IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 41, NO.

6, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2005 1691

A Novel Three-Phase High-Power Soft-Switched

DC/DC Converter for Low-Voltage
Fuel Cell Applications
Changrong Liu, Member, IEEE, Amy Johnson, and Jih-Sheng Lai, Senior Member, IEEE

Abstract—An efficient dc/dc converter is needed as the interface 22 V and the ac load is 120/240 V at 5-kW continuous and
between a low-voltage fuel cell source and a high-voltage bus 10-kW peak. In order to provide a dual ac output, an isolated
for inverter operation. In this paper, a three-phase transformer- dc/dc converter is needed to convert low-voltage dc to a dc
isolated dc/dc converter utilizing phase-shift (PS) modulation is
proposed. The converter must be able to boost the voltage signif- voltage higher than 400V, sufficient for a 240-V ac output.
icantly and operate at current levels above 240 A on the source This dc/dc converter inevitably sees more than 240 A on
side. Key features of the proposed converter include reduced the fuel cell side, making the design of a dc/dc converter with
transformer turns ratio by a factor of two while maintaining the low voltage and high current very challenging. The converter
same output voltage, reduced size of passive components including needs to be capable of high-power operation with a high voltage
output filter and input dc bus capacitor using three-phase inter-
leaving, eliminated inductor current ripple at PS angles above conversion ratio. A transformer is needed for both voltage boost
120◦ , and achieved soft switching over a wide load range without and isolation. However, a high turns ratio is not favored due
auxiliary circuitry. The proposed converter has been analyzed, to potentially high leakage inductances. Furthermore, a high
simulated, and implemented in hardware. An efficiency of above switching frequency is preferred to reduce the passive compo-
96% was achieved using the prototype unit. Experimental results nent size. In order to achieve a high switching frequency while
were used to verify all designs and analyses.
improving converter efficiency, soft switching is necessary.
Index Terms—Converter, dc/dc converter, multiphase, phase Among the soft-switching techniques suitable for high-power
shift, soft switching, zero-current switching (ZCS), zero-voltage
switching (ZVS). converter applications, phase-shift (PS) control has been the
favorite. However, for a single-phase full-bridge PS converter,
zero-voltage switching (ZVS) is achieved over a limited load
I. I NTRODUCTION range. Past efforts have focused on solving this problem. The
most popular solutions are to add a saturable core or make some
F UEL CELLS are considered to be one of the most promis-
ing future energy generation devices due to their energy
efficiency and environmental friendliness [1], [2]. Major appli-
devices switch under zero-current switching (ZCS) condition
with added auxiliary circuitry [3]–[9].
cations were identified in various areas such as transportation, In this paper, a three-phase transformer isolated PS dc/dc
stationary power, and portable power. For portable power appli- converter is proposed. Major features of the converter include:
cations, the general structure is to have a low-voltage fuel cell 1) increase converter power rating by paralleling phases, not by
as the primary source, a dc/dc converter to obtain isolated high paralleling multiple devices; 2) double output voltage by trans-
voltage, and a dc/ac inverter to obtain ac voltage. former delta–wye connection, thus lowering the turns ratio;
Using the specifications of the 2003 International Future 3) reduce size of output filter and input dc bus capacitor with
Energy Challenge, the nominal fuel cell dc output voltage is interleaved control; and 4) achieving zero-voltage zero-current
switching (ZVZCS) over a wide load range without auxiliary
circuitry. Due to these advantages, this converter is highly
Paper IPCSD-05-066, presented at the 2004 IEEE Applied Power Electronics
Conference and Exposition, Anaheim, CA, February 22–26, and approved for recommended as the interface between a low-voltage high-
publication in the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS by power fuel cell source and an inverter load. It is also suitable for
the Industrial Power Converter Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications other low-voltage sources such as batteries and photovoltaics to
Society. Manuscript submitted for review March 8, 2004 and released for
publication August 29, 2005. This work was supported by the U.S. Department supply high-voltage high-power dc to other circuits.
of Energy (DOE) National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) Solid-State The operating modes of this converter are discussed in this
Energy Alliance Program (SECA) under Award DE-FC26-02NT41567. paper and a qualitative analysis is presented. A prototype
C. Liu is with the Future Energy Electronics Center, Electrical and Computer
Engineering Department, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, hardware unit is built and tested. Experimental results are used
Blacksburg, VA 24061-0111 USA and also with Maxim Integrated Products, to verify all designs and analyses.
Inc., Sunnyvale, CA 94086 USA (e-mail: [email protected]).
A. Johnson is with the Future Energy Electronics Center, Electrical
and Computer Engineering Department, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and II. P ROPOSED M ULTIPHASE DC/DC C ONVERTER
State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0111 USA and also with the GE
Energy, Salem, VA 24153 USA (e-mail: [email protected]). Fig. 1 shows the proposed converter. It consists of three full-
J.-S. Lai is with the Future Energy Electronics Center, Electrical and bridge converters whose outputs are connected to a three-phase
Computer Engineering Department, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0111 USA (e-mail: [email protected]). full-bridge diode rectifier through a set of transformers. The
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIA.2005.858259 proposed transformer secondary Y connection is capable of

0093-9994/$20.00 © 2005 IEEE

1692 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 41, NO. 6, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2005

Fig. 1. Proposed dc/dc converter topology.

Fig. 2. Gate signals and filter inductor current under 60◦ PS angle.

boosting the output voltage without increasing the transformer

turns ratio.
In the ideal case, if 1 per-unit (pu) voltage is applied to one
transformer input and −1 pu voltage is applied to the other,
then there will be a 2-pu voltage imposed on the secondary
output. For example, if Va1a2 = Vdc and Vb1b2 = −Vdc , then
the voltage at the rectifier output will be 2nVdc , which is twice
the single-phase transformer output.
Moreover, the three full-bridge single-phase converters can Fig. 3. Case 1 topological changes in different modes. (a) Mode 0. (b) Mode 1.
(c) Mode 2. (d) Mode 3.
be controlled in an interleaved manner, which means the phase
of their output waveforms will be 120◦ apart from each other. Case 1: 0◦ < α < 60◦ : The gate signals and inductor cur-
With this method, the rectifier output ripple frequency will be rent waveforms are shown in Fig. 2. a1p represents the upper
increased to six times the switching frequency, thus reducing switch gate signal of phase leg a1 . Similarly, a2p , b1p , b2p , c1p ,
the size of the output filter significantly. and c2p are the upper switch gate signals of phase leg a2 , b1 , b2 ,
c1 , and c2 , respectively. Fig. 3 shows different circuit structures
corresponding to various operation modes. Fig. 4 displays the
III. S TEADY -S TATE O PERATING M ODE A NALYSIS
voltage across each transformer primary and the corresponding
For the proposed dc/dc converter, interaction occurs among voltage at the output of the rectifier.
phases from the connection of the transformer secondary wind- Mode 0 (t0 ∼ t1 ): In this mode, phase A applies a pos-
ings. This interaction is determined by the PS angle between the itive voltage Vdc to the transformer, which causes the output
legs of each full-bridge converter. Complementary gate signals inductor current, thus phase A current, to increase linearly.
are adopted to control top and bottom switches for each leg. Meanwhile, phases B and C are under freewheeling conduction
Based on the PS modulation angle α, the converter operating due to the reflected current from the transformer secondary side.
mode can be analyzed for three cases: 0◦ < α < 60◦ , 60◦ < The sum of phase B and C currents is equal to the negative of
α < 120◦ , and 120◦ < α < 180◦ . phase A current. The duration for this mode is ∆t = T α/360◦ .
LIU et al.: A THREE-PHASE HIGH-POWER SOFT-SWITCHED DC/DC CONVERTER FOR FUEL CELL APPLICATIONS 1693

Fig. 4. Transformer primary voltages and rectifier output for case 1. Fig. 6. Transformer primary voltages and rectifier output for case 2.

Fig. 5. Case 2 upper switch gate signals and inductor current waveform. Fig. 7. Case 3 upper switch gate signals and filter inductor current waveforms.

Mode 1 (t1 ∼ t2 ): This is an idle mode, where all three The steady-state operation analysis for modes 4–11 are sim-
phases are under freewheeling conduction. Current freewheels ilar to those for the above modes 0–3, but with current flowing
through phases A and C upper switches and diodes and phase B through different phases.
bottom switches and diodes. The transformer output voltages In this case, at most one phase transfers dc bus voltage to
are all zero, thus causing the output filter inductor current to the output side. Thus, the ideal maximum voltage transferred to
decrease with the slope of −Vo /Lf . The duration for this mode the output is nVdc and the minimum voltage is 0. Hence, the
is ∆t = T (60◦ − α)/360◦ . averaged output voltage is Vo  = nVdc α/60◦ .
Mode 2 (t2 ∼ t3 ): During this mode, phases A and B con- Case 2: 60◦ < α < 120◦ : Fig. 5 shows the top-switch gate
tinue to be in the freewheeling mode. However, the leg C1 upper signals and inductor current waveforms for case 2. The voltage
switch turns OFF and the bottom switch turns ON, applying a across each transformer primary and the resulting voltage at
negative voltage 0 − Vdc to the phase C transformer primary. the output of the rectifier are shown in Fig. 6.
Voltage nVdc is applied to the output filter inductor and causes In this case, at least one phase and at most two phases transfer
the current to increase with a slope of (nVdc − Vo )/Lf . This dc bus voltage to the output side. Thus, the ideal maximum
current also flows through the phase C transformer secondary voltage transferred to the output is 2nVdc and the minimum
winding in the negative direction and is reflected to the primary voltage is nVdc . Through similar analysis as in case 1, the
side. This mode lasts for ∆t = T α/360◦ . durations for this mode are ∆t = T (α − 60◦ )/60◦ and ∆t =
Mode 3 (t3 ∼ t4 ): At the beginning of this mode, the leg T (120◦ − α)/60◦ , respectively. Therefore, the averaged output
C2 upper switch turns OFF and the bottom device turns ON, voltage can be derived as Vo  = nVdc + nVdc (α − 60◦ )/60◦ .
driving phase C into freewheeling mode. Since phases A and B Case 3: 120◦ < α < 180◦ : Fig. 7 shows the upper-switch
continue in freewheeling mode, there is no voltage output to the gate signals and inductor current waveforms for case 3. The
transformer secondary side, causing the output filter inductor voltage across each transformer primary and the resulting volt-
current to decrease with a slope of −Vo /Lf . The duration for age at the output of the rectifier are shown in Fig. 8. Notice
this mode is ∆t = T (60◦ − α)/360◦ . how the voltage at the output of the rectifier is constant.
1694 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 41, NO. 6, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2005

affected by the other two phases. The distribution of the current

heavily depends on the phase inductance, which consists of the
transformer leakage inductance and any other stray inductances
in each phase. If the phase inductance is large enough, the
switches should be able to turn ON with a fairy low current,
or nearly ZCS.
The proposed converter is simulated for the three operating
cases mentioned above under the following conditions: 25-V
input dc voltage, resistive 30-Ω output load, 50-kHz switching
frequency, and 500-ns deadtime control for each leg. Other
circuit parameters are 23-nH leakage inductance on the pri-
mary side of each phase, 70-µH filter inductor, and 2.2-mF
filter capacitor. For the PS modulation angle, 40◦ is used for
case 1, 80◦ is used for case 2, and 150◦ is used for case 3.
Fig. 8. Transformer primary voltages and rectifier output for case 3. Since phases A, B, and C are identical except for the 120◦
phase displacement from each other, the resulting waveforms
are similar. Therefore, only phase A waveforms are shown in
Fig. 10. The phase current and device drain-to-source voltages
are recorded. Simulation results verify that the lagging leg
switches are operating under ZVS condition. Also, from the
simulation results, we can see that for all three cases the leading
leg a1 switches are turned ON under zero-current condition.
When a1p and a2p or a1n and a2n are conducting simultane-
ously, the phase current ia would have been continuously flow-
ing in the conventional full-bridge converter. With a three-phase
structure, the coupled currents from the other two conducting
phases will assume the duty and reset this freewheeling current,
Fig. 9. Voltage conversion ratio. and thus the ZCS condition for the leading leg is naturally
created without additional resetting circuitry.
In cases 1 and 2, to get the same output voltage, a larger
In this case, at least two phases and at most three phases PS modulation angle is needed at heavy loads due to compo-
transfer dc bus voltage to the output side. The output voltage nent voltage drop. Therefore, the converter operates under soft
overlaps, thus the ideal voltage transferred to the output is switching for a wide load range with closed-loop regulation.
2nVdc at any time. This also accounts for the filter inductor Another simulation comparison has been done by varying load
current being constant for the ideal case. Therefore, the aver- resistance to get a 400-V output with the same PS modulation
aged output voltage is uncontrollable and is always equal to angles as stated in the above cases. The simulation results
Vo  = 2nVdc . also confirm that the ZVZCS soft-switching operation can be
Since the voltage conversion ratio is fixed, the converter achieved with load-varying conditions.
behaves like a transformer, but with dc input/output voltage.
Therefore, this mode is defined as the dc/dc transformer mode.
From the above analysis of all three cases, the voltage V. P ROTOTYPE E XPERIMENTAL V ERIFICATION
conversion ratio as a function of PS modulation angle α can To verify this new topology, a prototype unit is built and
be illustrated as in Fig. 9. tested. Fig. 11 illustrates the assembly of the prototype con-
The case 1 condition happens when the load is light. Without verter. This unit is rated at 3 kW due to the current limitation
overlap, the entire output power is carried by one phase sub- on power device pins. It consists of three major parts: a six-
converter. However, it is well below the rated power and is not leg converter power board, a set of three transformers, and
a concern. Cases 2 and 3 happen when the output load is high. an output rectifier/filter board. In this test unit, three full-
Since the load current is shared by at least two subconverters, bridge single-phase converters are synchronized by an external
each phase subconverter carries no more than half of the output clock signal and are controlled by the same reference signal.
power under high-load condition. Thus, with well-tuned ramp signals, the PS modulation angles
between two legs for each phase are identical. This timing is
critical; if it is slightly unmatched, it may cause large circulating
IV. ZVZCS S OFT -S WITCHING V ERIFICATION
energy among the transformer primary sides.
Similar to the single-phase PS converter, the proposed multi- The actual conversion ratio for the prototype is shown in
phase converter can easily achieve ZVS turn ON for the lagging Fig. 12. As can be seen, the experimental results match very
leg switches in each phase. For the leading leg, during its closely with the ideal ratio. The discrepancy is the power loss
switching transition, since three phases are coupled through the in the circuit, caused by the impact of deadtime control in the
transformer secondary side Y connection, the phase current is leg switches and duty-cycle loss caused by circuit inductance.
LIU et al.: A THREE-PHASE HIGH-POWER SOFT-SWITCHED DC/DC CONVERTER FOR FUEL CELL APPLICATIONS 1695

Fig. 11. Illustration of prototype test unit.

Fig. 12. Conversion ratio versus PS of prototype converter.

turn ON switching waveforms for the leading leg devices; the

lagging leg devices turn ON waveforms are shown in Fig. 13(c).
It should be noticed that these turn ON waveforms are acquired
with only 10% load condition and the ZVZCS operation is
apparent. An increased load helps to achieve device ZVZCS
operation, confirmed by tests not presented here.
The soft-switching operation discussed above improves sys-
tem efficiency. The curve in Fig. 14 shows the measured system
efficiency for different loads, with a margin of error of ±1%.
The heat sink temperature rise was less than 20 ◦ C at the 2-kW
condition with natural convection.
Experimental results for the dc/dc transformer mode are
shown in Fig. 15. The device voltages are very clean, result-
ing in low voltage stress. The inductor current ripple is not
noticeable. This implies that the inductor size can be further
reduced. The rectifier output voltage, the voltage before LC
filter, is continuous. It would have a clean dc output if there
is no parasitic ringing. However, the high-frequency ringing on
the rectifier voltage is less than 50 V for a 200-V output; thus,
no voltage clamp is needed. Here, 200 V is used to generate
Fig. 10. Soft-switching operation for each case. (a) Case 1. (b) Case 2.
(c) Case 3. a 120-Vrms inverter ac output. The input current between
switching devices and the low-side dc bus capacitor is not
shown because it is not accessible with the printed circuit board
The experimental results also verify the converter soft- as the interconnection. However, the evidence of a flat output
switching operation. Device switching waveforms are shown inductor current implies clearly that the input ripple current is
in Fig. 13. With current circuit parameters, all the devices turn also canceled with interleaved operation. With reduction on the
OFF with ZVS, as illustrated in Fig. 13(a). Fig. 13(b) shows the major passive components including both output filter inductor
1696 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 41, NO. 6, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2005

Fig. 15. Experimental waveform at α = 150◦ .

Overall, the major design features and advantages are low

transformer turns ratio achieved by delta–wye connection, re-
duced size of output filter and input capacitor with interleaved
control, zero-voltage zero-current switching (ZVZCS) for a
wide load range without auxiliary circuit, and high system
efficiency. These merits make this converter extremely suitable
for low-voltage fuel cell applications.
Analyses should be done to further reduce the parasitic losses
Fig. 13. Device switching waveforms. (a) Device ZVS turns OFF wave- and increase the efficiency. Efficiency is emphasized because
forms. (b) Leading leg device turns ON switching waveforms with 10% load. it implies better operating condition on fuel cell, savings on
(c) Lagging leg device turns ON switching waveforms with 10% load.
hydrogen fuel, and smaller heat sinking requirement. Further
reductions in the output filter may be possible since the inductor
current ripple is practically eliminated by interleaved operation.
The reduction in passive components and heat sinking also im-
plies potential reduction in size and weight and savings in cost.
Further discussion about modeling and control issue of the
system, including the fuel cell source and inverter load, can be
found in [11], in which the simulation and experimental results
are provided to verify the control design and system transient
response.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank D. Collins of the U.S.
Fig. 14. Experimental data and trendline for converter efficiency at α = 150◦ .
DOE National Energy Technology Laboratory for his technical
support and guidance on fuel cell requirements.
and the input dc bus capacitor, a significant cost reduction can
also be expected. R EFERENCES
[1] EG&G Technical Services, Inc. Science Applications International
Corporation, Fuel Cell Handbook, 7th ed. Morgantown, WV: U.S. Dept.
VI. C ONCLUSION of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, National Energy Technology Labora-
tory, Nov. 2004.
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with efficiency above 96% is proposed in this paper. Phase-shift ation: Semantic hype or the dawn of a new era?,” IEEE Power Energy,
vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 22–29, Jan./Feb. 2003.
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the multiphase structure reduces the rms current per phase, “Design considerations for high-voltage high-power full-bridge zero-
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transformer secondary side doubles the output voltage without voltage-switched PWM converter using a saturable inductor,” IEEE Trans.
increasing the turns ratio. Therefore, this converter is favored Power Electron., vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 530–534, Oct. 1993.
[5] R. Watson and F. C. Lee, “A soft-switched full-bridge boost converter
as the choice of high-power converters that have a low voltage employing an active-clamp circuit,” in Conf. Rec. IEEE Power Electronics
source and high input current. Specialists Conf., Baveno, Italy, Jun. 1996, pp. 1948–1954.
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[6] S.-J. Jeon and G.-H. Cho, “A zero-voltage and zero-current switching full Amy Johnson received the B.S. degree in electrical
bridge DC–DC converter with transformer isolation,” IEEE Trans. Power engineering from Valparaiso University, Valparaiso,
Electron., vol. 16, no. 5, pp. 573–580, Sep. 2001. IN, in 2002, and is currently working toward the M.S.
[7] J. G. Cho, J. W. Baek, D. W. Yoo, H. S. Lee, and G. H. Rim, “Novel degree in electrical engineering at Virginia Polytech-
zero-voltage and zero-current-switching (ZVZCS) full bridge PWM nic Institute and State University, Blacksburg.
converter using transformer auxiliary winding,” in Conf. Rec. IEEE Power She is currently a Power Conversion Design En-
Electronics Specialists Conf., St. Louis, MO, 1997, pp. 227–232. gineer with the Wind Energy Group, GE Energy,
[8] J. G. Cho, G. H. Rim, and F. C. Lee, “Zero voltage and zero current Salem, VA. She is interested in the area of renewable
switching full bridge PWM converter using secondary active clamp,” in energy sources, working with both wind and fuel cell
Conf. Rec. IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conf., Baveno, Italy, 1996, applications.
pp. 657–663.
[9] P. K. Jain, W. Kang, H. Soin, and Y. Xi, “Analysis and design consider-
ations of a load and line independent zero voltage switching full bridge
DC/DC converter topology,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 17, no. 5, Jih-Sheng (Jason) Lai (S’84–M’87–SM’93) re-
pp. 649–657, Sep. 2002. ceived the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engi-
[10] D. S. Oliveira, Jr. and I. Barbi, “A three-phase ZVS PWM DC/DC con- neering from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville,
verter with asymmetrical duty cycle for high power applications,” in Conf. in 1985 and 1989, respectively.
Rec. IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conf., Acapulco, Mexico, 2003, From 1980 to 1983, he was the Head of the Elec-
vol. 2, pp. 616–621. trical Engineering Department, Ming-Chi Institute
[11] C. Liu, A. Johnson, and J.-S. Lai, “Modeling and control of a novel six-leg of Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C., where he
three-phase high-power converter for low voltage fuel cell applications,” initiated a power electronics program and received a
in Conf. Proc. IEEE 35th Power Electronics Specialist Conf., Aachen, grant from his college and a fellowship from the Na-
Germany, Jun. 20–25, 2004, vol. 6, pp. 4715–4721. tional Science Council to study abroad. In 1986, he
was a Staff Member at the University of Tennessee,
where he taught control systems and energy conversion courses. In 1989, he
joined the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) Power Electronics Appli-
cations Center (PEAC), where he managed EPRI-sponsored power electronics
research projects. In 1993, he was a Power Electronics Lead Scientist at the Oak
Changrong Liu (S’99–M’05) was born in Fujian, Ridge National Laboratory, where he initiated a high-power electronics pro-
China, in 1970. He received the B.S. and M.S. gram and developed several novel high-power converters including multilevel
degrees in electrical engineering from Tsinghua converters and soft-switching inverters. In 1996, he joined Virginia Polytechnic
University, Beijing, China, in 1994 and 1997, re- Institute and State University, Blacksburg, where he is currently a Professor and
spectively, and the Ph.D. degree from Virginia Poly- the Director of the Future Energy Electronics Center. His main research areas
technic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, in are in high-efficiency power electronics conversions for high power and energy
2005. applications. He has published more than 135 technical papers and two books
In 1997, he was a Graduate Research Assistant and received 11 U.S. patents.
at the Center for Power Electronics System (CPES), Dr. Lai chaired the 2000 IEEE Computers in Power Electronics (COMPEL
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. 2000). He was the Founding Chair for the 2001 IEEE/DOE Future Energy
After that, he joined Maxim Integrated Products, Challenge and the General Chair of the 2005 IEEE Applied Power Electronics
Inc., Sunnyvale, CA, working as a Corporate Application Engineer on notebook Conference and Exposition (APEC 2005). His work brought him several
power products. His research interests include portable system power man- distinctive awards including a Technical Achievement Award at Lockheed Mar-
agement, modeling and control of power converter systems, converter system tin Award Night, two IEEE Industry Applications Society (IAS) Conference
stability analysis, soft-switching technique, power converter applications in fuel Paper Awards from the Industrial Power Converter Committee, and one IEEE
cell systems, and motor drive systems. Industrial Electronics Society (IECON) Best Paper Award.