, planets, moon etc. The image formed by
Here, in the place of focal length f we have the astronomical telescope will be inverted.
image distance v. If the difference between the It has an objective of long focal length and a
two points on the object to be resolved is dmin, much larger aperture than the eyepiece .
then the magnification m is Light from a distant object enters the objective
and a real image is formed in the tube at its focal
point. The eyepiece magnifies this image
producing a final inverted image
 It can be rotated and its position can be read from
two verniers V1 and V2 . The prism table can be
fixed at any desired height
(3) Telescope : The telescope is an astronomical
type. It consists of an eyepiece provided with
cross wires at one end and an objective at its
other end. The distance between the objective
and the eyepiece can be adjusted so that the
Magnification in astronomical telescope telescope forms a clear image at the cross wires.
The telescope is attached to a circular scale and
The magnification m is the ratio of the angle β both can be rotated together. The telescope and
subtended by the image to the angle α subtended prism table are provided with
by the object with the principal axis. radial screws for fixing them at a desired position
and tangential screws for fine adjustments.
Preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer
(1) Adjustment of the eyepiece: The telescope is
From the diagram,
turned towards an illuminated surface and the
eyepiece is moved to and fro until the cross wires
are clearly seen.
(2) Adjustment of the telescope: The telescope is
adjusted to receive parallel rays by focusing it to
a distant object to get a clear image on the cross
wire.
(3) Adjustment of the collimator : The telescope
The length of the telescope is approximately
is brought in line with the collimator. The distance
between the illuminated slit and the lens of the
collimator is adjusted until a clear image of the slit
is seen at the cross wire.
14. Mention different parts of spectrometer (4) Levelling of the prism table : The prism table
and explain the preliminary adjustments. is brought to the horizontal level by adjusting the
The spectrometer is an optical instrument used levelling screws and it is ensured by using sprit
to analyze the spectra of different sources of light, level
to measure the wavelength of different colours
and to measure the refractive indices of materials 15. Explain the experimental determination of
of prisms. It basically consists of three parts material of the prism using spectrometer.
(1) Collimator: The collimator is used for Determination of refractive index :
producing parallel beam of light. It has a convex The preliminary adjustments of the telescope,
lens and a vertical slit of adjustable width which collimator and the prism table of the spectrometer
faces the source. The position of slit can be are made.
adjusted so that it is kept at the focus of the lens. The refractive index (n) of the prism is determined
The collimator is rigidly fixed to the base by knowing the angle of the prism (A) and the
.(2) Prism table: The prism table is used for angle of minimum deviation (D)
mounting the prism, grating etc. It consists of two (1) Angle of the prism (A)
circular discs provided with three levelling The prism is placed on the prism table with its
screws. refracting edge facing the collimator.
The slit is illuminated by a sodium light.
The parallel rays coming from the collimator fall
on the two faces AB and AC.
 The vertical cross wire of telescope is made to
coincide with the image of the slit, where it turns
back. This gives the minimum deviation position.
The vernier readings corresponding to this
position is noted. Now the prism is removed and
the telescope is turned to receive the direct ray
and the vernier readings are again noted.
The difference between the two readings gives
the angle of minimum deviation (D
Refractive index (n) of the prism :
The telescope is rotated to the position 𝑇1 until The refractive index of the material of the prism
the image of the slit formed by the reflection at the is calculated using the formula
face AB coincides with the vertical cross wire of
the telescope.
The corresponding vernier readings are noted.
The telescope is then rotated to the position 𝑇2
where the image of the slit formed by the
reflection at the face AC coincides with the
vertical cross wire of the telescope. The
corresponding vernier readings are again noted.
The difference between these two readings gives
the angle rotated by the telescope, which is twice
the angle of the prism.
Half of this value gives the angle of the prism (A)
(2) Angle of minimum deviation (D) :

The prism is placed on the prism table, so that the

light from the collimator falls on a refracting face
and the refracted image is observed through the
telescope.
The prism table is now rotated, so that the angle
of deviation decreases.
A stage comes when the image stops for a
moment and if we rotate the prism table further in
the same direction, the image is seen to recede
and the angle of deviation increases.

8.DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (2 MARKS) The materials which eject photoelectrons upon
1. Why do metals have a large number of free irradiation of electromagnetic wave of suitable
electrons? wavelength are called photosensitive materials.
In metals, the electrons in the outer most shells (e.g.) Metals like cadmium, zinc, magnesium etc
are loosely bound to the nucleus. and Alkali metals like lithium, sodium, caesium
Even at room temperature, due to thermal
agitation the loosely bounded electrons are 8. Define stopping potential.
detached from their orbit and free to move inside The negative or retarding potential given to
the metal in a random manner. This is the reason collecting electrode which is just sufficient to stop
for large number of free electrons in the metal. the most energetic photoelectrons emitted and
make the photo current zero is called stopping
2. Define surface barrier. potential or cut - off potential.
The potential barrier which prevents free
electrons from leaving the metallic surface is 9. Define threshold frequency.
called surface barrier. For a giver surface, the emission of photo
It is created by the positive nuclei of the metal electrons takes place only if the frequency of
incident light is greater than a certain minimum
3. Define electron emission. frequency called threshold frequency
The liberation of electrons from any surface of a
substance is called electron emission. 10. Define intensity of light according to the
The material with small work function is more quantum concept.
effective in electron emission. According to quantum concept, the intensity of
light of given wavelength is defined as the number
4. Define work function of a metal. Give its of energy quanta or photons incident per unit area
unit. per unit time with photon having same energy.
−𝟐
The minimum energy needed for an electron to The unit is 𝑾 𝒎
escape from the metal surface is called work
function of that metal. It is denoted by 𝜙𝑂 11. What is the nature of light?
Its unit is electron volt (eV). The light possesses dual nature that of both
wave and particle.
5. Define electron volt (eV) Light behaves as a wave during its propagation
One electron volt is defined as the kinetic energy and behaves as a particle during its interaction
gained by a electron when accelerated by a with matter.
potential difference of 1 volt.
𝟏 𝒆𝑽=𝟏.𝟔𝟎𝟐 𝑿 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑱 12. What is photo electric cell? Give its type.
The device which converts light energy into
6. What is photo electric effect? electrical energy is called photo electric cell or
The ejection of electrons from a metal plate when simply photo cell.
illuminated by light or any other electromagnetic It works on the principle of photo electric cell
radiation of suitable wavelength or frequency is Photo cells are classified in to three types.
called photo electric effect. (1) Photo emissive cell
The ejected electrons are called as photo (2) Photo voltaic cell
electrons and the corresponding current is called (3) Photo conductive cell
photo electric current
13. What is De Broglie hypothesis? Here the mass of the proton is greater than the
Due to the symmetry in nature, de Broglie mass of the electron (𝒎𝑷>𝒎𝒆)
suggested that if radiation like light can act as Hence the de Broglie wavelength of electron is
particles at times, then matter particles like greater than that of proton (𝝀𝒆> 𝝀𝑷)
electrons should also act as waves at times.
According to de Broglie hypothesis, all matter 18. Write the relationship of de Broglie
particles like electrons, protons, neutrons in wavelength λ associated with a particle of
motion are associated with waves. These waves mass m in terms of its kinetic energy K.
are called de Broglie waves or matter waves. De Broglie wavelength in terms of potential ‘V’ ,

14.What is called matter waves or de Broglie

waves?
The waves assoiated with matter particles like
electrons in motion is called matter waves or de
Broglie waves. Since, q V = K (kinetic energy), we have

15. Write the expression for the de Broglie

wavelength associated with a charged particle
of charge ‘q’ and mass ‘m’, when it is
accelerated through a potential V. 19. Name an experiment which shows wave
De Broglie wavelength in terms of potential ‘V’ nature of the electron. Which phenomenon
was observed in this experiment using an
electron beam?
The wave nature of electron (i.e) de Broglie
16. Why we do not see the wave properties of hypothesis of matter waves was experimentally
a baseball? confirmed by Davisson and Germer experiment.
The de Broglie wavelength of matter is ; Diffraction is the important property of waves. So
in this experiment, diffraction of electron beam
was observed when they fall on crystalline solids.

Thus the de Broglie wavelength is inversely 20. An electron and an alpha particle have
proportional to the mass same kinetic energy. How are the de Broglie
Since the mass of base ball is too large as wavelengths associated with them related?
compared with the electron, the de Broglie De Broglie wavelength of electron beam,
wavelength of base ball is negligibly small
So we do not see the wave property of the
baseball

17. A proton and an electron have same De Broglie wavelength of alpha particle
kinetic energy. Which one has greater de
Broglie wavelength. Justify.
De Broglie wavelength of proton ;

De Broglie wavelength of electron

21. What are called X - rays? Why are they so (1) For a given accelerating voltage, the lower
called? limit for the wavelength of continuous x-ray
X - rays are invisible, electromagnetic waves of spectra is same for all targets. This minimum
very short wavelength ranging from 0.1 A to 100 wavelength is called cut-off wavelength.
A (2) The intensity of x-rays is significantly
When a fast moving electrons strike a metal increased at certain well-defined wavelengths
target of high atomic weight, X - rays are
produced. 26. What is Bremsstralung?
At the time of discovery, the origin of this highly When a fast moving electron penetrates and
penetrating rays were not known. So they were approaches a target nucleus, it get accelerates or
called as X - rays decelerates. It may results in a change of path of
the electron.
22. List the properties of X - rays. The radiation produced from such decelerating
Properties of X - rays : electron is called Bremsstrhlung or braking
They travel in straight line with the velocity of light radiation
They are not deflected both by electric and
magnetic field SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS ( 3 MARKS)
X - ray photons are highly energetic 1.How does photo electric current vary with
They pass through materials which are opaque the intensity of the incident light?
to visible light. Variation of photo current with intensity :
Keeping the frequency (𝜈) and acceleration
23. What factor does the quality and intensity potential (V) as constant, the intensity of incident
of X - rays were depends? light is varied and the corresponding photo eletric
The quality of X - rays is measured in terms of its current is measured
penetrating power which depends on the velocity A graph is drawn between intensity along X-axis
of the striking electron and the atomic number of and the photo current along Y-axis.
target material. From the graph, the photo current (i.e) the
The intensity of X - rays is depends on the number of electrons emitted per second is directly
number of electrons striking the target proportional to the intensity of incident light

24.What is X -ray spectra? Give its types.

The intensity of the X-rays when plotted against
its wavelength gives a curve called X - ray
spectrum.
X - ray spectrum consists of two parts, namely
(1) Continuous X -ray spectrum
(2) Characteristic X - ray spectrum

25.Mention the two features of x-ray spectra,

not explained by classical electromagnetic
theory.
Though classical electromagnetic theory
suggests the emission of radiations from 2. State the laws of photo electric effect.
accelerating electrons, it could not explain Laws of photo electric effect :
twofeatures exhibited by x-ray spectra. These * For a given frequency of incident light, the
features are given below. number of photoelectrons emitted is directly
proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
The saturation current is also directly proportional (i) If an oscillator vibrates with frequency v, its
to the intensity of incident light. energy can have only certain discrete values,
* Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons 𝑬𝒏=𝒏 𝒉 𝝂 [𝑛=1,2,3,….]
is independent of intensity of the incident light. where h is Planck’s constant.
* Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons (ii) The oscillators emit or absorb energy in small
from a given metal is directly proportional to the packets or quanta and the energy of each
frequency of incident light. quantum is E = h ν
*For a given surface, the emission of This implies that the energy of the oscillator is
photoelectrons takes place only if the frequency quantized and not continuous This is called
of incident light is greater than a certain minimum quantization of energy.
frequency called the threshold frequency
*There is no time lag between incidence of light 4. Explain Einstein's explanation for the
and ejection of photoelectrons particle nature (quanta ) of light
According to Einstein, the energy in light is not
3. Explain why photoelectric effect cannot be spread out over wavefronts but is concentrated in
explained on the basis of wave nature of light small packets or energy quanta. Therefore, light
According to wave theory, light of greater of frequency v from any source can be considered
intensity should impart greater kinetic energy to as a stream of quanta
the liberated electrons.
But the experiments show that maximum kinetic The energy of each light quantum
energy of the photoelectrons does not depend on
the intensity of the incident light. The linear momentum of quanta is
According to wave theory, if a sufficiently intense
beam of light is incident on the surface, electrons
will be liberated from the surface of the target,
however low the frequency of the radiation is. The individual light quantum of definite energy
But photoelectric emission is not possible below and momentum can be associated with a
a certain minimum frequency called threshold particle. The light quantum can behave as a
frequency. particle and this is called photon.
Since the energy of light is spread across the
wavefront, each electron needs considerable 5.Derive the expression of de Broglie
amount of time (a few hours) to get energy wavelength.
sufficient to overcome the work function and to The momentum of photon of frequency ′𝜈′ is,
get liberated from the surface.
But experiments show that photoelectric emission
is almost instantaneous process
The wavelength of a photon is,
4. Explain the concept of quantization of
energy.
Max Planck proposed quantum concept in 1900
in order to explain the block body radiations. According to de Broglie, this equation is
According to Planck, matter is composed of a applicable to matter particle also.
large number of oscillating particles (atoms) Let ‘m’ be the mass and ‘𝒗’ be the velocity of the
which vibrate with different frequencies. particle, then the wavelength
Each atomic oscillator which vibrates with its
characteristic frequency emits or absorbs
electromagnetic radiation of the same frequency.
This wavelength of the matter waves is known as
de Broglie wavelength.

6. Write a note on the production of X - rays.

The energy of the photon emitted is equal to

the loss of kinetic energy of the electron. Since an
electron may lose part or all of its energy to the
photon, the photons are emitted with all possible
energies (or frequencies). The continuous x-ray
spectrum is due to such radiations.
X - rays are produced in a Coolidge tube which is
a discharge tube. When an electron gives up all its energy, then the
Here a tungsten filament ‘F’ is heated by L.T, so photon is emitted with highest frequency ν0 (or
that electrons are emitted from it by thermionic
lowest wavelength λ0 ). The initial kinetic energy
emission.
These electrons are accelerated to very high of an electron is given by eV where V is the
speeds by H.T accelerating voltage. Therefore, we have
The target material like tungsten is embedded in
the face of solid copper anode.
When high speed electrons strike the target, they
are decelarated suddenly and lose their kinetic
energy.
As a result, X -ray photons are produced.
The face of target is inclined at particular angle,
so that the X - rays can leave the tube through its
side.
Since most of the kinetic energy of electrons get This relation is known as Duane - Hunt formula
converted in to heat, the target made of high
melting point and a cooling system are usually The value of λ0 depends only on the accelerating
employed. potential and is same for all targets. This is in
good agreement with the experimental results.
7. Write a note on continuous X - ray
spectrum. Thus, the production of continuous x-ray
spectrum and the origin of cut – off wavelength
When a fast moving electron penetrates and can be explained on the basis of photon theory of
approaches a target nucleus, the interaction radiation
between the electron and the nucleus either
accelerates or decelerates it which results in a 8. Write a note on characteristic X - ray
change of path of the electron. The radiation spectra.
produced from such decelerating electron is X – ray spectra show some narrow peaks at some
called Bremsstrahlung or braking radiation well – defined wavelengths when the
target is hit by fast electrons. The line spectrum 9. Explain photo electric cells and its types
showing these peaks is called characteristic x –
ray spectrum. This x – ray spectrum is due to the Photo electric cell or photo cell is a device which
electronic transitions within the atoms. converts light energy into electrical energy. It
works on the principle of photo electric effect.
When an energetic electron penetrates into the When light is incident on the photosensitive
target atom and it can remove some of the K-shell materials, their electric properties will get
electrons. affected, based on which photo cells are
classified into three types. They are
Then the electrons from outer orbits jump to fill i) Photo emissive cell: Its working depends on
up the vacancy so created in the K-shell. the electron emission from a metal cathode due
to irradiation of light or other radiations.
During the downward transition, the energy
ii) Photo voltaic cell: Here sensitive element
difference between the levels is given out in the
made of semiconductor is used which generates
form of x– ray photon of definite wavelength.
voltage proportional to the intensity of light or
Such wavelengths, characteristic of the target,
other radiations.
constitute the line spectrum.
iii) Photo conductive cell: In this, the resistance
It is evident that K-series of lines in the x-ray of the semiconductor changes in accordance with
spectrum of an element arises due to the the radiant energy incident on it.
electronic transitions from L, M, N, .levels to the
K-level. 10. Give the application of photo cells
Applications of photo cells :
Similarly, the longer wavelength L-series ● Photo cells have many applications
originates when an L-electron is knocked out of especially as switches and sensors.
the atom and the corresponding vacancy is filled ● Automatic lights that turn on when it gets
by the electronic transitions from M, N, O level to dark use photocells, as well as street lights
the L-level and so on. that switch on and off according to whether
it is night or day.
The Kα and Kβ of the K-series of molybdenum are ● Photo cells are used for reproduction of
shown by the two peaks in its x-ray spectrum sound in motion pictures
● They are used as timers to measure the
speeds of athletes during a race

● Photo cells of exposure meters in

photography are used to measure the
intensity of the given light and to calculate
the exact time of exposure.

11.Derive an expression for de Broglie

wavelength of electrons.

Let an electron of mass m be accelerated through

a potential difference of V volt. The
kinetic energy acquired by the electron is given by 12. Write the applications of x-rays
Applications of x-rays:
X-rays are being used in many fields. Let us
list a few of them.

Therefore, the speed υ of the electron is 1) Medical diagnosis

X-rays can pass through flesh more easily than
through bones. Thus an x-ray radiograph
containing a deep shadow of the bones and a
light shadow of the flesh may be obtained. X-ray
radiographs are used to detect fractures, foreign
Hence, the de Broglie wavelength of the matter bodies, diseased organs etc.
waves associated with electron is 2) Medical therapy
Since x-rays can kill diseased tissues, they are
employed to cure skin diseases, malignant
tumours etc.

Substituting the known values in the above 3) Industry

equation, we get X-rays are used to check for flaws in welded
joints, motor tyres, tennis balls and wood. At the
custom post, they are used for detection of
contraband goods.

4) Scientific research
X-ray diffraction is important tool to study the
structure of the crystalline materials – that is, the
arrangement of atoms and molecules in crystals.

13.Write the characteristics of photons

For example, if an electron is accelerated Characteristics of photons:

through a potential difference of 100V, then its de According to particle nature of light, photons
Broglie wavelength is 1.227 Å. are the basic constituents of any radiation and
possess the following characteristic properties:
Since the kinetic energy of the electron, K = eV,
i) The photons of light of frequency ν and
then the de Broglie wavelength associated with
wavelength λ will have energy, given by
electron can be also written as

ii) The energy of a photon is determined by

the frequency of the radiation and not by its
intensity and the intensity
 sufficient energy in the form of thermal energy so
has no relation with the energy of the
that they are emitted from the metallic surface
individual photons in the beam.
This type of emission is known as thermionic
iii) The photons travel with the speed of light
emission
and its momentum is given by

iv) Since photons are electrically neutral, they

are unaffected by electric and magnetic
fields.
v) When a photon interacts with matter (photon-
electron collision), the total energy, total linear
momentum and angular momentum are ii) Field emission
conserved. Since photon may be absorbed or a The intensity of the thermionic emission (the
new photon may be produced in such number of electrons emitted) depends on the
interactions, the number of photons may not be metal used and its temperature. Examples:
conserved cathode ray tubes, electron microscopes, x-ray
tubes etc
5 MARK LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. What do you mean by electron emission?
Explain briefly various methods of electron
emission
The liberation of electrons from any surface of
a substance is called electron emission.

The minimum energy needed for an electron

to escape from the metal surface is called
work function of that metal.
The work function is different for different metals Electric field emission occurs when a very strong
and is a typical property of metals and the nature
electric field is applied across the metal. This
of their surface.The material with smaller work
function is more effective in electron emission strong field pulls the free electrons and helps
because extra energy required to release the free them to overcome the surface barrier of the metal
electrons from the metal surface is smaller . Examples: Field emission scanning electron
So the metal selected for electron emission microscopes, Field-emission display etc.
should have low work function. The electron
emission is categorized into different types
depending upon the form of energy being utilized.
There are mainly four types of electron emission
which are given below.

i) Thermionic emission
When a metal is heated to a high temperature, the
free electrons on the surface of the metal get
 2. Briefly discuss the observations of Hertz,
iii) Photo electric emission
Hallwachs and Lenard
When an electromagnetic radiation of suitable
frequency is incident on the surface of the metal, Hertz observation
the energy is transferred from the radiation to the Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism predicted
free electrons. Hence, the free electrons get the existence of electromagnetic waves and
sufficient energy to cross the surface barrier and concluded that light itself is just an
the photo electric emission takes place . The electromagnetic wave. Then the experimentalists
number of electrons emitted depends on the tried to generate and detect electromagnetic
intensity of the incident radiation. Examples: waves through various experiments.
Photo diodes, photo electric cells etc In 1887, Heinrich Hertz was successful in
generating and detecting electromagnetic wave
with his high voltage induction coil causing a
spark discharge between two metallic spheres .
When a spark is formed, the charges will oscillate
back and forth rapidly and the electromagnetic
waves are produced.
The electromagnetic waves thus produced were
detected by a detector that has a copper wire bent
in the shape of a circle. Although the detection of
waves is successful, there is a problem in
iv) Secondary emission
observing the tiny spark produced in the detector.
When a beam of fast moving electrons strikes the In order to improve the visibility of the spark, Hertz
surface of the metal, the kinetic energy of the made many attempts and finally noticed an
striking electrons is transferred to the free important thing that small detector spark became
electrons on the metal surface. Thus the free more vigorous when it was exposed to ultraviolet
electrons get sufficient kinetic energy so that the light.
secondary emission of electron occurs . The reason for this behaviour of the spark was not
Examples: Image intensifiers, photo multiplier known at that time. Later it was found that it is due
tubes etc to the photoelectric emission. Whenever
ultraviolet light is incident on the metallic sphere,
the electrons on the outer surface are emitted
which caused the spark to be more vigorous.

Hallwachs’ observation
In 1888, Wilhelm Hallwachs, a German
physicist, confirmed that the strange behaviour of
the spark is due to the action of ultraviolet light
with his simple experiment.
 A clean circular plate of zinc is mounted on an When ultraviolet light is incident on the negative
insulating stand and is attached to a gold leaf plate C, an electric current flows in the circuit that
electroscope by a wire. When the uncharged zinc is indicated by the deflection in the galvanometer.
plate is irradiated by ultraviolet light from an arc On other hand, if the positive plate is irradiated by
lamp, it becomes positively charged and the the ultraviolet light, no current is observed in the
leaves will open. circuit.

Further, if the negatively charged zinc plate is From these observations, it is concluded that
exposed to ultraviolet light, the leaves will come when ultraviolet light falls on the negative plate,
closer as the charges leaked away quickly . If the electrons are ejected from it which are attracted
plate is positively charged, it becomes more by the positive plate A. On reaching the positive
positive upon UV rays irradiation and the leaves plate through the evacuated bulb, the circuit is
open further . From these observations, it was completed and the current flows in it. Thus, the
concluded that negatively charged electrons were ultraviolet light falling on the negative plate
emitted from the zinc plate under the action of causes the electron emission from the surface of
ultraviolet light the plate

3. Explain the experimental set up for study of

photo electric effect

S is a source of electromagnetic waves of known

and variable frequency ν and intensity I.
C is the cathode (negative electrode) made up of
photosensitive material and is used to emit
electrons. The anode (positive electrode) A
collects the electrons emitted from C.
Lenard’s observation These electrodes are kept in an evacuated glass
In 1902, Lenard studied this electron emission envelope with a quartz window that permits the
phenomenon in detail. His simple experimental passage of ultraviolet and visible light.
setup . The apparatus consists of two metallic
The necessary potential difference between C
plates A and C placed in an evacuated quartz
and A is provided by high tension battery B which
bulb. The galvanometer G and battery B are
is connected across a potential divider
connected in the circuit
arrangement PQ through a key K. C is connected
to the centre terminal while A to the sliding contact
J of the potential divider.

The plate A can be maintained at a desired

positive or negative potential with respect to C. To
measure both positive and negative potential of A
with respect to C, the voltmeter is designed to
have its zero marking at the centre and is
connected between A and C. The current is
measured by a micro ammeter mA connected in where photocurrent reaches a saturation value
series. (saturation current) at which all the
photoelectrons from C are collected by A. This is
If there is no light falling on the cathode C, no represented by the flat portion of the graph
photoelectrons are emitted and the between potential of A and photocurrent .
microammeter reads zero. When ultraviolet or
visible light is allowed to fall on C, the When a negative (retarding) potential is applied to
photoelectrons are liberated and are attracted A with respect to C, the current does not
towards anode. As a result, the immediately drop to zero because the
photoelectric current is set up in the circuit
photoelectrons are emitted with some definite and
which is measured using micro ammeter.
different kinetic energies.
The variation of photocurrent with respect to (i)
intensity of incident light (ii) the potential
The kinetic energy of some of the photoelectrons
difference between the electrodes (iii) the nature
is such that they could overcome the retarding
of the material and (iv) frequency of incident light
electric field and reach the electrode A.
can be studied with the help of this arrangement.
When the negative (retarding) potential of A is
gradually increased, the photocurrent starts to
decrease because more and more
photoelectrons are being repelled away from
reaching the electrode A. The photocurrent
becomes zero at a particular negative potential
V0, called stopping or cut-off potential.

4. Explain the effect of potential difference on

photo electric current.

Effect of potential difference on photoelectric

current :

To study the effect of potential difference V

between the electrodes on photoelectric current,
the frequency and intensity of the incident light
Stopping potential is that value of the
are kept constant. Initially the potential of A is kept
negative (retarding) potential given to the
positive with respect to C and the cathode is
collecting electrode A which is just sufficient to
irradiated with the given light.
stop the most energetic photoelectrons emitted
Now, the potential of A is increased and the
and make the photocurrent zero.
corresponding photocurrent is noted.
At the stopping potential, even the most energetic
As the potential of A is increased, photocurrent electron is brought to rest. Therefore, the initial
also increases. However a stage is reached kinetic energy of the fastest electron (Kmax) is
equal to the work done by the stopping potential
to stop it (eV0).
5. Explain how frequency of incident light Now a graph is drawn between frequency of
varies with stopping potential. incident radiation and the stopping potential for
Effect of frequency on photoelectric current : different metals
From this graph, it is found that stopping potential
To study the effect of frequency of incident light varies linearly with frequency.
on stopping potential, the intensity of the incident Below a certain frequency called threshold
light is kept constant. The variation of frequency, no electrons are emitted; hence
photocurrent with the collecting electrode stopping potential is zero for that reason.
potential is studied for radiations of different But as the frequency is increased above
frequencies and a graph drawn between them. threshold value, the stopping potential varies
From the graph, it is clear that stopping potential linearly with the frequency of incident light.
vary over different frequencies of incident light
6. Obtain Einstein’s photoelectric equation
with necessary explanation.
When a photon of energy hν is incident on a metal
surface, it is completely absorbed by a single
electron and the electron is ejected. In this
process, a part of the photon energy is used in
overcoming the potential barrier of the metal
surface (photoelectric work function ϕ0 )and the
remaining energy as the kinetic energy of the
ejected electron. From the law of conservation of
energy,

Greater the frequency of the incident radiation, -----------(1)

larger is the corresponding stopping potential. where m is the mass of the electron and v its
This implies that as the frequency is increased, velocity.
the photoelectrons are emitted with greater
kinetic energies so that the retarding potential
needed to stop the photoelectrons is also greater.

If we reduce the frequency of the incident light,

the speed or kinetic energy of photo electrons is
also reduced. At some frequency ν0 of incident
radiation, the photo electrons are just ejected with
almost zero kinetic energy

--------(2)
where ν0 is the threshold frequency. By rewriting
the equation (1), we get

This equation is known as Einstein’s

photoelectric equation.
If the electron does not lose energy by internal
collisions, then it is emitted with maximum kinetic Millikan also calculated the value of Planck’s
energy Kmax. Then constant (h = 6.626 × 10–34 Js) and work function
of many metals (Cs, K, Na, Ca); these values are
in agreement with the theoretical prediction
where vmax is the maximum velocity of the
electron ejected. The equation (1) is rearranged 7. Explain experimentally observed facts of
as follows: photoelectric effect with the help of
Einstein’s explanation
The experimentally observed facts of
photoelectric effect can be explained with the help
of Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
i) As each incident photon liberates one electron,
then the increase of intensity of the light (the
number of photons per unit area per unit time)
increases the number of electrons emitted
thereby increasing the photocurrent. The same
has been experimentally observed.
ii) From Kmax = hv – _0, it is evident that Kmax
is proportional to the frequency of the incident
light and is independent of intensity of the light.
iii) As given in equation ,

A graph between maximum kinetic energy

Kmax of the photoelectron and frequency ν of the
incident light is a straight line . The slope of the there must be minimum energy (equal to the
line is h and its y-intercept is –ϕ0. work function of the metal) for incident photons to
liberate electrons from the metal surface. Below
this value of energy, emission of electrons is not
Einstein’s equation was experimentally verified by
possible. Correspondingly, there exists minimum
R.A. Millikan. He drew Kmax versus ν graph for
frequency called threshold frequency below
many metals (cesium, potassium, sodium and
which there is no photoelectric emission
lithium) and found that the slope is independent
of the metals.
iv) According to quantum concept, the transfer
of photon energy to the electrons is instantaneous
so that there is no time lag
between incidence of photons and ejection of They demonstrated that electron beams are
electrons. diffracted when they fall on crystalline solids.
Thus, the photoelectric effect is explained on the Since crystal can act as a three-dimensional
basis of quantum concept of light diffraction grating for matter waves, the electron
waves incident on crystals are diffracted off in
8. Give the construction and working of
certain specific directions.
photo emissive cell.
It consists of an evacuated glass or quartz bulb in The filament F is heated by a low tension (L.T.)
which two metallic electrodes – that is, a cathode battery. Electrons are emitted from the hot
and an anode are fixed filament by thermionic emission.
The cathode C is semi-cylindrical in shape and is They are then accelerated due to the potential
coated with a photo sensitive material. difference between the filament and the anode
The anode A is a thin rod or wire kept along the aluminum cylinder by a high tension (H.T.)
axis of the semi-cylindrical cathode. A potential battery. Electron beam is collimated by using two
difference is applied between the anode and the thin aluminum diaphragms and is allowed to strike
cathode through a galvanometer G. a single crystal of Nickel

The electrons scattered by Ni atoms in different

directions are received by the electron detector
Working: which measures the intensity of scattered
When cathode is irradiated with suitable electron beam. The detector is capable of rotation
in the plane of the paper so that the angle θ
radiation, electrons are emitted from it. These
between the incident beam and the scattered
electrons are attracted by anode and hence a beam can be changed at our will. The intensity of
current is produced which is measured by the the scattered electron beam is measured as a
galvanometer. For a given cathode, the function of the angle θ.
magnitude of the current depends on
i) the intensity to incident radiation and
ii) the potential difference between anode and
cathode.

9.Describe briefly Davisson – Germer

experiment which demonstrated the wave
nature of electrons.
Louis de Broglie hypothesis of matter waves
was experimentally confirmed by Clinton
Davisson and Lester Germer in 1927.
The variation of intensity of the scattered
electrons with the angle θ for the accelerating
voltage of 54V.
For a given accelerating voltage V, the scattered
wave shows a peak or maximum at an angle of
50° to the incident electron beam.
This peak in intensity is attributed to the
constructive interference of electrons diffracted
from various atomic layers of the target material.
From the known value of interplanar spacing of
Nickel, the wavelength of the electron wave was
experimentally calculated as 1.65Å.

The wavelength can also be calculated from de

Broglie relation for V = 54 V

This value agrees very well with the optical microscope. Electron microscopes
experimentally observed wavelength of 1.65Å. giving magnification more than 2,00,000 times
Thus this experiment directly verifies de Broglie’s are common in research laboratories.
hypothesis of the wave nature of moving particles
Working
10. Briefly explain the principle and working The construction and working of an electron
of electron microscope. microscope is similar to that of an optical
Principle microscope except that in electron microscope
focussing of electron beam is done by the
This is the direct application of wave nature of
electrostatic or magnetic lenses. The electron
particles. The wave nature of the electron is used
beam passing across a suitably arranged either
in the construction of microscope called electron
electric or magnetic fields undergoes divergence
microscope.
or convergence thereby focussing of the beam is
The resolving power of a microscope is inversely
done .
proportional to the wavelength of the radiation
The electrons emitted from the source are
used for illuminating the object under study.
accelerated by high potentials. The beam is made
Higher magnification as well as higher resolving
parallel by magnetic condenser lens. When the
power can be obtained by employing the waves
beam passes through the sample whose
of shorter wavelengths.
magnified image is needed, the beam carries the
Louis de Broglie wavelength of electron is very
much less than (a few thousands less) that of the image of the sample.
visible light being used in optical microscopes. As With the help of magnetic objective lens and
a result, the microscopes employing de Broglie magnetic projector lens system, the magnified
waves of electrons have very much higher image is obtained on the screen. These electron
resolving power than microscopes are being used in almost all
branches of science

9.ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (2 MARKS) carbon ( 6C¹²)
1.What are called cathode rays? 𝟏 𝒖 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔 𝑿 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒌𝒈
When the pressure is about 0.01 mm of Hg, the
walls of the tube appear with green colour and 9. Give the empirical formula for nuclear
some invisible rays emanate from cathode called radius.
cathode rays, which are later found be a beam of The nuclear radius is given by,
electrons 𝑹 = 𝑹0 𝑨¹/³
where 𝑅⁰ = 1.2 𝐹[1 𝐹 = 10−¹⁵m)
2. Define specific charge.
Charge per unit mass is called specific charge
(or) mass-normalized charge. 10. Define nuclear density.
Its unit is 𝑪 𝒌𝒈−𝟏 Nuclear density is defined as the ratio of mass of
the nucleus to its volume.
3. Define impact parameter.
The impact parameter (b) is defined as the
perpendicular distance between the centre of the = 𝟐. 𝟑 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕 𝒌𝒈 𝒎−𝟑
gold nucleus and the direction of velocity vector
of alpha particle 11. What is mass defect?
when it is at a large distance. The experimental mass of a nucleus is less than
the total mass of its individual
4. Define excitation energy. constituents.
The energy required to excite an electron from The mass difference between total mass of the
lower energy state to any higher energy state is nucleons and the real mass of the nucleus is
known as excitation energy. called mass defect (Δm)
Its unit is electron volt (eV) ∆𝒎 = (𝒁 𝒎𝒑 + 𝑵 𝒎𝒏) − 𝑴
5. Define excitation potential. 12. Define binding energy.
Excitation potential is defined as excitation When Z protons and N neutrons are combine to
energy per unit charge. form a nucleus, the mass disappear equivalent to
Its unit is volt (V) mass defect (Δm) is converted in to energy which
is used to bind the nucleons in the nucleus. This
6. Define ionization energy. is known as binding energy (BE)
The minimum energy required to remove an 𝑩𝑬 = ∆𝒎 𝒄²
electron from an atom in the ground state is = [(𝒁 𝒎𝒑 + 𝑵 𝒎𝒏) − 𝑴 ] 𝒄²
known as binding energy or ionization energy.
Ionization energy of hydrogen atom is
𝑬𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔 𝒆𝑽 13. Calculate the energy equivalent to one
atomic mass unit (1 u). Give the answer in eV
7. Define ionization potential. unit.
Ionization potential is defined as ionization According to Einstein's mass - energy relation
energy per unit charge. 𝐸 = 𝑚 𝑐²
The ionization potential of hydrogen atom is, = (1 𝑢 ) 𝑋 (3 𝑋 10⁸)²
𝑽𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔 V = 1.66 𝑋 10−²⁷𝑋 9 𝑋 10¹⁶ 𝐽
But we have, 1 𝑒𝑉 = 1.602 𝑋 10−¹⁹ 𝐽
8. Define atomic mass unit. ∴ 𝑬 = 𝟗𝟑𝟏 𝑴𝒆𝑽
One atomic mass unit (u) is defined as the 1/12th
of the mass of the isotope of
14. Define average binding energy per 20.What is isotones? Give an example.
nucleon? The atoms of different elements having same
The average binding energy per nucleon is the number of neutrons are called
energy required to separate single nucleon from isotones.
the particular nucleus. (̅𝐵𝐸̅̅).

15.Define atomic number and mass number. 21.Define radioactivity.

The number of protons in the nucleus is called The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of
the atomic number (Z) highly penetrating radiations such
The number of neutrons in the nucleus is called as α, β and γ rays by an element is called
neutron number (N). radioactivity and the substances which
The total number of neutrons and protons in the emit these radiations are called radioactive
nucleus is called the mass elements.
number(A) [A = Z+N]
22.What are the constituent particles of
16.Write a general notation of nucleus of neutron and proton?
element X. What each term denotes? Protons and neutrons are made up of quarks
The general notation of nucleus is ; which are now considered as elementary
ZX where X is the chemical symbol of the
A particles
element, A is the mass number and Z is According to quark model,
the atomic number. (e.g.) Nitrogen nucleus is
represented by 157N

17.What is the charge of nucleus? .

The nucleus is made up of positively charged 23.Write a note on smoke detector.
protons and electrically neutral An important application of alpha decay is
neutrons. smoke detector which prevent us from any
So the net charge of the nucleus is positive and hazardous fire.
it has the value = + Z e It uses around 0.2 mg of man-made weak
radioactive isotope called americium
18.What is isotope? Give an example. (24195Am)
The atoms of the same element having same This radioactive source is placed between two
atomic number Z, but different mass number A oppositely charged metal plates and α radiations
are called isotopes. from 24195Am continuously ionize the nitrogen,
The isotopes of any element have same oxygen molecules in the air space between the
electronic structure and same chemical plates.
properties. (e.g) Hydrogen isotopes As a result, there will be a continuous flow of
small steady current in the circuit.
If smoke enters, the radiation is being absorbed
19.What is isobars? Give an example. by the smoke particles rather than air molecules.
The atoms of different elements having the As a result, the ionization and along with it the
same mass number A, but different current is reduced. This drop in current is
atomic number Z are called isobars. detected by the circuit and alarm starts.
They have different physical and chemical The radiation dosage emitted by americium is
properties very much less than safe level, so it can be
considered harmless.
24. What is nuclear force? 32. What is half life of nucleus. Give the
It was concluded that there must be a strong expression.
attractive force between protons to overcome the The half life (𝑻𝟏/𝟐) is the time required for the
repulsive Coulomb’s force. This strong attractive number of atoms initially present to reduce to one
force which half of the initial amount .
holds the nucleus together is called nuclear force. 𝑻𝟏/𝟐=𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟏/𝝀
25. Define disintegration energy.
In decay process, the total mass of the daughter 33. What is mean life of nucleus? Give the
nucleus and product nucleus is always less than expression.
that of the parent nucleus. The difference in mass The mean life time (𝝉) of the nucleus is the ratio
( Δm) is released as energy called disintegration of sum or integration of life times of all nuclei to
energy Q the total number nuclei present initially.
𝝉 =𝟏/𝝀
26. Write a note on positron?
The positron is an anti-particle of an electron 34. What is meant by nuclear fission?
whose mass is same as that of electron and The process of breaking up of the nucleus of a
charge is opposite to that of electron (i.e.) +e. heavier atom into two smaller nuclei with the
release of a large amount of energy is called
27. State the properties of neutrino. nuclear fission.
➢ It has zero charge
➢ It has an antiparticle called anti-neutrino. 35. What is called chain reaction.?
➢ Recent experiments showed that the During every fission reaction, three neutrons are
neutrino has very tiny mass. released along with products.
➢ It interacts very weakly with the These three neutrons cause further fission
matter.Therefore it is very difficult to detect produces nine neutrons and this process goes on.
it Thus the number of neutrons goes on increasing
almost in
28. State the law of radioactive decay. geometric progression and this is called a chain
At any instant t, the number of decays per unit reaction
time, called rate of decay is proportional to the
number of nuclei ( N ) at the same instant. 36. What is called nuclear reactor?
Nuclear reactor is a system in which the nuclear
29. Define activity. Give its unit. fission takes place in a self-sustained controlled
Activity or decay rate which is the number of manner.
nuclei decayed per second and it is denoted as R The energy produced is used either for research
𝑹 =𝒅𝑵/dt purpose or for power generation.
Its unit is becquerel (Bq) and curie (Ci)
37. What is nuclear fusion?
When two or more light nuclei (A<20) combine to
30. Define one becquerel.
form a heavier nucleus, then it is called nuclear
one Becquerel (Bq) is equal to one decay per
fusion.
second.
𝟏 𝑩𝒒 = 𝟏 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚/𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
38.What is mean by thermo nuclear
reactions?
31. Define one curie.
When two light nuclei come closer to combine, it
one curie was defined as number of decays per
is strongly repelled by the coulomb repulsive
second in 1 g of radium
force
𝟏 𝑪𝒊 = 𝟑. 𝟕 𝑿 𝟏𝟎¹⁰𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚/𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
To overcome this repulsion, the two light nuclei
must have enough kinetic energy to move closer
to each other such that the nuclear force ● They affect the photographic plates
becomes effective. ● They produce fluorescence when they fall
This can be achieved if the temperature is very on certain Crystal's and minerals
much greater than the value 10⁷ K. ● When the cathode rays fall on a material of
When the surrounding temperature reaches high atomic weight, x-rays are produced.
around 10⁷ K, lighter nuclei start fusing to form ● Cathode rays ionize the gas through which
heavier nuclei and this resulting reaction is called they pass.
thermonuclear ● The speed of cathode rays is up to (1/10)
fusion reaction. the of the speed of light.

39. What is the source of stellar energy? 2.Write a note on Thomson’s atom model.
The energy generation in every star is only According to J. J. Thomson’s atom model, the
through thermonuclear fusion because its atoms are considered as homogeneous spheres
temperature is of the order of 10⁷ K which contain uniform distribution of positively
Most of the stars including our Sun fuse charged particles.
hydrogen into helium and some stars even fuse The negatively charged electrons are embedded
helium into heavier elements. in it like seeds in water melon fruit.
The atoms are electrically neutral, this implies
40. What is radio carbon dating? that the total positive charge in an atom is equal
Radioactive dating or carbon dating is the to the total negative charge.
technique to estimate the age of ancient object by This model could not explain stability of atom and
using radio carbon isotope( 𝟔𝑪𝟏𝟒 ) further, it fails to explain the origin of spectral lines
observed in the spectrum of hydrogen atom and
41.In alpha decay, why the unstable nucleus other atoms.
emit 24He ? Why it does not emit four separate
nucleons? 3.Give the results of Rutherford alpha
238
For example, if 92U nucleus decays into 90Th 234 scattering experiment.
by emitting four separate nucleons (two protons Most of the alpha particles are undeflected
and two neutrons), then the disintegration energy through the gold foil and went straight.
Q for this process turns out to be negative. Some of the alpha particles are deflected through
It implies that the total mass of products is greater a small angle.
than that of parent nucleus. A few alpha particles (one in thousand) are
This kind of process cannot occur in nature deflected through the angle more than 90°
because it would violate conservation of energy. Very few alpha particles returned back (back
scattered) –that is, deflected back by 180°
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (3 MARKS)
1.Give the properties of cathode rays. 4.What are the conclusion made by
● Cathode rays possess energy and Rutherford from the results of alpha
momentum scattering experiments.
● They travel in a straight line with high Rutherford proposed that an atom has a lot of
speed of the order of 10⁷m s-1. empty space and contains a tiny matter known as
● It can be deflected by both electric and nucleus whose size is of the order of 10-¹⁴m.
magnetic fields. The nucleus is positively charged and most of the
● The direction of deflection indicates that mass of the atom is concentrated in nucleus.
they are negatively charged particles. The nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged
● When the cathode rays are allowed to fall electrons.
on matter, they produce heat.
Since static charge distribution cannot be in a smaller and smaller (undergoes spiral motion)
stable equilibrium, he suggested that the and finally the electron should fall into the nucleus
electrons are not at rest and they revolve around and hence the atoms should disintegrate.
the nucleus in circular orbits like planets revolving But this does not happen. Hence, Rutherford
around the sun. model could not account for the stability of atoms.
(2) Line spectrum of atom could not explained :
5.What is distance of closest approach? According to this model, emission of radiation
Obtain expression for it. must be continuous and must give continuous
The minimum distance between the centre of the emission spectrum.
nucleus and the alpha particle just before it gets But experimentally we observe only line (discrete)
reflected back through 180° is defined as the emission spectrum for atoms
distance of closest approach (or) contact
distance 𝑟𝑜 7. State the postulates of Bohr’s atom model.
Expression :
Postulate (1) :
The electron in an atom moves around nucleus in
circular orbits under the influence of Coulomb
electrostatic force of attraction.
This Coulomb force gives necessary centripetal
force for the electron to undergo circular motion.

At this closest distance, all the kinetic energy of Postulate (2) :

the alpha particle will be converted into Electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus
electrostatic potential energy only in certain discrete orbits called stationary
orbits where it does not radiate electromagnetic
energy.
The angular momentum (l) of the electron in these
stationary orbits are quantized (i.e.) integral
multiple of h/2 π
l = nh/2 π
=nħ
where n principal quantum number
This condition is known as angular momentum
where Ek is the kinetic energy of the alpha quantization condition.
particle.This is used to estimate the size of the
nucleus but size of the nucleus is always lesser Postulate (3) :
than the distance of closest approach. Energy of orbits are not continuous but discrete.
Rutherford calculated the radius of the nucleus for This is called the quantization of energy.
different nuclei and found that it ranges from 10 – An electron can jump from one orbit to another
14 m to 10–15 m. orbit by absorbing or emitting a photon whose
energy is equal to the difference in energy (ΔE)
6. What are the drawbacks of Rutherford atom between the two orbital levels
model? ∆E = Ef − Ei = h ν = hc/λ
(1) Stability of atom cannot be explained where c speed of light
According to classical electrodynamics, any λ wavelength of the radiation used and ν
accelerated charge emits electromagnetic frequency of the radiation
radiations which results loses in its energy.
Hence, it can no longer sustain the circular motion
and the radius of the orbit becomes
8. What are the drawbacks in Bohr atom The total mass of the daughter nucleus and 2
model? 4He nucleus is always less than that of the
● Bohr atom model is valid only for hydrogen parent nucleus. The difference in mass
atom or hydrogen like-atoms but not for
complex atoms
● When the spectral lines are closely is released as energy called disintegration
examined, individual lines of hydrogen energy Q and is given by
spectrum is accompanied by a number of
faint lines. These closed packed lines are
called fine structure. This is not explained For spontaneous decay (natural radioactivity)
by Bohr atom model.
Q >0. In alpha decay process, the disintegration
● Bohr atom model fails to explain the
intensity variations in the spectral lines. energy is certainly positive (Q > 0). The
● The distribution of electrons in atoms is not disintegration energy Q is also the net
completely explained by Bohr atom model kinetic energy gained in the decay process or if
the parent nucleus is at rest, Q is the total kinetic
9.Give the properties of nuclear forces? energy of daughter nucleus and the 2 4 He
1. The strong nuclear force is of very short
nucleus. If Q < 0, then the decay process cannot
range, acting only up to a distance of a
few Fermi. occur spontaneously and energy must be
2. Nuclear force is the strongest force in supplied to induce the decay.
nature.
3. The strong nuclear force is attractive and 11.Discuss the beta decay process with
acts with an equal strength between examples.
proton-proton, proton-neutron, and In beta decay, a radioactive nucleus emits either
neutron – neutron. electron or positron. If electron (e–) is emitted, it
4. Strong nuclear force does not act on the
is called β- decay and if positron (e+) is emitted,
electrons. So it does not alter the
chemical properties of the atom. it is called β+ decay. The positron is an anti-
particle of an electron whose mass is same as
10.Discuss the alpha decay process with that of electron and charge is opposite to that of
example. electron – that is, +e. Both positron and electron
When an unstable nucleus decay by emitting an are referred to as beta particles.
α-particle , it loses two protons and two neutrons. β− decay:
As a result, its atomic number Z decreases by 2
and the mass number decreases by 4. In β- decay, the atomic number of the nucleus
The α- decay process symbolically written as increases by one but its mass number remains
the same. This decay is represented by

Here X is called the parent nucleus and Y is

In each β- decay, one neutron in the nucleus of X
called the daughter nucleus.
is converted into a proton by with the emission of
Example: Decay of Uranium 92 238U to thorium 90
234Th with the emission of an electron (e– ) and an antineutrino.
4
2 He nucleus (α-particle)

Where p -proton, ν -antineutrino.

Example: Carbon ( 6 14C ) is converted
into nitrogen ( 714 N ) through β- decay. (2) it undergoes beta ray emission to an excited
state of carbon ( 6 12C* ) by emitting an electron
of maximum energy 9.0 MeV followed by
β+ decay: gamma decay to ground state by emitting a
In β+ decay, the atomic number is photon of energy 4.4 MeV.
decreased by one and again its mass number It is represented by
remains the same. This decay is represented by

For each β+ decay, a proton in the nucleus X is

converted into a neutron
a positron (e+) and a neutrino.

Example: Sodium ( 11 22 Na ) is converted into

neon ( 10 22 Ne ) throughβ+ decay.

12.Discuss the Gamma decay process with

examples.
12.Write a note on the discovery of neutron.
In α and β decay, the daughter nucleus is in the
In 1930, Bothe and Becker found that when
excited state most of the time. The typical life time
beryllium was bombarded with α particles, highly
of excited state is approximately 10-11s.
penetrating radiation was emitted.
So this excited state nucleus immediately
This radiation was capable of penetrating the
returns to the ground state or lower energy state
thick layer of lead and was unaffected by the
by emitting highly energetic photons called γ rays.
electric and magnetic fields.
In fact, when the atom is in the excited state, it
Initially, it was thought wrongly as γ - radiation.
returns to the ground state by emitting photons of
But in 1932, James Chadwick discovered that
energy in the order of few eV. But when the
those radiations are particles of
excited state nucleus returns to its ground state,
mass little greater than the mass of the proton
it emits a highly energetic photon (γ rays) of
and had no charge.
energy
He called them as neutrons (0n1). The above
in the order of MeV. The gamma emission is given
reaction was written as
by

In gamma emission, there is no change in the 13.List the properties of neutrons.

mass number or atomic number of the nucleus. Mass of the neutron is little greater than the
Boron ( 5 12B ) has two beta decay modes as mass of the proton and had no charge.
(1) it undergoes beta decay directly into Neutrons are stable inside the nucleus. But
ground state carbon ( 6 12C ) by emitting an freeneutron has half life of 13 minutes. Then it
electron of maximum of energy 13.4 MeV. decays with emission of proton, electron and anti
neutrino.
Neutrons are classified according to their kinetic The overall energy produced in the above
energy as reactions is about 27 MeV.
(1) slow neutrons (0 to 1000 eV)
(2) fast neutrons (0.5 MeV to 10 MeV). 5 MARK LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS
The neutrons with average energy of about 1.Explain the J.J. Thomson experiment to
0.025 eV in thermal equilibrium are determine the specific charge of electron
called thermal neutron. Specific charge of electron – J.J. Thomson
Experiment:
14.Calculate the energy released per fission. Charge per unit mass of an electron is called
specific charge (e/m).
Principle:
In the presence of electric and magnetic fields,
the cathode rays were deflected. By the variation
of electric and magnetic fields, the specific charge
(charge per unit mass) of the cathode rays is
measured.
Set up:
It is a highly evacuated discharge tube Cathode
rays (electron beam) produced at cathode ‘C’ are
attracted towards anode disc A which allow only
a narrow beam of cathode rays.
These cathode rays are now allowed to pass
through the parallel plates and strike the screen
coated with Zn S, a light spot is observed at O
The metal plates are maintained at high voltage.
Further, this gas discharge tube is kept in
between pole pieces of magnet such that both
electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to
each other.
When the cathode rays strike the screen, they
15.Write a note on proton - proton cycle. produce scintillation and hence bright spot is
The sun’s interior temperature is around 1.5 X observed. This is achieved by coating the screen
107 K . with zinc Sulphide.
At this temperature, fusion reaction takes place
and the sun is converting 6 X 1011 kg hydrogen
into helium every second.
According to Hans Bethe, the sun is powered by
proton-proton cycle of fusion reaction.
This cycle consists of three steps
(i) Determination of velocity of cathode rays The deflection in vertical direction is due to the
For a fixed electric field between the plates, the electric force.
magnetic field is adjusted such that the cathode
rays (electron beam) strike at the original position Let m be the mass of the electron and by applying
O This means that the magnitude of electric force Newton’s second law of motion, acceleration of
is balanced by the magnitude of force due to the electron is
magnetic field. Let e be the charge of the cathode
rays, then

Let y be the deviation produced from

original position on the screen.
Let the initial upward velocity of cathode ray be u
= 0 before entering the parallel electric plates.
Let t be the time taken by the cathode rays to
(ii) Determination of specific charge travel in electric field.
Since the cathode rays (electron beam) are Let l be the length of one of the plates, then the
accelerated from cathode to anode, the potential time taken is
energy of the electron beam at the cathode is
converted into kinetic energy of the electron beam
at the anode. Let V be the potential difference Hence the deflection at the end of the electric
between anode and cathode, then the potential field
energy is eV. Then from law of conservation of
energy,

Then the deflection on the screen,

C → Proportionality constant, Using equation

(iii) Deflection of charge only due to uniform (2),
electric field
When the magnetic field is turned off, the
deflection is only due to electric field.
By substituting the known values, we get Due to the presence of air drag forces, the oil
drops easily attain its terminalvelocity and moves
with constant velocity. Let it be ‘v’
2. Discuss the Millikan’s oil drop experiment Radius of the oil drop = r
to determine the charge of an electron. Density of the the oil = ρ
It consists of two horizontal circular metal plates Density of the air = σ
A and B each with diameter around 20 cm and
are separated by a small distance 1.5 cm.
These two parallel plates are enclosed in a
chamber with glass walls.
A high potential difference around 10 kV applied
across the metal plates, such that electric field
acts vertically downward.
A small hole is made at the centre of the upper
plate A and atomizer is kept exactly above the
hole to spray the liquid.
When a fine droplet of highly viscous liquid (like
glycerine) is sprayed using atomizer, it falls freely
downward through the hole of the top plate only
under the influence of gravity.
Few oil drops in the chamber can acquire electric
charge (negative charge) because of friction with
air or passage of x-rays in between the parallel
plates.
Further the chamber is illuminated by light which Once the oil drop attains a terminal velocity υ,
the net downward force acting on the oil drop is
is passed horizontally and oil equal to the viscous force acting opposite to the
drops can be seen clearly using microscope direction of motion of the oil drop.
placed perpendicular to the light beam. From Stokes law, the viscous force on the oil
These drops can move either upwards or drop is
downward.
From the free body diagram,

(1) Radius of oil drop :

When the electric field is switched off, the oil drop
accelerates downwards.
 rest which is made up of protons and neutrons.
Let an electron revolving around the stable
nucleus
Atomic number = Z
Total charge of the nucleus = + Ze
Charge of an electron = - e
Mass of the electron = m
(2) Determination of electric charge :
When the electric field is switched on, charged oil
drops experience an upward electric force (qE).
Strength of the electric field is adjusted to make
that particular drop to be stationary.
Under these circumstances, there will be no
viscous force acting on the oil drop.
From the free body diagram,

From Coulomb’s law, the force of attraction

between the nucleus and the electron is

This force provides necessary centripetal force

given by.

Put equation (1), we get

Millikan repeated this experiment several times

and computed the charges on oil drops.
He found that the charge of any oil drop can be
written as integral multiple of a basic value, (−1.6
X10−19 C), which is nothing but the charge of an
electron. Hence,e = − 1.6 x 10−19 C

3.Derive the expression for radius and

velocity of the nth orbit of hydrogen atom
using Bohr atom model
Consider an atom which contains the nucleus at
 4.Derive the expression for energy of the nth
orbit of hydrogen atom using Bohr atom
model
Total Energy of electron in nth orbit:
Electrostatic force is a conservative force.
So potential energy of the electron in nth orbit,

Kinetic energy of the electron in nth orbit,

Therefore, Un = −2KEn
Total energy of the electron in nth orbit,

Substitute the value of rn

For hydrogen, (Z = 1), then

The negative sign in equation (7) indicates that

the electron is bound to the nucleus.
Put the values of h, εo, m,e and using ‘eV’ unit
we have,

Velocity of electron in nth orbit:

According to Bohr’s quantization condition
,
Thus, as ‘n’ increases, energy also increases.
(i.e.) the orbit which is closest to the nucleus has
lowest
energy. So it is often called ground state
The ground state energy of hydrogen (- 13.6 eV)
is used as a unit of energy called Rydberg.
1 Rydberg = − 13.6 eV
Hence, vn ∝1/n(i.e.) the velocity of the electron
decreases as the principal quantum number
increases
5.Explain the spectral series of hydrogen
atom.
When an electron jumps from mth orbit to nth
orbit, a spectral line was obtained whose wave (e) Pfund series
number (i.e.) reciprocal of wave length is, For n = 5 and m = 6,7,8........ the wave numbers
or wavelength of spectral lines of Pfund series
which lies in infra-red region (far IR),
where v is known as wave number which
is inverse of wavelength, R is known as
Rydberg constant whose value is 1.09737 ×107
m-1 and m and n are positive integers such that m
> n. The various spectral series are discussed 6.Explain the variation of average binding
below: energy with the mass number by graph and
(a) Lyman series discuss its features.
For n = 1 and m = 2,3,4....... the wave numbers or The average binding energy per nucleon is
wavelength of spectral lines of Lyman series the energy required to separate single nucleon
which lies in ultra-violet region, from the particular nucleus.

(b) Balmer series

For n = 2 and m = 3,4,5.......the wave numbers or is plotted against A of all known nuclei and
wavelength of spectral lines of Balmer series the graph obtained is called binding energy curve.
which lies in visible region, From the graph,
(1) The value of rises as the mass number
A increases until it reaches a maximum value of
8.8 MeV for A = 56 (iron) and then it slowly
(c) Paschen series decreases.
Put n = 3 and m = 4,5,6....... The wave number or (2) The average binding energy per nucleon is
wavelength of spectral lines of Paschen series about 8.5 MeV for nuclei having mass number
which lies in infra-red region (near IR) is between A = 40 and 120.
These elements are comparatively more stable
and not radioactive.
(3) For higher mass numbers, the curve reduces
slowly and for uranium is about 7.6 MeV.
(d) Brackett series They are unstable and radioactive.
For n = 4 and m = 5,6,7........ the wave numbers 4)If two light nuclei with A<28 combine with a
or wavelength of spectral lines of Brackett series nucleus with A<56, the binding energy per
which lies in infra-red region (middle IR), nucleon is more for final nucleus than initial
nuclei. Thus, if
the lighter elements combine to produce a Decay constant (λ) is different for different
nucleus of medium value A, a large amount of radioactive sample and the negative sign in the
energy will be released. This is the basis of equation implies that the N is decreasing with
time.
nuclear fusion and is the principle of the hydrogen
bomb.
If a nucleus of heavy element is split (fission) into
two or more nuclei of medium value A, the energy
released would again be large. The atom bomb is
based on this principle and huge energy of atom
bombs comes from this fission when it is
uncontrolled.

7. Obtain the law of radioactivity (radioactive Equation (2) is called the law of radioactive
decay) decay.
Law of radioactivity : Here the number of atoms is decreasing
exponentially over the time.
At any instant t, the number of decays per unit
This implies that the time taken for all the
time, called rate of decay (dN/ dt) is proportional radioactive nuclei to decay will be infinite.
to the number of nuclei (N) at the same instant.
This is called law of radioactive decay.
Let NObe the number of nuclei at initial time
(t = 0)
Let ‘N’ be the number of undecayed nuclei at
any time ‘t’
If ‘dN’ be the number of nuclei decayed in time
‘dt’ then, rate of decay = dN/dt
From law of radioactivity,
8.Obtain an expression for half life time and Thus mean life and decay constant is inversely
mean life time. proportional to each other.
Half-life T1/2 is the time required for the number Half life and mean life - Relation :
of atoms initially present to Half life time is given by,
reduce to one half of the initial amount.

Mean life period is given by,

τ = 1/λ
From the above two equations,

9.Describe the working of nuclear reactor

with a block diagram.
Nuclear reactor is a device in which the
nuclear fission takes place in a self-sustained
controlled manner and the energy produced is
used either for research purpose or for power
generation.The main parts of a nuclear reactor
are fuel, moderator and control rods.
In addition to this, there is a cooling system which
is connected with power generation set up.
Fuel: The fuel is fissionable material, usually
uranium or plutonium. Naturally occurring
uranium contains only 0.7% of 92 235Uand 99.3%
are only 92238U . So the 92238U must be enriched
such that it contains at least 2% to 4% of 92235U .
In addition to this, a neutron source is required to
initiate the chain reaction for the first time. A
mixture of beryllium with plutonium or polonium is
used as the neutron source. During fission of 92
235U , only fast neutrons are emitted but the

probability of initiating fission by it in another

Mean life time (τ) : nucleus is very low. Therefore, slow neutrons are
The mean life time of the nucleus is the ratio of preferred for sustained nuclear reactions.
sum or integration of life times Moderators: The moderator is a material used to
of all nuclei to the total number nuclei present convert fast neutrons into slow neutrons.Usually
initially. the moderators are chosen in such a way that
Let λ be the decay constant of the radioactive they must be very light nuclei undergo collision
substance, then with fast neutrons and the speed of the neutron is
reduced .Most of the
reactors use heavy water (D2O) and graphite as 10.Briefly explain the elementary particles of
moderators. nature.
Control rods :The control rods are used to adjust Elementary particles :
the reaction rate. An atom has a nucleus surrounded by electrons
During each fission, on an average 2.5 neutrons and nuclei is made up of
are emitted protons and neutrons.
In order to have the controlled chain reactions, Initially, protons, neutrons and electrons are
only one neutron is allowed to cause another considered as fundamental
fission and the remaining neutrons are absorbed building blocks of matter.
by the control rods. But in 1964, Murray Gellman and George Zweig
Usually cadmium or boron acts as control rod theoretically proposed that protons and neutrons
material are not fundamental particles, but they are made
Coolants : up of quarks.
The cooling system removes the heat generated These quarks are now considered elementary
in the reactor core. particles of nature.
Ordinary water, heavy water and liquid sodium Electrons are fundamental or elementary
are used as coolant since they have very high particles because they are not made up of
specific heat capacity and have large boiling point anything.
under high pressure. In the year 1968, the quarks were discovered
This coolant passes through the fuel block and experimentally by Stanford.
carries away the heat to the steam generator There are six quarks namely, Up quark, Down
through heat exchanger quark, Charm quark. Strange quark, Top quark
The steam runs the turbines which produces and Bottom quark
electricity in power reactors. There exist their anti particle also
Shielding : All these quarks have fractional charges. For
For a protection against harmful radiations, the example,
nuclear reactor is surrounded by a concrete wall
of thickness of about 2 to 2.5 m.

According to quark model,

(1) Proton is made up of two up quarks and one
down quark
(2) Neutron is made up of one up quark and two
down quarks
11.Explain in detail the four fundamental 12.Explain radio carbon dating.
forces. The interesting application of beta decay
Fundamental forces in nature : is radioactive dating or carbon dating. Using this
Gravitational, electromagnetic, strong and weak technique, the age of an ancient object can be
forces are called fundamental forces of nature. calculated.
(1) Gravitational forces : All living organisms absorb carbon dioxide (CO2
The attractive force between two masses is called from air to synthesize organic molecules.
gravitational force and it is universal in nature. In this absorbed CO2 , the major part contains 6
12C and very small fraction (1 .3 x 10 -12 ) contains
Our planets are bound to the sun through
gravitational force of the sun. radioactive 614C whose half-life is 5730 years.
We are in the Earth because of Earth’s Carbon-14 in the atmosphere is always decaying
gravitational attraction on our body. but at the same time, cosmic rays from outer
(2) Electromagnetic force : space are continuously bombarding the atoms in
Between two charges there exists the atmosphere which produces 614C . So the
electromagnetic force and it plays major role in continuous production and decay of 614C in the
most of our day-today events. atmosphere keep the ratio of 614C to 612C always
We are standing on the surface of the earth constant.
because of the electromagnetic force between Since our human body, tree or any living
atoms of the surface of the earth with atoms in our organism continuously absorb CO2 from the
foot atmosphere, the ratio of 614C to 612C in the living
It is stronger than gravitational force. organism is also nearly constant.
(3) Strong Nuclear force : But when the organism dies, it stops absorbing
Between two nucleons, there exists a strong CO2
nuclear force and this force is responsible for Since starts 614C to decay, the ratio of 614C to
12
stability of the nucleus. 6 C in a dead organism or specimen decreases

The atoms in our body are stable because of over 614C to 612C in the ancient tree pieces
strong nuclear force. excavated is known, then the age of the tree
(4) Weak Nuclear force : pieces can be calculated.
In addition to these three forces, there exists
another fundamental force of nature called the
weak force.
This weak force is even shorter in range than
nuclear force.
This force plays an important role in beta decay
and energy production of stars.
During the fusion of hydrogen into helium in sun,
neutrinos and enormous radiations are produced
through weak force.
The lives of species in the earth depend on the
solar energy from the sun and it is due to weak
force which plays vital role during nuclear fusion
reactions going on in the core of the sun

10.ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATIONS

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (2 MARKS) It increases the concentration of charge carriers
1.What is called electronics? (electrons and holes) in the semiconductor and in
Electronics is the branch of physics incorporated turn, its electrical conductivity.
with technology towards the design of circuits The impurity atoms are called dopants.
using transistors and microchips.
It depicts the behaviour and movement of 7.What is extrinsic semiconductors?
electrons in a semiconductor, vacuum, or gas. The semiconductor obtained by dopping either
pentavalent impurity or trivalent impurity is called
2.What are passive components and active extrinsic semiconductor.
components? (e.g.) P - type and N-type semicondutor
Components that cannot generate power in a
circuit are called passive components 8. Define hole.
(e.g.) Resistors, inductors, capacitors When an electron is excited, covalent bond is
Components that can generate power in a circuit broken. Now octet rule will not be satisfied.
are called active components. Thus each excited electron leaves a vacancy to
(e.g.) transistors complete bonding.
This ‘deficiency’ of electron is termed as a ‘hole’
3 What is energy band?
When millions of atoms are brought close to each 9. What is called P-type semiconductor?
other, the valence orbitals and the unoccupied A P - type semiconductor is obtained by doping a
orbitals are split according to the number of pure Germanium (or Silicon) crystal with a dopant
atoms. Their energy levels will be closely spaced of trivalent elements (acceptor impurity) like
and will be difficult to differentiate the orbitals of Boron,Aluminium, Gallium and Indium.
one atom from the other and they look like a band In P-type semicondutors, Holes are majority
This band of very large number of closely spaced charge carriers
energy levels in a very small energy range is Electrons are minority charge carriers
known as energy band.
10. What is N-type semiconductor?
4.What is valance band, conduction band and A N - type semiconductor is obtained by doping a
forbidden energy gap? pure Germanium (or Silicon) crystal with a dopant
The energy band formed due to the valence of pentavalent elements (donor impurity) like
orbitals is called valence band. Phosphorus, Arsenic and Antimony.
The energy band that formed due to the In N-type semicondutors,
unoccupied orbitals is called the conduction band Electrons are majority charge carriers
The energy gap between the valence band and Holes are minority charge carriers
the conduction band is called forbidden energy
gap. 11. Define junction potential or barrier
potential.
5. What is called intrinsic semiconductor? When P - type and N - type semiconductors
A semiconductor in its pure form without impurity combine to form PN junction, due to diffusion of
is called an intrinsic semiconductor. majority charge carriers a depletion region is
Its conduction is low. (e.g.) Silicon, Germanium formed near the junction.
It prevents the charge carriers to further diffusion
6. Define doping. across the junction. Because a potential
The process of adding impurities to the intrinsic difference is set up by the immobile ions in this
semiconductor is called doping. depletion region.
This difference in potential across the depletion
layer is called the barrier potential or junction
potential. This barrier potential approximately 15.Define reverse saturation current.
equals 0.7 V for Silicon and 0.3 V for Germanium. Under reverse bias, a small current flows across
the junction due to the minority charge carriers in
12.What is P-N junction diode? Give its both regions.
symbol. Because the reverse bias for majority charge
A P-N junction diode is formed when a P -type carriers serves as the forward bias for minority
semiconductor is fused with a N- type charge carriers.
semiconductor. It is a device with single P-N The current that flows under a reverse bias is
junction called the reverse saturation current or leakage
The Schematic representation and circuit symbol current (IS).
is given below. It depends on temperature.

16.What is meant by rectification?

The process of converting alternating current
into direct current is called rectification.
The device used for rectification is called
rectifier.
A P-N junction diode is used as rectifier.
13.What is called biasing? Give its types.
Biasing is the process of giving external energy 17.What is mean by break down voltage?
to charge carriers to overcome the barrier The reverse saturation current due to the
potential and make them move in a particular minority charge carriers is small.
direction. If the reverse bias applied to a P-N junction is
increased beyond a point, the junction breaks
The external voltage applied to the p-n junction
down and the reverse current rises sharply.
is called bias voltage. The voltage at which this breakdown happens is
(1) Forward bias called the breakdown voltage
(2) Reverse bias It depends on the width of the depletion region,
which in turn depends on the doping level.
14.Differentiate forward bias and reverse
bias. 18.What is called Zener diode? Give its
circuit symbol.
Zener diode is a reverse biased heavily doped
Forward bias Reverse bias Silicon diode which is specially designed to be
operated in the breakdown region.
If the positive terminal If the positive terminal
of the external voltage of the battery is
source is connected connected to the N-
to the P-side and the side and the
negative terminal to negative potential to
the N-side, it is called the P-side, the 19.Give the applications of Zener diode.
forward biased junction is said to be ● Voltage regulators
reverse biased ● Peak clippers
● Calibrating voltages
● Provide fixed reference voltage in a
It reduces width of the It increases width of network for biasing
depletion region. the depletion region. ● Meter protection against damage from
accidental application of excessive
voltage.
20.What is opto electronic devices? 24.Give the applications of photo diode.
The devices which convert electrical energy into ● Alarm system
light and light into electrical energy through ● Count items on a conveyer belt
semiconductors are called opto electronic ● Photoconductors
devices. ● Compact disc players, smoke detectors
Optoelectronic device is an electronic device ● Medical applications such as detectors for
which utilizes light for useful applications. computed tomography etc.
(e.g.) LEDs, photo diodes and solar cells.
25.What are called solar cells?
21.What is light emitting diode (LED)? A solar cell, also known as photovoltaic cell,
LED is a P-N junction diode which emits visible or converts light energy directly into electricity or
invisible light when it is forward biased. electric potential difference by photovoltaic effect.
Here electrical energy is converted into light It is basically a P-N junction which generates emf
energy, this process is also called when solar radiation falls on the P-N junction.
electroluminescence.
26.Give the applications of solar cells.
Solar cells are widely used in calculators,
watches, toys, portable power supplies, etc.
Solar cells are used in satellites and space
applications
Solar panels are used to generate electricity.
22.Give the applications of LEDs.
*Indicator lamps on the front panel of the scientific 27.Define input resistance of transistor.
and laboratory equipments. The ratio of the change in base-emitter voltage
*Seven-segment displays. (ΔVBE) to the change in base current (ΔIB) at a
*Traffic signals, exit signs, emergency vehicle constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is called
lighting etc. the input resistance (ri ).
*Industrial process control, position encoders, bar
graph readers.

23.What is photo diode? Give its circuit The input resistance is high for a transistor in
symbol. common emitter configuration.
A P-N junction diode which converts an optical
signal into electric current is known as photodiode 28.Define output resistance of transistor.
Its operation exactly opposite to that of an LED. The ratio of the change in collector-emitter
Photo diode works in reverse bias. voltage (ΔVCE) to the change in collector current
The circuit symbol of photo diode is given (ΔIC) at a constant base current (IB) is called the
below. output resistance (rO).

The output resistance is very low for a transistor

in common emitter configuration.

29.Define forward current gain.

The ratio of the change in collector current (ΔIC)
to the change in base current (ΔIB) at constant

collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is called forward multiples of 2π.

current gain (β). The loop gain must be unity. |Aβ| = 1
 Here, A → Voltage gain of the amplifier,
β → Feedback ratio
Its value is very high and it generally ranges 35.Give the applications of oscillator.
from 50 to 200. To generate a periodic sinusoidal or non
sinusoidal wave forms.
30.Give the relation between α and β To generate RF carriers.
Forward current gain in common base mode, To generate audio tones
To generate clock signal in digital circuits.
As sweep circuits in TV sets and CRO.
Forward current gain in common emitter mode,
36.Distinguish between analog and digital
signal.
From the above two equations, we have
Analog signal Digital signal

It is continuously It contains only two

varying voltage or discrete values
31.What is called transistor amplifier? current with respect to of voltages (i.e.) low
A transistor operating in the active region has the time (OFF) and high
capability to amplify weak signals. (ON)
Amplification is the process of increasing the
signal strength (increase in the amplitude).
These signals are These signals are
32. What is called transistor oscillator? employed in employed in signal
An electronic oscillator basically converts DC rectifying circuits and processing.
energy into AC energy of high frequency ranging transistor communication etc.,
from a few Hz to several MHz. Hence, it is a amplifier circuits
source of alternating current or voltage.
Unlike an amplifier, oscillator does not require any
external signal source.
37.Distinguish between positive and negative
logic.
33.Give the types of an oscillator.
There are two types of oscillators:
(1) Sinusoidal and Positive logic Negative logic
(2) Non-sinusoidal
Sinusoidal oscillators generate oscillations in the Binary 1 stands for +5 Binary 1 stands for 0V
form of sine waves at constant amplitude and V Binary 0 Binary 0 stands
frequency stands for 0 V for +5 V
Non-sinusoidal oscillators generate complex non-
sinusoidal waveforms like square wave, triangular
wave or saw-toothed wave

34.Give the Barkhausen conditions for

sustained oscillations.
The loop phase shift must be 00 or integral

38.Why digital signals are preferred than charge.carriers in semiconductors

analog signals?
Because of their better performance, accuracy, 44.Distinguish between digital IC and analog
speed, flexibility and immunity to noise. IC

39.. What are called logic gates? Digital IC Analog IC

A logic gate is an electronic circuit which functions
based on digital signals. Digital ICs uses digital Analog (or) linear ICs
They are considered as the basic building blocks signals (logical 0 and work with continuous
of most of the digital systems. 1). values.
It has one output with one or more inputs.
They usually find their Linear ICs are
40.State Demorgan’s theorems. applications in typically used in audio
Theorem - 1 : computers,networking and radio frequency
The complement of the sum of two logical inputs equipment, and most amplification.
is equal to the product of its complements. consumer electronics.

Theorem - 2 :
The complement of the product of two logical 45.A diode is called as a unidirectional
inputs is equal to the sum of its complements. device. Explain
An ideal diode behaves as conductor when it is
41.What is an integrated circuit? forward biased and behaves as an insulator
An integrated circuit (IC) or a chip or a microchip when it is reverse biased.
is an electronic circuit, which consists of Thus diode conducts current only from P -type to
thousands to millions of transistors, resistors, N -type through the junction when it is forward
capacitors, etc. integrated on a small flat piece biased.
of Silicon. Hence Diode is a unidirectional device.

42.What are the application of integrated 46.What is called modulation? Give its types.
circuits (ICs) For long distance transmission, the low
● Low cost frequency base band signal (input signal) is
● great performance. superimposed on to a high frequency carrier
● Very small in size signal (radio signal) by a process called
● High reliability modulation.
● They can function as an amplifier, (1) Amplitude Modulation (AM)
oscillator, timer, microprocessor and (2) Frequency Modulation (FM)
computer memory. (3) Phase Modulation (PM)

43.How electron-hole pairs are created in a 47.What is the necessity of modulation?

semiconductor material? When the information signal of low frequency is
A small increase in temperature is sufficient transmitted over a long distances, there will be
enough to break some of the covalent bonds and information loss occurs.
release the electrons free from the lattice. As the frequency of the carrier signal is very
Hence a vacant site is created in the valence high, it can be transmitted to long distances with
band and this vacancies are called less attenuation.
holes which are treated to possess positive Thus in the modulation process, carrier signal of
charges. very high frequency signal(radio signal) is used
Thus electrons and holes are the two to carry the baseband signal(information)

48.Define amplitude modulation (AM) like speech, music, pictures, or computer data.
If the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified The electrical equivalent of the original
according to the instantaneous amplitude of the information is called the baseband signal.
baseband signal, then it is called amplitude
modulation (AM) 55.Define band width.
The frequency range over which the baseband
49. Give the advantages and limitations of signals or the information signals such as voice,
amplitude modulation (AM) music, picture, etc. is transmitted is known as
Advantages of AM : bandwidth.
Easy transmission and reception Bandwidth gives the difference between the
Lesser bandwidth requirements upper and lower frequency limits
Low cost of the signal.
Limitations of AM : If ν1 and ν2 are the lower and upper-frequency
Noise level is high limits of a signal, then the bandwidth,
Low efficiency
Small operating range 56.Define the size of the antenna.
Antenna is used at both transmitter and receiver
50.Define frequency modulation (FM) end.
If the frequency of the carrier signal is modified Antenna height is an important parameter to be
according to the instantaneous amplitude of the discussed. The height of the antenna must be a
baseband signal then it is called frequency multiple of λ/4
modulation (FM)

51.Define phase modulation (PM) . (i.e.)

The instantaneous amplitude of the baseband
signal modifies the phase of the carrier signal 57.What are the three modes of propagation
keeping the amplitude and frequency constant is of electromagnetic waves through space.
called phase modulation Ground wave propagation (or) surface wave
propagation (nearly 2 kHz to 2 MHz)
52.What is called centre frequency (resting Sky wave propagation (or) ionospheric
frequency)? propagation (nearly 3 MHz to 30 MHz)
When the frequency of the baseband signal is Space wave propagation (nearly 30MHz to
zero (no input signal), there is no change in the 400GHz)
frequency of the carrier wave.
It is at its normal frequency and is called as 58. Define sky wave propagation.
centre frequency or resting frequency. The mode of propagation in which the
electromagnetic waves radiated from an
Practically 75 kHz is the allotted frequency of the
FM transmitter. antenna, directed upwards at large angles gets
reflected by the ionosphere back to earth is called
53.Compare FM and PM ? sky wave propagation or ionospheric
PM wave is similar to FM wave. propagation.
PM generally uses a smaller bandwidth than FM. The corresponding waves are called sky waves
In other words, in PM, more information can be
sent in a given bandwidth. 59.Define skip distance.
Hence, phase modulation provides high The shortest distance between the transmitter
transmission speed on a given bandwidth. and the point of reception of the sky wave along
the surface is called as the skip distance
54.What is called base band signals?
Information can be in the form of a sound signal
60.Define skip zone.
There is a zone in between where there is no Its conduction is low. Its conduction is high.
reception of electromagnetic waves neither
ground nor sky, called as skip zone or skip area. (e.g.) Silicon, (e.g.) P - type and N-
Germanium type semiconductor
61.What is space wave propagation?
The process of sending and receiving information
signal through space is called space wave SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (3 MARKS)
communication 1.Define junction potential or barrier
The electromagnetic waves of very high potential.
frequencies above 30 MHz are called as space When P - type and N - type semiconductors
waves. combine to form PN junction, due to diffusion of
majority charge carriers a depletion region is
62.Define fiber optical communication. formed near the junction.
The method of transmitting information from one It prevents the charge carriers to further diffusion
place to another in terms of light pulses through across the junction. Because a potential
an optical fiber is called fiber optic difference is set up by the immobile ions in this
communication. depletion region.
It works on the principle of total internal reflection. This difference in potential across the depletion
layer is called the barrier potential or junction
63.What is mean by RADAR? potential. This barrier potential approximately
Radar basically stands for RAdio Detection And equals 0.7 V for Silicon and 0.3 V for Germanium.
Ranging System.
It is one of the important applications of 2.Write a note on Zener breakdown.
communication systems and is mainly used to It will occur in heavily doped P-N junction which
sense, detect, and locate distant objects like have narrow depletion layers (< 10-6 m)
aircraft, ships, spacecraft, etc. When a reverse voltage across this junction is
increased to the breakdown limit, a very strong
7 –
64. What do you mean by Internet of Things? electric field of strength 3 X 10 V m 1 is set up
Using Internet of Things (IoT), it is made possible across the narrow layer.
to control various devices from a single device. This electric field is strong enough to break or
(e.g.) Home automation using a mobile phone rupture the covalent bonds in the lattice and
65.Distinguish between intrinsic and thereby generating electron-hole pairs. This effect
extrinsic semiconductors. is called Zener effect.
Even a small further increase in reverse voltage
produces a large number of charge carriers.
Intrinsic Extrinsic Hence the junction has very low resistance in the
Semiconductors Semiconductors breakdown region.
This process of emission of electrons due to the
A semiconductor in its The semiconductor rupture of bands in from the lattice due to strong
pure form without obtained by doping electric field is known as internal field emission or
impurity is called an either pentavalent field ionization.
intrinsic impurity or trivalent The electric field required for this is of the order of
semiconductor. impurity is called 106 V m–1
extrinsic
semiconductor. 3. Write a note on avalanche break down.
It will occurs in lightly doped junctions which have
wide depletion layers.
Here the electric field is not strong enough to
produce breakdown. mode, the transistor functions as an amplifier.
But the minority charge carriers accelerated by (2) Saturation :
the electric field gains sufficient kinetic energy, Here, both the emitter-base junction (JEB) and
collide with the semiconductor atoms while collector-base junction (JCB) are forward biased.
passing through the depletion region. The transistor has a very large flow of currents
Thisleads to the breaking of covalent bonds and across the junctions and in this mode, transistor
in turn generates electron-hole pairs. is used as a closed switch.
The newly generated charge carriers are also (3) Cut-off :
accelerated by the electric field resulting in more In this bias, both the emitter-base junction (JEB)
collisions and further production of charge and collector-base junction (JCB) are reverse
carriers. biased.
This cumulative process leads to an avalanche Transistor in this mode is an open switch.
of charge carriers across the junction and
consequently reduces the reverse resistance. 6.Draw the circuit diagram of common base
This is known as avalanche breakdown. configurations of NPN transistor.
Here the diode current increases sharply. Input terminal - Emitter
Output terminal - Collector
4.Write a note on bipolar junction Common terminal - Base
transistor(BJT). Input current = IE
The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) consists of a Output current = IC
semiconductor (Silicon or Germanium) crystal in The input signal (VBE) is applied across
which an N-type material is sandwiched between emitter - base junction
two P-type materials called PNP transistor or a P The output signal (VCB) is measured across
-type material sandwiched between two N-type collector - base junction.
materials called NPN transistor.
The three regions formed are called emitter (E),
base (B) and collector (C)

7.Draw the circuit diagram of common

emitter configurations of NPN transistor.
Input termial - Base
Output terminal - Collector
Common terminal - Emitter
Input current = IB
Output current = IC
The input signal (VBE) is applied across
base - emitter junction
The output signal (VCE) is measured across
collector - emitter junction.
5.Discuss the different modes of transistor
biasing.
(1) Forward Active :
In this bias the emitter-base junction (JEB) is
forward biased and the collector-base junction
(JCB) is reverse biased.
The transistor is in the active mode and in this
8.Draw the circuit diagram of common
emitter configurations of NPN transistor.
Input termial - Base
Output terminal - Emitter
Common terminal - Collector
Input current = IB
Output current = IE
The input signal (VBC) is applied across Boolean expression :
base - collector junction Ley A and B are the inputs and Y be the output,
The output signal (VEC) is measured across then Y = A . B
emitter - collector junction. Logical operation :
The output of AND gate is high (1) only when all
the inputs are high (1).
The rest of the cases the output is low (0)

11.Give the circuit symbol, Boolean

expression, logical operation and truth table
9.Draw the block diagram of an oscillator of OR gate .
Block diagram of oscillator : OR gate - circuit symbol :
Oscillator essensially consists three main parts,
(1) Tank circuit :
The tank circuit generates electrical oscillations
and acts as the AC input source to the transistor
amplifier.
(2) Amplifier :
Amplifier amplifies the input ac signal.
(3) Feed back network :
The feedback circuit provides a portion of the
output to the tank circuit to sustain the
oscillations without energy loss.
Hence, an oscillator does not require an external
input signal.
The output is said to be self-sustained. Boolean expression :
Let A and B are the inputs and Y be the output,
then Y = A +B
Logical operation :
The output of OR gate is high (1) when either of
the inputs or both are high (1)

12.Give the circuit symbol, Boolean

10.Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical operation and truth table
expression, logical operation and truth table of NOT gate .
of AND gate . NOR gate - circuit symbol
AND gate - circuit symbol
 NOR gate - circuit symbol

Boolean expression :
Boolean expression : Ley A and B are the inputs and Y be the output,
If A be the input and Y be the output, then then Y = A̅ +̅̅B̅
Y = A̅ Logical operation :
Logical operation : The output Y equals the complement of OR
The output is the complement of the input. It is operation
represented with an overbar. The circuit is an OR gate followed by a NOT
It is also called as inverter. gate and is summarized as NOR
The output Y is high (1), when input is low (0) The output is high (1) when all the inputs are low
and vice versa. (0).
The rest of the cases, the output is low (0)
13.Give the circuit symbol, Boolean
expression, logical operation and truth table
of NAND gate .
NAND gate - circuit symbol :

Boolean expression :
Ley A and B are the inputs and Y be the output, 15.Give the circuit symbol, Boolean
then Y = A̅ .̅B
̅̅ expression, logical operation and truth table
Logical operation : of EX-OR gate .
The output Y equals the complement of AND EX-OR gate - circuit symbol :
operation.
The circuit is an AND gate followed by a NOT
gate. Therefore, it is summarized
as NAND.
The output is at low (0) only when all the inputs Boolean expression :
are high (1). Ley A and B are the inputs and Y be the output,
The rest of the cases, the output is high (1) then Y = A . B̅ + A̅ . B = A ⨁ B
Logical operation :
The output Y is high (1) only when either of the
two inputs is high (1).
In the case of an Ex-OR gate with more than two
inputs, the output will be high
(1) when odd number of inputs are high (1)

14. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean

expression, logical operation and truth table
of NOR gate .

16.Give the advantages and limitations of using a mobile phone.

frequency modulation (FM) It enables smart classrooms, online availability
Advantages of FM : of notes, monitoring student activities etc. in the
1.Large decrease in noise. This leads to an field of education.
increase in signal-noise ratio.
2.The operating range is quite large. 19.Write a note on internet and give its
3.The transmission efficiency is very high as all applications.
the transmitted power is useful. Internet is a fast growing technology in the field
4.FM bandwidth covers the entire frequency of communication system with
range which humans can hear. Due multifaceted tools.
to this, FM radio has better quality compared to Internet is the largest computer network
AM radio. recognized globally that connects
Limitations of FM : millions of people through computers.
1.FM requires a much wider channel. It finds extensive applications in all walks of life.
2.FM transmitters and receivers are more Applications :
complex and costly. Search engine :
3.In FM reception, less area is covered The search engine is basically a web-based
compared to AM. service tool used to search for
information on World Wide Web.
17.Write a note on ground wave propagation. Communication :
If the electromagnetic waves transmitted by the It helps millions of people to connect with the
transmitter glide over the surface of the earth to use of social networking: emails, instant
reach the receiver, then the propagation is called messaging services and social networking tools.
ground wave propagation. E-Commerce :
The corresponding waves are called ground Buying and selling of goods and services,
waves transfer of funds are done over an
It is mainly used in local broadcasting, radio electronic network.
navigation, for ship-to-ship, shipto- shore
communication and mobile communication. 5 MARK LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS &
ANSWERS
18. Write a note on mobile communication 1. Explain the classification of solids on the
and give its applications. basis of energy band theory.
Mobile communication is used to communicate Classification of solids :
with others in different locations without the use Based on the energy band theory, solids are
of any physical connection like wires or cables classified in to three types, namely
It enables the people to communicate with each (1) Insulators
other regardless of a particular location like (2) Metals (Condutors)
office, house, etc. (3) Semiconductors
It also provides communication access to remote
areas.
Applications :
It is used for personal communication and
cellular phones offer voice and data connectivity
with high speed.
Transmission of news across the globe is done
within a few seconds.
Using Internet of Things (IoT), it is made
possible to control various devices from a single
device. Example: home automation
Insulators : Hence, semiconductors are said to have negative
In insulator the valence band (VB) and the temperature coefficient of resistance.
conduction band (CB) are separated The most important elemental semiconductor
by a large energy gap. materials are Silicon (Si) and
The forbidden energy gap (Eg) is approximately 6 Germanium (Ge).
eV in insulators. At room temperature,
The gap is very large that electrons from valence forbidden energy gap for Si ; Eg = 1. 1 eV and
band cannot move into conduction band even on forbidden energy gap for Ge ; Eg = 0. 7 eV
the application of strong external electric field or
the increase in temperature. 2.Explain in detail the intrinsic semiconductor.
Therefore, the electrical conduction is not Intrinsic semiconductor :
possible as the free electrons are almost nil and A semiconductor in its pure form without impurity
hence these materials are called insulators. is called an intrinsic semiconductor.
Its resistivity is in the range of 1011 − 1019 Ω m (e.g) silicon, germanium
Metals (Conductors) : Consider Silicon lattice. Each Silicon atom is
In metals, the valence band and conduction band covalently bonded with the
overlap neighbouring four atoms to form the lattice.
Hence, electrons can move freely into the At absolute zero (0 K), this will behaves as
conduction band which results in a large number insulator, because there is no free charges.
of free electrons in the conduction band.
Therefore, conduction becomes possible even at
low temperatures.
The application of electric field provides sufficient
energy to the electrons to drift in a particular
direction to constitute a current.
For metals, the resistivity value lies between 10−2
− 10−8 Ω m
Semiconductors :
In semiconductors, there exists a narrow
forbidden energy gap (Eg < 3 eV)
between the valence band and the conduction
band.
At a finite temperature, thermal agitations in the
solid can break the covalent bond between the
atoms.
This releases some electrons from valence band
to conduction band.
Since free electrons are small in number, the
conductivity of the semiconductors is not as high But at room temperature, some of the covalent
as that of the conductors. bonds are brakes and releases
The resistivity value of semiconductors is from the electrons free from the lattice.
10−5 − 106 Ω m. As a result, some states in the valence band
When the temperature is increased further, more become empty and the same
number of electrons is promoted to the number of states in the conduction band will be
conduction band and increases the conduction. occupied.
Thus, the electrical conduction increases with the The vacancies produced in the valence band are
increase in temperature. (i.e.) resistance called holes which are treates as positive
decreases with increase in temperature. charges.
Hence, electrons and holes are the two charge At room temperature, these electrons can easily
carriers in semiconductors. move to the conduction band with the absorption
In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of of thermal energy.
electrons in the conduction band is equal to the The pentavalent impurity atoms donate electrons
number of holes in the valence band. to the conduction band and are called donor
The conduction is due to the electrons in the impurities. Therefore, each impurity atom
conduction band and holes in the provides one extra electron to the conduction
valence band band in addition to the thermally generated
The total current (I) is always the sum of the electrons.
electron current (Ie) and the holecurrent (Ih) Hence, in an N - type semiconductor,
I = Ie + Ih o the majority carriers – Electrons
The increase in temperature increases the o the minority carriers - Holes
number of charge carriers (electrons P - type semiconductor:
and holes). A n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a
pure Silicon (orGermanium) crystal with a
3.Elucidate the formation of a N-type and P-type dopant from trivalent elements like Boron,
semiconductors. Aluminium, Gallium d Indium
N - type semiconductor: The dopant has three valence electrons while
A n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a the Silicon atom has four valence electrons.
pure Silicon (or Germanium) crystal with a During the process of doping, the dopant with
dopant from pentavalent elements like three valence electrons are bound with the
Phosphorus, Arsenic, and Antimony neighbouring three Silicon atoms.
The dopant five valence electrons while the As Silicon atom has four valence electrons, on
Silicon atom has four valence electrons. electron position of the dopant in the crystal
During the process of doping, four of the five lattice will remain vacant.
valence electrons of the impurity atom are bound The missing electron position in the covalent
with the 4 valence electrons of the neighbouring bond is denoted as a hole.
replaced Silicon atom. To make complete covalent, the dopant is in
The fifth valence electron of the impurity atom need of one more electron.
will be loosely attached with the nucleus as it These dopants can accept electrons from the
has not formed the covalent bond. neighbouring atoms. Therefore, this impurity is
The energy level of the loosely attached fifth called an acceptor impurity.
electron is found just below the conduction band
edge and is called the donor energy level
The energy required to set free a donor electron
is only 0.01 eV for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si.
The energy level of the hole created by each and it constitutes a current called drift current.
impurity atom is just above the valence band The diffusion current and drift current flow in the
and is called the acceptor energy level. opposite direction and at one instant they both
For each acceptor atom, there will be a hole in become equal. Thus, a P-N junction is formed.
the valence band in addition to
the thermally generated holes.
Hence, in an P - type semiconductor, the
majority carriers - Holes
minority carriers - Electrons

4. Explain the formation of PN junction diode.

Discuss its V–I characteristics.
Formation of PN junction diode :
A P-N junction is formed by joining N -type and
V -I characteristics :
P-type semiconductor materials.
It is the study of the variation in current through
Here the N-region has a high electron
the diode with respect to the applied voltage
concentration and the P-region a high hole
across the diode when it is forward or reverse
concentration.
biased.
So the electrons diffuse from the N- side to the
P-side. Simillarly holes also diffuse from P - side
to the N- side. This causes diffusion current.
In a P-N junction, when the electrons and holes
move to the other side of the
junction, they leave behind exposed charges on
dopant atom sites, which are fixed in the crystal
lattice and are unable to move.
On the n-side, positive ion cores are exposed
and on the p- side, negative ion cores are
exposed
An electric field E forms between the positive ion
cores in the n-type material and negative ion
cores in the p-type material.
The electric field sweeps free carriers out of this
region and hence it is called depletion region as
it is depleted of free carriers. Forward bias characteristics :
A barrier potential (Vb) due to the electric field E If the positive terminal of the external voltage
is formed at the junction. source is connected to the P-side and the
As this diffusion of charge carriers from both negative terminal to the N-side, it is called
sides continues, the negative ions forward biased.
form a layer of negative space charge region A graph is plotted by taking the forward bias
along the p-side. voltage (V) along the x-axis and
Similarly, a positive space charge region is the current (I) through the diode along the y-axis.
This graph is called the forward V-I
formed by positive ions on the n- side.
characteristics.
The positive space charge region attracts
From the graph,
electrons from P-side to n-side and
(1) At room temperature, a potential difference
the negative space charge region attracts holes
equal to the barrier potential is required before a
from N-side to P -side.
reasonable forward current starts flowing across
This moment of carriers happen in this region
due to the formed electric field
The diode. This voltage is known as threshold During the positive half cycle
voltage or cut-in voltage or knee voltage (Vth). When the positive half cycle of the AC input signal
For Silicon ; Vth = 0. 7 V passes through the circuit,terminal A becomes
For Germanium ; Vth = 0. 3 V
positive with respect to terminal B. The diode is
(2) The graph clearly infers that the current flow
is not linear and is exponential. Hence it does forward biased and hence it conducts. The
not obey Ohm’s law. current flows through the load resistor RL and the
(3) The forward resistance (rf) of the diode is the AC voltage developed across RL constitutes the
ratio of the small change involtage (ΔV)to the output voltage V0and the waveform of the output
small change in current(ΔI), voltage is shown.
During the negative half cycle
When the negative half cycle of the AC input
(4) Thus the diode behaves as a conductor
signal passes through the circuit, terminal A is
when it is forward biased.
Reverse bias characteristics : negative with respect to terminal B. Now the
If the positive terminal of the battery is connected diode is reverse biased and does not conduct.
to the n-side and the negative Hence no current passes through RL. The reverse
potential to the p-side, the junction is said to be saturation current in a diode is negligible. Since
reverse biased. there is no voltage drop across RL the negative
A graph is drawn between the reverse bias half cycle of AC supply is suppressed at the
voltage and the current across the junction, which
output.
is called the reverse V - I characteristics.
Under this bias, a very small current in μA, flows The output of the half wave rectifier is not a steady
across the junction. This is due to the flow of the DC voltage but a pulsating wave. This pulsating
minority charge carriers called the leakage voltage cannot be used for electronic equipments.
current or reverse saturation current. A constant or a steady voltage is required which
For Silicon ; Ileakage = 20 μ A can be obtained with the help of filter circuits and
For Germanium ; Ileakage = 50 μ A voltage regulator circuits.
Besides, the current is almost independent of the
voltage.
The reverse bias voltage can be increased only
up to the rated value otherwise the diode will enter
into the breakdown region.

5.Draw the circuit diagram of a half wave

rectifier and explain its working.
The half wave rectifier circuit consists of a
transformer, a p-n junction diode and a
resistor . In a half wave rectifier circuit, either
a positive half or the negative half of the AC
input is passed through by the diode while the
other half is blocked.
Only one half of the input wave is rectified.
Therefore, it is called half wave rectifier. Here,
a p-n junction diode acts as a rectifier diode
Efficiency (η) is the ratio of the output DC power
to the AC input power supplied to the circuit. Its
value for half wave rectifier is 40.6 %.

6.Explain the construction and working of a

full wave rectifier.
The positive and negative half cycles of the AC
input signal are rectified in this circuit and hence
it is called the full wave rectifier. It consists of two
p-n junction diodes, a centre tap transformer and
a load resistor RL

The centre is usually taken as the ground or zero

voltage reference point. With the help of the
centre tap transformer, each diode rectifies one
half of the total secondary voltage
During positive half cycle When the positive half
cycle of the AC input signal passes through the
circuit, terminal M is positive, C is at zero potential 7.Write a note on Zener diode. Explain the V -
and N is at negative potential. This forward biases I characteristics of Zener diode.
diode D1 and reverse biases diode D2 Zener diode is a reverse biased heavily doped
Hence, being forward biased, diode D1 conducts Silicon diode, designed to be operated in the
and current flows along the path MD1ABC. breakdown region.
During negative half cycle When the negative Zener breakdown occurs due to the breaking of
half cycle of the AC input signal passes through covalent bonds by the strong electric field set up
the circuit, terminal N becomes positive, C is at in the depletion region by the reverse voltage.
zero potential and M is at negative potential. It produces an extremely large number of
This forward biases diode D2 and reverse biases electrons and holes which constitute
diode D1 . Hence, being forward biased, diode D2 the reverse saturation current.
conducts and current flows along the path
ND2ABC.
During both positive and negative half cycles of
the input signal, the current flows through the load
V-I Characteristics of Zener diode :
in the same direction. The output signal
The circuit to study the forward and reverse
corresponding to the input signal is shown .
characteristic s of a Zener diode is shown below.
Though both half cycles of AC input are rectified,
the output is still pulsating in nature.
The efficiency (η) of full wave rectifier is twice that
of a half wave rectifier and is found to be 81.2 %.
It is because of power losses in the winding, the
diode and the load Resistance.
The V-I characteristics of a Zener diode is shown neglected.
below. Thus the voltage of an ideal Zener diode does
The forward characteristic of a Zener diode is not change once it goes into breakdown.
similar to that of an ordinary P-N junction diode. It means that VZ remains almost constant even
It starts conducting approximately around 0.7 V. when IZ increases considerably.
However, the reverse characteristics is highly
significant in Zener diode. 8. Explain the working of Zener diode as a
The increase in reverse voltage normally voltage regulator.
generates very small reverse current. While in A Zener diode working in the breakdown region
Zener diode, when the reverse voltage is can serve as a voltage regulator.
increased to the breakdown voltage (VZ), the It maintains a constant output voltage even
increase in current is very sharp. when input voltage (Vi ) or load current (IL)
The voltage remains almost constant throughout varies. Here, in this circuit the input voltage Vi
the breakdown region. Here, IZ(max) represents is regulated at a constant voltage Vz (Zener
the maximum reverse current. voltage) at the output represented as V0 using a
If the reverse current is increased further, the Zener diode.
diode will be damaged. The output voltage is maintained constant as
The important parameters on the reverse long as the input voltage does not fall below Vz .
characteristics are When the potential developed across the diode
VZ→Zener breakdown voltage is greater than VZ, the diode moves into the
IZ(min)→minimum current to sustain breakdown Zener breakdown region.
IZ(max)→maximum current limited by maximum It conducts and draws relatively large current
power dissipation. through the series resistance RS
The total current I passing through RS equals the
sum of diode current IZ and load current IL (i.e.)

It is to be noted that the total current is always

less than the maximum Zener diode current.
Under all conditions VO = VZ .
Thus, output voltage is regulated.

The Zener diode is operated in the reverse bias

having the voltage greater thanVZ and current 9. What is meant by light emitting diode?
less than IZ(max). Explain its working principle with
The reverse characteristic is not exactly vertical diagram.
which means that the diode possesses some LED is a p-n junction diode which emits visible
small resistance called Zener dynamic or invisible light when it is forward biased. Since,
impedance. electrical energy is converted into light energy,
Zener resistance is the inverse of the slope in this process is also called electro luminescenceIt
the breakdown region. It means an increase in consists of a P-layer, N-layer and a substrate.
the Zener current produces only a very small
increase in the reverse voltage which can be
 Photo diode works in reverse bias. The direction
of arrows indicates that the light is incident on
the photo diode.
The device consists of a P-N junction
semiconductor made of photosensitive
material kept safely inside a plastic case . It has
a small transparent window that allows light to
be incident on the P-N junction.
Photodiodes can generate current when the P-N
junction is exposed to light and hence are called
A transparent window is used to allow light to as light sensors.
travel in the desired direction. When a photon of sufficient energy (h) strikes
In addition, it has two leads; anode and cathode. the depletion region of the diode, some of the
When the P-N junction is forward biased, the valence band electrons are elevated into
conduction band electrons on N- side and conduction band, in turn holes are developed in
valence band holes on P-side diffuse across the the valence band. This creates electron-hole
junction. pairs.
When they cross the junction, they become The amount of electron hole pairs generated
excess minority carriers (electrons in P-side and depends on the intensity of light incident on the
holes in N-side). P-N junction.
These excess minority carriers recombine with These electrons and holes are swept across the
oppositely charged majority carriers in the P-N junction by the electric field created by
respective regions, i.e. the electrons in the reverse voltage before recombination takes
conduction band recombine with holes in the place.
valence band Thus, holes move towards the N-side and
During recombination process, energy is released electrons towards the P-side. When the external
in the form of light (radiative) or heat (non- circuit is made, the electrons flow through the
radiative). external circuit and constitute the photocurrent.
For radiative recombination, a photon of energy When the incident light is zero, there exists a
hv is emitted. For non-radiative recombination, reverse current which is negligible.
energy is liberated in the form of heat. This reverse current in the absence of any
The colour of the light is determined by the energy incident light is called dark current and is due to
band gap of the material. the thermally generated minority carriers.
Therefore, LEDs are available in a wide range of
colours such as blue (SiC), green (AlGaP) and 11. Explain the working principle of Solar
red (GaAsP). Now a days, LED which emits white cell. Mention its applications.
light (GaInN) is also available. A solar cell, also known as photovoltaic cell,
converts light energy directly into electricity or
10. Explain in detail about the photo diode. electric potential difference by photovoltaic effect.
A P-N junction diode which converts an It is basically a P-N junction which generates emf
optical signal into electric current is known when solar radiation falls on the P- N junction.
as photodiode. A solar cell is of two types : P-type and N-type.
Thus, the operation of photodiode is exactly Both types use a combination of P-type and N-
opposite to that of an LED. type Silicon which together forms the P-N junction
of the solar cell.
 12. Explain transistor action in common base
configuration.

The difference is that P-type solar cells use P- Basically, a BJT can be considered as two P-N
type Silicon as the base with an ultra-thin layer of junction diodes connected back to- back.In the
N-type Silicon, while N-type solar cell uses the forward active bias of the transistor, the emitter-
opposite combination. base junction is forward biased by VEB
The other side of the P-Silicon is coated with and the collector-base junction is reverse biased
metal which forms the back electrical contact. by VCB.
On top of the N-type Silicon, metal grid is The forward bias decreases the depletion region
deposited which acts as the front electrical across the emitter-base junction and the reverse
contact. bias increases the depletion region across the
The top of the solar cell is coated with anti- collector-base junction.
reflection coating and toughened glass. Hence, the barrier potential across the emitter-
In a solar cell, electron–hole pairs are generated base junction is decreased and the collector-base
due to the absorption of light near the junction. junction is increased.
Then the charge carriers are separated due to the In an NPN transistor, the majority charge carriers
electric field of the depletion region. in the emitter are electrons.
Electrons move towards N–type Silicon and holes As it is heavily doped, it has a large number of
move towards P-type Siliconmlayer. electrons.
The electrons reaching the N-side are collected The forward bias across the emitter-base junction
by the front contact and holes reaching P-side are causes the electrons in the
collected by the back electrical contact. emitter region to flow towards the base region and
Thus a potential difference is developed across constitutes the emitter current (IE).
solar cell. The electrons after reaching the base region
When an external load is connected to the solar recombine with the holes in the base region.
cell, photocurrent flows through the load. Since the base region is very narrow and lightly
Many solar cells are connected together either in doped, all the electrons will not have sufficient
series or in parallel combination to form solar holes to recombine and hence most of the
panel or module. electrons reach the collector region.
Many solar panels are connected with each other Eventually, the electrons that reach the collector
to form solar arrays. For high power applications, region will be attracted by the collector terminal
solar panels and solar arrays are used. as it has positive potential and flows through the
Applications : external circuit. This constitutes the collector
(1) Solar cells are widely used in calculators, current (IC).
watches, toys, portable power The holes that are lost due to recombination in the
supplies, etc. base region are replaced by the positive potential
(2) Solar cells are used in satellites and space of the bias voltage VEB and constitute the base
applications current (IB ).
(3) Solar panels are used to generate electricity. The magnitude of the base current will be in
micrometers as against milliamperes for emitter
and collector currents.
Applying Kirchoff ’s law, we can write the emitter voltage (Vk) below which the base current is very
current as the sum of the collector current and small.
the base current. Beyond the knee voltage, the base current
increases with the increase in base- emitter
Since the base current is very small, we can voltage.
write, It is also noted that the increase in the collector-
There is another component of collector current emitter voltage decreases the
due to the thermally generated electrons called base current. This shifts the curve outward.
reverse saturation current, denoted as ICO. This is because the increase in collector-emitter
This factor is temperature sensitive. voltage increases the width of the depletion
The ratio of the collector current to the emitter region in turn, reduces the effective base width
current is called the forward current gain (αdc) of and thereby the base current.
a transistor. The ratio of the change in base-emitter voltage
(ΔVBE) to the change in base current (ΔIB) at a
constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is called
the input resistance (ri).
The α of a transistor is a measure of the quality
of a transistor. Higher the value of α better is the
transistor.
The value of α is less than unity and ranges from
0.95 to 0.99.

13. Sketch the static characteristics of a

common emitter transistor and bring out
the essence of input and output
characteristics.

The input resistance is high for a transistor in

VBE − Base - emitter voltage common emitter configuration.
VCE −Collector - emitter voltage (2) Output characteristics :
IB − Base current The output characteristics give the relationship
IC −Collector current between the variation in the collector current (ΔIC)
VBB & VCC −Biasing voltages with respect to the variation in collector-
R1 & R2 − Variable resistors emitter voltage (ΔVCE) at constant input current
(1) Input characteristics : (IB)
Input Characteristics curves give the relationship There are four important regions in the curve
between the base current (IB) and base to emitter (i) Saturation region
voltage (VBE) at constant collector to emitter (ii) Cut-off region
voltage (VCE) (iii) Active region
The curve looks like the forward characteristics of (iv) Break down region
an ordinary P-N junction diode. The ratio of the change in the collector emitter
There exists a threshold voltage or knee
voltage (ΔVCE) to the corresponding change in the 14. Transistor functions as a switch. Explain.
collector current (ΔIC) at constant base current
(IB) is called output resistance (rO).

The output resistance for transistor in common

emitter configuration is very low.

The transistor in saturation and cut-off regions

functions like an electronic switch that helps to
turn ON or OFF a given circuit by a small control
signal.
Presence of dc source at the input (saturation
region) :
When a high input voltage (Vin = +5 V) is applied,
the base current (IB) increases and in turn
increases the collector current.
The transistor will move into the saturation region
(3) Current transfer characteristics : (turned ON).
This gives the variation of collector current (IC) The increase in collector current (IC) increases
with changes in base current (IB) at constant the voltage drop across RC,
collector-emitter voltage (VCE) thereby lowering the output voltage, close to zero.
It is seen that a small IC flows even when IB is The transistor acts like a closed switch and is
zero. equivalent to ON condition.
This current is called the common emitter Absence of dc source at the input (cutoff
leakage current (ICEO), which is due to the flow of region) :
minority charge carriers. A low input voltage (Vin = 0 V ), decreases the
The ratio of the change in collector current (ΔIC) base current (IB) and in turn
to the change in base current (ΔIB) at constant decreases the collector current (IC).
collector- emitter voltage (VCE) is called The transistor will move into the cut-off region
forward current gain (β). (turned OFF).
The decrease in collector current (IC) decreases
the drop across RC, thereby
increasing the output voltage, close to +5 V.
Its value is very high and it generally ranges The transistor acts as an open switch which is
from 50 to 200. considered as the OFF condition.
It is manifested that, a high input gives a low
output and a low input gives a high output.
Therefore, a transistor can be used as an inverter
in computer logic circuitry.

15. Describe the function of a transistor as an

amplifier with the neat circuit diagram. Sketch
the input and output wave form.
Amplification is the process of increasing the
signal strength (increase in the amplitude).
If a large amplification is required, multistage in turn decreases the collector-emitter voltage
amplifier is used. (VCE).
Here, the amplification of an electrical signal is Therefore, the input signal in the positive
explained with a single stage transistor amplifier direction produces an amplified signal in the
circuit consists of one transistor with the allied negative direction at the output. Hence, the
components. output signal is reversed by 180°
(2) During the negative half cycle :
Input signal (Vs) decreases the forward voltage
across the emitter-base.
As a result, base current (IB) decreases and in
turn increases the collector current (IC).
The increase in collector current (IC) decreases
the potential drop across RC
and increases the collector-emitter voltage (VCE).
Thus, the input signal in the negative direction
produces an amplified signal in the positive
direction at the output.
Therefore, 1800 phase reversal is observed
An NPN transistor is connected in the common during the negative half cycle of the input signal
emitter configuration.
A load resistance, RC is connected in series with
the collector circuit to measure the output
voltage.
The capacitor C1 allows only the ac signal to
pass through.
The emitter bypass capacitor CE provides a low
reactance path to the amplified ac signal.
The coupling capacitor CC is used to couple one
stage of the amplifier with the next stage while
16. Explain the action transistor as an
constructing multistage amplifiers.
oscillator.
VS is the sinusoidal input signal source applied
An electronic oscillator basically converts dc
across the base-emitter.
energy into ac energy of high frequency ranging
The output is taken across the collector-emitter.
from a few Hz to several MHz.
The output is taken across the collector-emitter.
Hence, it is a source of alternating current or
Collector current, voltage.
Applying Kirchhoff ’s voltage law in the output Unlike an amplifier, oscillator does not require
loop, the collector-emitter voltage is any external signal source.
Basically, there are two types of oscillators:
Working of the amplifier : Sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal.
(1) During the positive half cycle :
Input signal (Vs) increases the forward voltage
across the emitter-base.
As a result, the base current (IB) increases.
Consequently, the collector current (IC)
increases β times.
This increases the voltage drop across RC which
Amplifier : 17. State and prove De Morgan’s First and
Amplification is the process of increasing Second theorems.
amplitude of weak signals (i.e) De Morgan’s First Theorem :
Amplifier amplifies the input ac signal The complement of the sum of two logical inputs
Feedback network : is equal to the product of its complements.
The circuit used to feedback a portion of the
output to the input is called the feedback network.
If the portion of the output fed to the input is in
phase with the input, then the magnitude of the
input signal increases.
It is necessary for sustained oscillations.
Tank circuit : From the above truth table, we can conclude
The LC tank circuit consists of an inductance and
a capacitor connected in parallel Whenever
energy is supplied to the tank circuit from a DC It also says that a NOR gate is equal to a bubbled
source, the energy is stored in inductor and AND gate.
capacitor alternatively. The corresponding logic circuit diagram
This produces electrical oscillations of definite
frequency.
But in practical oscillator circuits there will be loss
of energy across resistors, inductor coils and
capacitors.
Due to this, the amplitude of the oscillations De Morgan’s First Theorem :
decreases gradually. Hence, the tank circuit The complement of the products of two logical
produces damped electrical oscillations. inputs is equal to the sum of its complements.
Therefore, in order to produce undamped
oscillations, a positive feedback is provided from
the output circuit to the input circuit.
The frequency of oscillations is determined by the
values of L and C using the equation.

From the above truth table, we can conclude

It also says that a NAND gate is equal to a

bubbled OR gate.
The corresponding logic circuit diagram

Hence proved

18. State Boolean laws. Elucidate how they

are used to simplify Boolean expressions with
suitable example.
Boolean laws : Types of modulation :
(1) Complement law : (1) Amplitude modulation (AM)
(i) A̿ = A (2) Frequency modulation (FM)
(2) OR -Laws: (3) Phase modulation (PM)
(i) A + 0 = A Amplitude modulation (AM) :
(ii) A + 1 = 1 If the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified
(iii) A + A = A according to the instantaneous amplitude of the
(iv) A + A̅= 1 baseband signal, then it is called amplitude
(3) AND -Laws: modulation.
(i) A .0 = 0 Here the frequency and the phase of the carrier
(ii) A .1 = A signal remain constant.
(iii) A . A = A
(iv) A . A̅= 0
(4) Commutative Laws :
(i) A + B = B + A
(ii) A . B = B . A
(5) Associative Laws :
(i) A + (B + C) = (A + B)+C
(ii) A . (B. C) = (A . B). C
(6) Distributive Laws :
(i) A (B + C) = A B +A C
(ii) A + (B C) = (A + B)(A + C)
Example :
Simplify the following Boolean expression.
AC + ABC
Solution :
AC + ABC = AC (1 + B)
AC + ABC = AC .1 [OR −law (2) ]
AC + ABC = AC [AND −law (2) ] We can see clearly that the carrier wave is
Circuit description modified in proportion to the amplitude of the
baseband signal.
Amplitude modulation is used in radio and TV
broadcasting.
Advantages of AM :
Easy transmission and reception
Lesser bandwidth requirements
Low cost
Limitations of AM :
19. What is called modulation? Explain the Noise level is high
types of modulation with help of necessary Low efficiency
diagrams. Small operating range
For long distance transmission, the low Frequency modulation (FM) :
frequency baseband signal (input signal) is If the frequency of the carrier signal is modified
superimposed onto a high frequency radio signal according to the instantaneous amplitude of the
by a process called modulation. baseband signal, then it is called frequency
In the modulation process, a very high frequency modulation.
signal called carrier signal (radio signal) is used Here the amplitude and the phase of the carrier
to carry the baseband signal. signal remain constant.
 called phase modulation
This modulation is used to generate frequency
modulated signals.

20. Elaborate on the basic elements of

communication system with the necessary
block diagram.
Electronic communication is nothing but the
transmission of sound, text, pictures, or data
through a medium.
Basic elements of communication system :
(1) Input transducer :
A transducer is a device that converts variations
in a physical quantity (pressure, temperature,
When the amplitude of the baseband signal is sound) into an equivalent electrical signal or vice
zero, the frequency of the modulated signal is the versa.
same as the carrier signal. In communication system, the transducer
The frequency of the modulated wave increases converts the information which is in the form of
when the amplitude of the baseband signal sound, music, pictures or computer data into
increases in the positive direction (A, C). corresponding electrical signals.
The increase in amplitude in the negative half The electrical equivalent of the original
cycle (B, D) reduces the frequency of the information is called the baseband signal. (e.g.)
modulated wave microphone
When the frequency of the baseband signal is (2) Transmitter :
zero (no input signal), there is no change in the It feeds the electrical signal from the transducer
frequency of the carrier wave. to the communication channel.
It is at its normal frequency and is called as centre The transmitter is located at the broadcasting
frequency or resting frequency. station.
Practically 75 kHz is the allotted frequency of the
FM transmitter.
Advantages of FM :
Large decrease in noise. This leads to an
increase in signal-noise ratio.
The operating range is quite large.
The transmission efficiency is very high as all the
transmitted power is useful. It consists,
FM bandwidth covers the entire frequency range (i) Amplifier : The transducer output is very weak
which humans can hear. Due to this, FM radio has and is amplified by the amplifier.
better quality compared to AM radio. (ii) Oscillator : It generates high-frequency carrier
Limitations of FM : wave (a sinusoidal
FM requires a much wider channel. wave) for long distance transmission into space.
FM transmitters and receivers are more complex (iii) Modulator : It superimposes the baseband
and costly. signal onto the carrier signal and generates the
In FM reception, less area is covered compared modulated signal.
to AM. (iv) Power amplifier : It increases the power level
Phase modulation (PM) : of the electrical signal in order to cover a large
The instantaneous amplitude of the baseband distance.
signal modifies the phase of the carrier signal
keeping the amplitude and frequency constant is
(3) Transmitting antenna : Ground wave propagation :
It radiates the radio signal into space in all If the electromagnetic waves transmitted by the
directions. transmitter glide over the surface of the earth to
It travels in the form of electromagnetic waves reach the receiver, then the propagation is called
with the velocity of light (3 × 108 m s–1) ground wave propagation.
(4) Communication channel : The corresponding waves are called ground
Communication channel is used to carry the waves or surface waves.
electrical signal from transmitter to receiver with Both transmitting and receiving antennas must be
less noise or distortion. close to the earth.
The communication medium is basically of two The size of the antenna plays a major role in
types: wireline communication and wireless deciding the efficiency of the radiation of signals.
communication. During transmission, the electrical signals are
(5) Receiver : attenuated over a distance.
The signals that are transmitted through the Some reasons for attenuation are as follows:
communication medium are received with the • Increasing distance
help of a receiving antenna and are fed into the • Absorption of energy by the Earth
receiver. • Tilting of the wave
The receiver consists of electronic circuits like It is mainly used in local broadcasting, radio
demodulator, amplifier, detector etc. navigation, for ship-to-ship, shipto- shore
communication and mobile communication.
Sky wave propagation :
The mode of propagation in which the
electromagnetic waves radiated from an antenna,
directed upwards at large angles gets reflected by
the ionosphere back to earth is called sky wave
propagation or ionospheric propagation.
Extremely long distance communication is
possible as the radio waves can undergo multiple
The demodulator extracts the baseband signal reflections between the earth and the ionosphere.
from the carrier signal. The phenomenon of bending the radio waves
Then the baseband signal is detected and back to earth is due to the total internal reflection.
amplified using amplifiers. Finally, it is fed to the This is the reason why the EM waves are
output transducer. transmitted at a critical angle to ensure that the
(6) Output transducer : waves undergo total reflection and reaches the
It converts the electrical signal back to its original ground without escaping into space.
form such as sound,music, pictures or data. (e.g.) The shortest distance between the transmitter
loudspeakers, picture tubes, computer monitor, and the point of reception of the sky wave along
etc. the surface is called as the skip distance
There is a zone in between where there is no
21. Explain the three modes of propagation of reception of electromagnetic waves neither
electromagnetic waves through space. ground nor sky, called as skip zone or skip area.
Modes of propagation of electromagnetic waves Space wave propagation :
The electromagnetic wave transmitted by : The process of sending and receiving information
(1) Ground wave propagation (or) surface wave signal through space is called
propagation (2 kHz to 2 MHz) space wave communication
(2) Sky wave propagation (or) ionospheric The electromagnetic waves of very high
propagation (3 MHz to 30 MHz)
(3) Space wave propagation (30 MHz to 400
GHz)
frequencies above 30 MHz are called as space It is also called as a radio repeater in sky.
waves. Applications :
These waves travel in a straight line from the (1) Weather Satellites:
transmitter to the receiver. Hence, it is used for a They are used to monitor the weather and climate
line of sight communication (LOS). of Earth.
For high frequencies, the transmission towers By measuring cloud mass, these satellites enable
must be high enough so that the transmitted and us to predict rain and dangerous storms like
received signals (direct waves) will not encounter hurricanes, cyclones etc.
the curvature of the earth and hence travel with (2) Communication satellites:
less attenuation and loss of signal They are used to transmit television, radio,
strength. internet signals etc. Multiple satellites are used for
Certain waves reach the receiver after getting long distances.
reflected from the ground. (3) Navigation satellites:
The communication systems like television These are employed to determine the geographic
broadcast, satellite communication, and RADAR location of ships, aircrafts or any other object.
are based on space wave propagation.
The range or distance (d) of coverage of the 23. Explain the function of RADAR. Give its
propagation depends on the height (h) of the applications.
antenna given by the equation, Radar basically stands for RAdioDetection And
Ranging System.
where, R → Radius of earth (6400 km) It is one of the important applications of
communication systems and is mainly used to
22. Explain satellite communication. sense, detect, and locate distant objects like
aircraft, ships, spacecraft, etc.
The angle, range, or velocity of the objects that
are invisible to the human eye can be determined.
Radar uses electromagnetic waves for
communication.
The electromagnetic signal is initially radiated into
space by an antenna in all directions.
When this signal strikes the targeted object, it
gets reflected or reradiated in many directions.
The satellite communication is a mode of
This reflected (echo) signal is received by the
communication of signal between transmitter and
radar antenna which in turn is delivered to the
receiver via satellite.
receiver.
The message signal from the Earth station is
Then, it is processed and amplified to determine
transmitted to the satellite on board
the geographical statistics of the object.
via an uplink (frequency band 6 GHz), amplified
The range is determined by calculating the time
by a transponder and then retransmitted to
taken by the signal to travel from RADAR to the
another earth station via a downlink (frequency
target and back.
band 4 GHz)
Applications :
The high-frequency radio wave signals travel in a
In military, it is used for locating and detecting the
straight line (line of sight) may come across tall
targets.
buildings or mountains or even encounter the
It is used in navigation systems such as ship
curvature of the earth.
borne surface search, air search and weapons
A communication satellite relays and amplifies
guidance systems.
such radio signals via transponder to reach
To measure precipitation rate and wind speed in
distant and far off places using uplinks and
downlinks.
meteorological observations, Radars are used. transmission rate compared to any other
It is employed to locate and rescue people in form of transmission.
emergency situations. It can provide data speed of 1 Gbps for homes
and business.
24. Fiber optic communication is gaining Multimode fibers operate at the speed of 10
popularity among the various transmission Mbps.
media -justify. Recent developments in optical communication
Fiber optic communication : provide the data speed at the rate of 25 Gbps
The method of transmitting information from one
place to another in terms of light pulses through
an optical fiber is called fiber optic
communication.
It is in the process of replacing wire transmission
in communication systems.
Light has very high frequency (400THz –790 THz)
than microwave radio systems.
The fibers are made up of silica glass or silicon
dioxide which is highly abundant on Earth.
Now it has been replaced with materials such as
chalcogenide glasses, fluoroaluminate crystalline
materials because they provide larger infrared
wavelength and better transmission capability.
As fibers are not electrically conductive, it is
preferred in places where multiple channels are
to be laid and isolation is required from electrical
and electromagnetic interference.
Applications :
Optical fiber system has a number of applications
namely, international communication, inter-city
communication, data links, plant and traffic
control and defense applications.
Merits :
Fiber cables are very thin and weigh lesser than
copper cables.
This system has much larger band width. This
means that its information carrying capacity is
larger.
Fiber optic system is immune to electrical
interferences.
Fiber optic cables are cheaper than copper
cables.
Demerits :
Fiber optic cables are more fragile when
compared to copper wires.
It is an expensive technology.
Importance :
Fiber optic cables provide the fastest

11.RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PHYSICS

1. Distinguish between nano science and Robot is a mechanical device designed with
Nanotechnology. electronic circuitry and programmed to perform a
Nanoscience : specific task.
It is the science of objects with typical size 1 - 100
nm 5. What are the components of robotics?
Nano means one - billionth of a metre. The robotic system mainly consists of
(i.e) 10−9 m (1) Sensors
Nanotechnology : (2) Power supplies
It is a technology involving the design, production, (3) Control systems
characterization and application of nano (4) Manipulators
structured materials (5) Necessary softwares

2. What is the difference between Nano 6. Give the types of robots.

materials and Bulk materials? (1) Human robot :
If the particle of a solid is of size less than 100 nm, Certain robots are made to resemble humans in
it is said to be a ‘nano solid’. appearance and replicate the human activities
When the particle size exceeds 100 nm, it is a like walking, lifting and sensing etc
‘bulk solid’ (2) Industrial robots :
Though nano and bulk solids have same Six main types of industrial robots are Cartesian,
chemical composition, nano form of the material SCARA, Cylindrical, Delta, Polar and Vertically
shows strikingly different properties when articulated.
compared to its bulk They are ideal for Arc welding, Spot welding,
Counterpart. Material handling, machine tending and other
applications.
3. Give the interdisciplinary nature of nano
technology. 7. What is artificial intelligence? What are its
Nano science and technology is the work?
interdisciplinary area covering its applications in The aim of artificial intelligence is to bring in
various fields. They are, human like behavior in robots.
(1) Physics It works on,
(2) Chemistry (1) Face recognition
(3) Electrical & Mechanical Engineering (2) Providing response to player’s actions is
(4) Material science computer games
(5) Molecular Biology (3) Taking decisions based on previous actions
(6) Applied Mathematics & Computer science (4) To regulate the traffic by analyzing the density
of traffic on roads
4. What is robotics? (5) Translate words from one language to another
Robotics is an integrated study of mechanical
engineering, electronic
engineering, computer engineering and science.
8. Write a note on nano robots. Nano materials are synthesized by assembling
Nano robots : the atoms or molucles
The size of the nano ronots is reduced to together. Selectively atoms are added to create
microscopic level to perform a task in very small structures.
spaces. In future nano robots are used in the (e.g.) plasma etching and chemical vapour
medical fields. deposition
Nano robots in blood stream to perform small
surgical procedures, to fight against bacteria, 2.. Give the applications of robot in various
repairing individual cell in the body. fields.
Weaponry, packing, Lawn mowing, cutting,
under water, agriculture, pool cleaning
9. Why steels are preferred to make robots?
Welding, cutting, assembling, litter robot,
For robots, aluminum and steel are the most transport.
common metals. Vacuum cleaners, hospitals, surgery, laboratory
Aluminum is a softer metal and is therefore easier Exploring stars, planets etc., investigation of the
to work with it. mineralogy of the rocks and
But steel is several times stronger and because soils on Mars, analysis of elements found in
of the inherent strength of steel, robot bodies are rocks and soils
made using sheet, bar, rod, channel and other
3. What is particle physics? Write down its
shapes. recent development.
The study of the theory of fundamental particles
10.What is Cosmology? of nature is called particle physics.
Cosmology is the branch that involves the origin Initially it was thought that atom is the
and evolution of the universe. fundamental entity of matter. But in 1930, it was
It deals with the formation of stars, galaxy etc. established that atoms are made up of electrons,
protons and neutrons
In 1960, it was discovered that protons and
3 Marks neutrons were made up of quarks.
1.Explain how nano structures are made in the Later it was found that quarks interact through
laboratory? gluons.
Recently in 2013, famous Higgs particles also
Nano in laboratories :
known as God particles were discovered which
The nano structrures made in the laboratory gives mass to many particles like protons,
mimic some of the nature’s amazing nano neutrons etc
structures.
There are two ways of preparing the 4.What are called gravitational waves?
nanomaterials. They are. The disturbances in the curvature of space-time
is called gravitational waves.
(1) Top - Down approach
Its travels with speed of light.
(2) Bottom - Up approach Any accelerated charge emits electromagnetic
(1) Top - Down approach : waves. Similarly any accelerated
Nano materials are synthesized by breaking mass emits gravitational waves.
down bulk solids in to nano sizes. But these gravitational waves are very weak even
(e.g) Ball milling, sol-gel, lithography for masses like earth.
(2) Bottom - up approach : The strongest source of gravitational waves are
black holes.
The recent discoveries of gravitational waves are arrangement. This structure gives parrot fish
emitted by two black holes teeth incredible durability.
when they merge to a single black hole. It provides a blue print for creating ultra-durable
In 1915, Albert Einstein theoretically proposed the
synthetic materials that could be useful for
existence of gravitational waves. After 100 years,
it is experimentally proved that his predictions are mechanical components in electronics and in
correct. other
devices that undergo repetitive movement,
5.Write a note on black holes. abrasion and contact stress
Black holes are end stage of stars which are (5) Lotus Leaf surface :
highly dense massive object. Scanning electron micrograph (SEM) gives the
Its mass ranges 20 times mass of the sun to 1
nano structures on the surface of a leaf from a
million times mass of the sun.
It has very strong gravitational force such that no lotus plant.
particle or even light can escape from it. This is the reason for self cleaning process on
The existence of black hole is studied when the lotus leaf.
stars orbiting the black hole 2. Discuss the functions of key components in
behave differently from the other stars. Robots?
Every galaxy has black hole at its centre. Functions of key components of Robots :
Sagittarius A* is the black hole at the centre of the
Most robots are composed of 3 main parts:
Milky Way galaxy.
(1) Controller
5 marks (2) Mechanical parts
1. Explain Nano structure in nature with (3) Sensors
examples. Controller :
Nano in nature : It is also known as the "brain" which is run by a
(1) Single strand DNA : computer program.
It is the basic building block of all living things. It It gives commands for the moving parts to
is about 3 nm wide perform the job.
(2) Morpho butterfly : Mechanical parts :
The scales of the wings of this butterfly contains It consists motors, pistons, grippers, wheels, and
nano structures. gears that make the robot
When light wave interact with this giving the wings move, grab, turn, and lift.
brilliant metallic blue and green hues. Sensors :
(3) Peacock feathers : It tells the robot about its surroundings. It helps to
They get their iridescent coloration from light determine the sizes and
interacting with 2 dimensional photonic crystal shapes of the objects around, distance between
structures just tens of nanometers thick Similar the objects, and directions as
nano structures are made in lab to glow in well.
different colors
(4) Parrot fish : 3. Explain the various components of
It crunches up coral all day. robotics.
The source of powerful bite is the interwoven fiber Power conversion unit:
nanostructure. Robots are powered by batteries, solar power,
Crystals of a mineral called fluorapatite are woven and hydraulics.
together in a chain mail- like Converts energy into Actuators:
The adsorbing nature depends on the surface of
movement. The majority of the actuators produce the nanoparticle. Indeed, it is possible to deliver a
rotational or linear motion. drug directly to a specific cell in the body by
Electric motors: designing the surface of a nanoparticle so that it
adsorbs specifically on to the surface of the
They are used to actuate the parts of the robots
target cell.
like wheels, arms, fingers, legs, sensors, camera, The interaction with living systems is also affected
weapon systems etc. by the dimensions of the nanoparticles.
Different types of electric motors are used. The Nanoparticles can also cross cell membranes. It
most often used ones are AC motor, Brushed DC is also possible for the inhaled nanoparticles to
motor, Brushless DC motor, Geared DC motor, reach the blood, to reach other sites such as the
etc. liver, heart or blood cells.
Researchers are trying to understand the
Pneumatic Air Muscles:
response of living organisms to the presence of
They are devices that can contract and expand nanoparticles of varying size, shape, chemical
when air is pumped inside. composition and surface characteristics.
It can replicate the function of a human muscle.
eye contract almost 40% when the air is sucked 5.Mention the advantages and disadvantages
inside them. of Robotics.
Muscle wires: Advantages of robotics :
The robots are much cheaper than humans.
They are thin strands of wire made of shape
Robots never get tired like humans. Hence
memory alloys. ey can contract by 5% when absenteeism in work place can be reduced.
electric current is passed through them. Robots are more precise and error free in
Piezo Motors and Ultrasonic Motors: performing the task.
Basically, we use it for industrial robots. Stronger and faster than humans.
Sensors: Robots can work in extreme environmental
conditions: extreme hot or cold,
Generally used in task environments as it
space or underwater. In dangerous situations like
provides information of real-time bomb detection and bomb deactivation.
knowledge. In warfare, robots can save human lives.
Robot locomotion: Robots are significantly used in handling
Provides the types of movements to a robot. materials in chemical industries especially in
The different types are nuclear plants which can lead to health hazards
(a) Legged in humans.
Disadvantages of robotics :
(b) Wheeled
Robots have no sense of emotions or conscience.
(c) Combination of Legged and Wheeled They lack empathy and hence create an
Locomotion emotionless workplace.
(d) Tracked slip/skid If ultimately robots would do all the work, and the
humans will just sit and monitor them, health
4.What are the possible harmful effects of hazards will increase rapidly.
usage of Nanoparticles? Why? Unemployment problem will increase.
Possible harmful effects of nano particles : Robots can perform defined tasks and cannot
The major concern here is that the nanoparticles handle unexpected situations
have the dimensions same as that of the The robots are well programmed to do a job and
biological molecules such as proteins. They may if a small thing goes wrong it ends up in a big loss
easily get absorbed on to the surface of living to the company.
organisms and they might enter the tissues and If a robot malfunctions, it takes time to identify
fluids of the body.
the problem, rectify it, and even reprogram if (7) Robotic surgery :
necessary. This process requires significant time. Robotic surgery is a type of surgical procedure
Humans cannot be replaced by robots in decision that is done using robotic systems.
making. Robotically-assisted surgery helps to overcome
Till the robot reaches the level of human the limitations of pre- existing minimally-invasive
intelligence, the humans in work place will exit. surgical procedures and to enhance the
capabilities of surgeons performing open surgery.
5. Comment on the recent advancement in (8) Smart inhalers :
medical diagnosis and therapy. Inhalers are the main treatment option for
(1) Virtual reality : asthma. Smart inhalers are designed with health
Medical virtual reality is effectively used to stop systems and patients in mind so that they can
the brain from processing pain and cure soreness offer maximum benefit.
in the hospitalized patients. Smart inhalers use Bluetooth technology to detect
It helps in the treatment of Autism, Memory loss, inhaler use, remind patients when to take their
and Mental illness. medication and gather data to help guide care.
(2) Precision medicine :
Precision medicine is an emerging approach for
disease treatment and prevention that takes into
account individual variability in genes,
environment, and lifestyle for each person.
(3) Health wearables :
A health wearable is a device used for tracking a
wearer's vital signs or health and fitness related
data, location, etc.
Medical wearables with artificial intelligence and
big data provide an added value to healthcare
with a focus on diagnosis, treatment, patient
monitoring and prevention.
(4) Artificial organs :
An artificial organ is an engineered device or
tissue that is implanted or integrated into a
human.
It is possible to interface it with living tissue or to
replace a natural organ. It duplicates or augments
a specific function or functions of human organs
so that the patient may return to a normal life as
soon as possible.
(5) 3D printing :
Advanced 3D printer systems and materials
assist physicians in a range of operations in the
medical field from audiology, dentistry,
orthopedics and other applications.
(6) Wireless brain sensors :
Wireless brain sensors monitor intracranial
pressure and temperature and then are absorbed
by the body. Hence there is no need for surgery
to remove these devices