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Tuition Classes IX (CBSE)Science

BRILLIANT TUITION CLASSES

2025-2026

SCIENCE
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STUDY MATERIAL
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Class IX - CBSE
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Brilliant
STUDY CENTRE, PALA
www.brilliantpala.org, email: [email protected]
Ph: 04822 - 206100, 206800

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CONTENTS
PHYSICS

1. Motion ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 05

2. Force and Laws of Motion ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14

3. Gravitation ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21

4. Work and Energy-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 29

5. Sound ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39
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CHEMISTRY
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6. Matter in Our Surroundings ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 52

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7. Is Matter Around Us Pure ? -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 58

8. Atoms and Molecules ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 67

9. Structure of the Atom ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 77

BIOLOGY

10. The Fundamental Unit of Life ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 89

11. Tissues --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 105

12. Improvement in Food Resources ---------------------------------------------------------------- 122

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PHYSICS

CHAPTER - 01
MOTION

REST AND MOTION

Rest : An object is said to be at rest if it does not change its position with respect to a reference point
with the passage of time.
eg : The chair, black board, table in the classroom are at rest with respect to the students
Motion : A body is said to be in motion if its position changes continuously with respect to the reference
point with the passage of time.
eg : A car moving on the road will be in motion with respect to the person standing on the road.
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 Rest and motion are relative terms, there is nothing like absolute motion or rest.
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To describe the position of an object we need to specify a reference point called the origin
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Motion along a straight line

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Simplest type of motion

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eg : Motion of a car along a straight line.

An object falling freely under gravity
Scalars and vector quantity
Physical quantities (ie, quantities of physics) can be divided into two types :
1) Scalar quantity
Any physical quantity, which can be completely specified by its magnitude, is known as scalar quantity
or scalar.
eg : distance, volume, density, energy, power, .....
2) Vector quantity
The quantity which can be determined by its magnitude and the direction is called a vector quantity.
eg : displacement, velocity, acceleration, ........
Distance
It is the actual length of the path covered by a moving particle. It is a scalar quantity.
 SI unit of distance is metre (m)
 Distance is always positive
 Distance between two given points depends upon the path chosen.
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Displacement
Shortest distance between initial and final position of the particle. It is a vector quantity.
 SI unit of displacement is metre (m)
 Displacement may be positive, negative and zero
Uniform motion
A body has a uniform motion if it travels equal distances in equal intervals of time, no matter how small
these time interval may be.
eg : A car running at a constant speed say 10 m/s, will cover equal distances of 10 metre every
second. So, its motion will be uniform
Non-uniform motion
A body has a non-uniform motion if it travels unequal distances in equal intervals of time.
eg : If we drop a ball from the roof of a building we will find that it covers unequal distances in equal
intervals of time.
Average speed
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Total distance travelled
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average speed=
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Total time taken

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If an object travels a distance s in time ‘t’ then its average speed v is,
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s
v
t

 SI unit of average speed = m/s

 Average speed is a scalar quantity
Average velocity
Velocity is the speed of an object moving in a definite direction. The velocity of an object can be
uniform or variable.
Velocity of an object can be changed by changing the object speed, direction of motion or both.
 Velocity is a vector quantity
 SI unit is m/s
 If the body is moving with a variable speed, average velocity is given by the arithmetic mean of initial
velocity and final velocity for a given period of time.

initial velocity  final velocity

 average velocity 
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Let, u  initial velocity

v  final velocity
vav  average velocity

uv
 v av 
2

Rate of change of velocity - (acceleration)

Rate of change of velocity of a body is called acceleration. [Change in velocity per unit time]

c h a n g e in v e lo c ity
In general, a c c e le ra tio n 
tim e

Uniform acceleration

If velocity changes by a constant rate, the motion is known as uniformly accelerated. In such a case
acceleration
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v u
a
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t
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v  final velocity
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u  initial velocity
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t  time interval

a  uniform acceleration

 SI unit of acceleration is m/s2

 It is a vector quantity

Non - uniform acceleration

Velocity changes at a non-uniform rate. For example if a car travelling along a straight road increases
its speed by unequal amounts in equal intervals of time then the car is said to be moving with non-
uniform acceleration.

Graphical representation of motion

Graph provide a convenient method to present basic information about a variety of events

1) Distance - time graph

The change in position of an object with time

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Body at rest

d-t graph of body at rest is a straight line parallel to X axis

Distance - time graph of a body moving with uniform speed.

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For uniform speed,

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d-t graph is a straight line

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From figure,
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s2  s1
v
t 2  t1

Distance - time graph of a car moving with non-uniform speed

The nature of this graph shows non-linear variation of the distance

covered by the car with time

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Velocity - time graph

1) Velocity - time graph for uniform motion

V-t graph for uniform motion is a straight line Parallel to X - axis

2) Velocity - time graph for a car moving with uniform acceleration

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Area under velocity - time graph gives distance travelled or magnitude of displacement.
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Velocity decreases uniformly with time

non-uniformly accelerated motion

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Equations of motion
V = u + at - (1)

S = ut + 1 at  (2)
2
2

2 as = V2 - u 2  (3)

u  initial velocity of the body

v  final velocity of the body after ‘t’ seconds
a  uniform acceleration
s  displacement
t  time interval

1 2
s  ut  at ........ (2)
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v 2  u2  2as .......... (3)

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Uniform circular motion

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When an object moves in a circular path with uniform speed, its motion is called uniform circular
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motion. In uniform circular motion, speed of the particle remains constant, but direction continuously
changes. So uniform circular motion is an example of accelerated motion.

r  radius of circular path

t  time taken for one complete circular path

2r
speed v 
t

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QUESTIONS

1. What is the condition for an object to be at rest?

A) It changes position continuously

B) It does not change its position with respect to a reference point
C) It moves along a straight line
D) It accelerates
2. The rate of change of displacement with respect to time is called:
A) Velocity B) Speed C) Distance D) Acceleration
3. Which of the following is a scalar quantity?
A) Displacement B) Velocity
C) Distance D) Acceleration
4. What is the SI unit of distance?
A) meter (m) B) second (s)
C) kilogram (kg) D) Joule (J)
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5. Which of the following is a vector quantity?
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A) Distance B) Volume
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C) Displacement D) Power
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6. Displacement is always:
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A) Positive B) Negative
C) Zero D) A vector quantity, may be positive, negative, or zero
7. In uniform motion, the distance travelled in equal time intervals is:
A) Unequal B) Equal C) Zero D) Random
8. In non-uniform motion, the distance travelled in equal time intervals is:
A) Constant B) Equal C) Unequal D) Zero
9. What is the formula for average speed?
A) Distance/Time B) Velocity × Time
C) Total Distance/Total time D) Total time/Distance
10. Which of the following is the SI unit of average speed?
A) m/s B) km/h C) m D) s
11. What is the rate of change of distance with respect to time called?
A) Speed B) Acceleration C) Displacement D) Velocity
12. The SI unit of acceleration is:
A) m/s B) m/s² C) m D) m/s³

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13. If an object travels a displacement of 50 meters in 5 seconds, its velocity is:

A) 5 m/s B) 10 m/s C) 50 m/s D) 1 m/s

14. What does uniform acceleration imply?

A) Constant velocity B) Constant speed

C) Constant rate of change of velocity D) Varying direction

15. What is an example of non-uniform acceleration?

A) A car moving with a constant speed

B) A car accelerating at a constant rate

C) A car accelerating by unequal amounts in equal intervals of time

D) None of these

16. The graph of distance versus time for a uniformly moving object is:

A) Parabolic B) Linear C) Exponential D) Logarithmic

17. Which of the following is an equation of motion?

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A) v = u + at B) s = ut + 1/2 at² C) v² = u² + 2as D) All of the above
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18. Which of the following represents an object in uniform circular motion?

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A) A car moving along a straight road B) A ball thrown vertically upwards

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C) A satellite moving in orbit D) A person walking in a straight line

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19. Which of the following is NOT true about displacement?

A) It is a vector quantity B) It is the shortest path between two points

C) It depends on the path taken D) It can be positive, negative, or zero

20. Which of the following quantities is a scalar quantity?

A) Displacement B) Speed C) Velocity D) Acceleration

21. The total distance travelled by an object is:

A) Always equal to its displacement
B) Always greater than or equal to its displacement
C) Always less than or equal to its displacement
D) Always zero
22. In the equation v=u+at, what does “u” represent?
A) Final velocity B) Initial velocity
C) Acceleration D) Time interval

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23. What does the slope of a distance-time graph represent?

A) Speed B) Acceleration C) Displacement D) Velocity
24. The acceleration of an object moving with uniform velocity is:
A) Zero B) Constant C) Increasing D) Varying
25. The velocity of an object in uniform circular motion changes because:
A) The speed changes
B) The direction of motion changes continuously
C) Nothing changes
D) None of the above
26. If the velocity-time graph of an object is a horizontal line, it means:
A) The object is moving with decreasing speed
B) The object is moving with uniform velocity
C) The object is accelerating
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D) The object is moving with increasing speed
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C) Maximum D) Constant
28. The time taken by an object to complete one revolution in uniform circular motion is called:
A) Frequency B) Period C) Velocity D) Acceleration
29. If an object travels a total distance of 100 meters in 20 seconds, its average speed is:
A) 200 m/s B) 100 m/s C) 5 m/s D) 0.5 m/s
30. The area under a velocity-time graph represents:

A) Speed B) Distance C) Displacement D) Acceleration

ANSWERS
1. B 6. D 11. A 16. B 21. B 26. B
2. A 7. B 12. B 17. D 22. B 27. B
3. C 8. C 13. B 18. C 23. A 28. B
4. A 9. C 14. C 19. C 24. A 29. C
5. C 10. A 15. C 20. B 25. B 30. C

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CHAPTER - 02
FORCE AND LAWS OF MOTION

FORCE

Force is a push or pull which changes or tends to change the state of rest or of uniform motion of a
body or changes it direction of motion or change shape or size of body.

SI unit : Newton

EFFECTS OF FORCE
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1. Force can set a stationary object in motion
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Eg: Kicking a foot ball

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Eg: Cricket player stopping a cricket ball

3. Force can change the direction of moving objects

Eg: Changing the direction of bicycle using handle

4. Force can change the shape of objects

Eg: A spring expands on application of force

BALANCED FORCES

If a number of forces acting on a object does not produce any change in its state of rest or uniform
motion or direction of motion, then they are called balanced forces.

30 N 30 N

Eg: A person holding briefcase in hand

A book resting on a table

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UNBALANCED FORCES

If the no. of forces acting on an object produce a change in its state of rest or uniform motion or
direction of motion, then they are termed as unbalanced forces

30 N 50 N

Eg: A briefcase released from a person’s hand

FIRST LAW OF MOTION

Statement

Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is compelled
by some external unbalanced force

Intertia

Inability of a body to change its state of rest or uniform motion along a straight line is called
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inertia of a body. It is the natural tendency of objects to resist a change in their state of rest or of
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uniform motion.
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Eg: 1) Dust removed from a hanging carpet by beating it with a stick

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2) When we have shake the branch of a tree, its fruits and dry leaves fall down
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3) Coin falls into the tumbler when the card is given a sudden jerk

4) When a horse suddenly starts running, rider falls backward

5) A person getting out a moving bus falls in the forward direction

Mass of an object

Mass of an object is the measure of its inertia. Heavier or massive objects will have larger inertia and
lighter objects offer smaller inertia. Inertia of an object can be measured by its mass.

SECOND LAW OF MOTION

Momentum

The momentum of an object is defined as the product of its mass ‘m’ and velocity ‘v’. Momentum
is represented by ‘p’.

 p=m×v

Momentum has both magnitude and direction

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It has direction same as that of velocity

SI unit of momentum is Kg ms-1

SECOND LAW OF MOTION

Statement

The rate of change of momentum of an object is proportional to the applied unbalanced force in
the direction of force.

Mathematical formulation of Second Law of Motion

Suppose an object of mass ‘m’ is moving along a straight line an initial velocity ‘u’. It is uniformly
accelerated to velocity ‘v’ in time ‘t’ by the application of a constant force ‘F’ throughout the time ‘t’.

The initial momentum

P1 = mu

Final momentum
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P2 = mv
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Change in momentum  (P2 - P1)

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 mv - mu
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 m[v-u]
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m[v  u]
Rate of change of momentum 
t

Applied force

m[v  u]
F
t

m[v  u] v u
F k a
t t

F kma

Taking the proportionality constant as 1

F=ma

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Unit of force = unit of mass × unit of acceleration

Unit of F = 1Kg × 1 m/s2

= Kg m/s2

1 Kg m/s2 = 1 newton = IN

THIRD LAW OF MOTION

Statement

“To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction and they are acting on two different bodies”

Explanation

When an object exerts a force on another object, the second object instantaneously exerts a force
back on the first. These two forces are always equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. These
forces act on different objects and never on the same object.
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Examples
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1) When a gun is fired, it exerts a forward force on the bullet. The bullet exerts an equal and opposite
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force on the gun. This is known as recoil of the gun.

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2) When a sailor jumps out of a rowing boat, as the sailor jumps forward, force on the boat moves it
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backwards.

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QUESTIONS

1. Newtons’................ law is called law of force:

A) First B) Second C) Third D) First, second and third

2. A particle is simultaneously acted upon by two forces equal to 4 N and 3 N. The net force on the
particle is

A) 0 B) 1 N

C) 3.5 N D) Between 1N and 7N

3. A force of 5 N gives a mass M1 an acceleration equal to 8 m/s2 and M2, an acceleration = 24 m/s2.
What is the acceleration if both masses are tied together?

A) 16 m/s2 B) 6 m/s2 C) 12 m/s2 D) 4 m/s2

4. If the net force acting on a body is doubled, the acceleration of the body is

A) Halved B) Doubled C) Unchanged D) Quadrupled

5. A force of 70N gives an object of unknown mass an acceleration of 20 m/s2. The mass of the object
is
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A) 7 kg B) 0.3 kg C) 3.5 kg D) 35 kg
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7. A car accelerates on a horizontal road due to the force exerted by

A) road on the car B) engine of car C) Both A and B D) car on earth

8. A kite of mass m is skilfully held stationary in the sky. The net force on the kite is

A) zero B) mg C) - mg D) m/g

9. A bullet of mass 10g is fired from a gun of mass 1kg with recoil velocity of gun = 5m/s. The muzzle
velocity of the bullet will be

A) 500 m/s B) 50 m/s C) 60 m/s D) 600 m/s

10. A force of 6N acts on a body at rest and mass 1kg. During this time the body attains a velocity of 30
m/s. The time for which the force acts on the body is :

A) 10 sec B) 8 sec C) 7 sec D) 5 sec

11. In the given figure, acceleration of the system is:

A) 5 m / sec 2 B) 10 m / sec 2 C) 15 m / sec 2 D) 20 m / sec 2

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12. A vehicle is moving on a rough road in a straight line with uniform velocity
A) No force is acting on the vehicle
B) A force must act on the vehicle
C) An acceleration is being produced in the vehicle
D) No work is being done on the vehicle
13. Rocket propulsion is based on:
A) Newton’s second law of motion only
B) Newton’s third law of motion only
C) Conservation of momentum only
D) Newton’s third law and conservation of momentum
14. A player kicks 0.5 kg football and gives it a velocity of 10 m/s starting from rest. The contact between
the foot and the ball lasts for 1/50 sec. What is the force of impact:
A) 2500 N B) 1250 N C) 250 N D) 625 N
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15. If the net force acting on a body is doubled, the acceleration of the body is
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17. Four bodies are of m, 2m, 3m, 4m masses. In which body acceleration produced will be maximum
on applying equal amount of force on each one of them.
A) m B) 2m C) 3m D) 4m
18. The principle at which rocket works on :
A) Conservation of energy B) Conservation of momentum
C) Newton’s law D) Charles’s law
19. The velocity of a body of mass 5 kg changes from 20 m/s to 60 m/s in 4 seconds. The force acting
on it is equal to :
A) 40 N B) 200 N C) 50 N D) 100 N
20. A block of mass 0.5 kg rests on a horizontal surface. When a horizontal force of 2.0 N is applied on
it, it acquires an acceleration of 3 ms-1. The force of friction between the block and the horizontal
surface is :
A) 0.0 N B) 0.5 N C) 1.0 N D) 1.5 N
21. A body of mass m is moving with a velocity v, its momentum is :
A) m/v B) mv C) mv2/2 D) mv2/4

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22. Which of the following class of forces is different from others ?

A) Pulling of a cart B) Stretching of a coiled spring
C) Kicking of a football D) Electric force
23. A body moving with uniform velocity is stopped in 0.25 second by applying retarding force of
200 Newton. The initial momentum of the body will be :
A) 100 kg m/s B) 150 kg m/s C) zero D) 50 kg m/s
24. A body falling from a height collide with ground with a velocity V. It rebounds with same velocity. The
change in momentum of the body is (mass is m)

mv
A) Zero B) mv C) D) 2 mv
2
25. A body of mass 4 kg moving with 10 m/s collide with a body of mass 4 kg at rest. What is the velocity
of the combined system after collision
A) 5 m/s B) 10 m/s C) Zero D) 20 m/s
26. A body of mass 10 kg initially at rest is acted by a force 40 N, what is the momentum of the body after
20 sec ( in kg m/s)
A) 100 B) 400 C) 800 D) 1600
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27. Two force are acting on a body as shown in the figure. What is the acceleration of the body
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A) 2 m/s2 B) 4 m/s2 C) 1 m/s2 D) 8 m/s2

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28. When velocity of a moving body is doubled and mass is halved what happens to momentum
A) Two times B) Four times C) Remains same D) Becomes half
29. When forces acting on an object do not change it’s motion, they are called
A) Unbalanced forces B) Gravitational forces
C) Magnetic forces D) Balanced forces
30. Which of these is an effect of force ?
A) Changing the shape of an object B) Changing the mass of an object
C) Both A and B D) None of these

ANSWERS
1. B 6. D 11. A 16. C 21. B 26. C
2. D 7. B 12. A 17. A 22. D 27. A
3. B 8. A 13. D 18. B 23. D 28. C
4. B 9. A 14. C 19. C 24. D 29. D
5. C 10. D 15. B 20. B 25. A 30. A

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CHAPTER - 03
GRAVITATION
Gravity is one of the most basic forces in the universe. It plays a fundamental role not only in the
structure of our solar system but also in the way objects behave on Earth.
GRAVITATION
Gravitation is the force of attraction between two objects in the universe. Gravitation may be the
attraction of objects by the earth. This force is proportional to the product of masses of the objects and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. It is independent of medium.
Gravitational force= GMm/ r2
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Eg :- If a body is dropped from a certain height, it falls downwards due to earth's gravity. If a body is thrown
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upwards, it reaches a certain height and then falls downwards due to the earth's gravity.
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Eg :- Attraction between the earth and moon.

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Attraction between the sun and planets.

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1 GRAVITY
 A natural force that pulls all objects toward the center of the earth
 Keeps the moon orbiting
 It holds stars together . . .
 And binds galaxies together for billions of years….Prevents Planets from losing their atmospheres.
2. Universal law of gravitation:
 The universal law of gravitation states that, 'Every object in the universe attracts every other object
with a force which is directly proportional to product of the masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.'
F= GMm/r2
G - Universal gravitational constant.
G = 6.67 x 10 -11Nm2/Kg2
r - Distance b/w the centres of masses
 The strength of the gravitational attraction between two objects depends on two factors:
o the mass of the objects
o the distance between two objects

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3. Free Fall
 With negligible air resistance, falling objects can be considered freely falling. Objects of different
shapes accelerate differently (stone vs feather)
4 .To calculate the value of" g"(acceleration due to gravity)
 The acceleration due to gravity is denoted by g.
 The unit of g is same as the unit of acceleration
 From the second law of motion, force is the product of mass and acceleration. F = ma
 For free fall, force is the product of mass and acceleration due to gravity.
F= mg or GMm/ r2 = mg
g = GM/r2
 For objects near or on the surface of the earth r is equal to the radius of the earth R
Variation in the value of ‘g’
1) ‘g’ is different at different points on the surface of earth.
i) ‘g’ is maximum at poles
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ii) ‘g’ is minimum at equator
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2) ‘g’ decrease with increase in height and depth (‘g’ is maximum on the surface of the earth)
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3) ‘g’ is zero
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i) at the centre of earth

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ii) at infinity i.e...... at the boundary of earth’s gravitational attraction.

5. Mass and Weight:
 Mass is a fundamental, universal property. You have the same amount of mass no matter where you
are in the Universe.
 Weight is not fundamental its value depends on circumstances in the Universe.Weight is a force. It is
the resultant gravitational force exerted on a body with mass m by all the other bodies in the Universe.

Mass Weight

1 Mass of an object can be measured by its inertia 1) weight = mass x acceleration = mg

2 It is the total quantity of matter contained in a body 2) It is gravitational force by which earth attracts an object

3 It remains constant at all the places 3) It is different at different places

4 It can be measured by using a pan or beam balance 4) It can be measured by using spring balance

5 Mass of a body cannot be zero 5) It becomes zero if g is zero

6 Its unit is Kg 6) Its unit is newton (N)

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Weight = F = GMm/R2,

where M is the mass of the Earth and R is the radius of the Earth.

6. Weight of the object on Moon

 The mass of the moon is less than the mass of the earth. So the moon exerts lesser force on the
objects than the earth.

 The weight of an object on the moon is one sixth of its weight on the earth.

 The weight of an object on the earth is the force with which the earth attracts the object and the weight
of an object on the moon is the force with which the moon attracts the object.

C e le s tia l M ass R a d iu s
body (K g ) (m )
E a rth 5 .9 8 x 6400 x
1 0 24 103
M oon 7 .3 6 x 1 .7 4 x
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1 0 22 10 6
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7. Thrust & Pressure

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Thrust is the force acting on an object perpendicular to the surface.

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Unit of thrust is Newton

 Pressure is the force acting on unit area of a surface
 Pressure = force / unit area
 The SI unit of pressure is N/m2. It is called Pascal (Pa).
8. Pressure in Fluids
 Fluids exert pressure in all directions
 Pressure exerted on fluids is transmitted equally in all directions.

P  hg

h = height of the liquid

 - density of the liquid

g = acceleration due to gravity

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9. Pascal’s Law
Pressure exerted in any confined mass of fluid is transmitted undiminished in all directions

10. Buoyancy
 When an object is immersed in a fluid it experiences an upward force called buoyant force. This
property is called buoyancy or upthrust. The magnitude of buoyant force depends on the density of the
fluid.

11. Why objects float or sink when placed on the surface of water?
 Take some water in a beaker. Take a piece of cork and an iron nail of the same mass.Place them on
the water. The cork floats and the nail sinks.

 If the density of an object is less than the density of a liquid, it will float on the liquid and if the density of
an object is more than the density of a liquid, it will sink in the liquid.

12. Archimedes Principle

 Archimedes' principle states that, when a body is partially or fully immersed in a fluid it experiences an
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upward force that is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by it.'
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QUESTIONS
1. Newton’s law of gravitation is valid
A) on the earth only B) on the moon only
C) in the laboratory only D) everywhere
2. When a body is thrown up, the force of gravity is
A) in the upward direction B) in the downward direction
C) zero D) in the horizontal direction
3. What happen to the acceleration due to gravity with the increase in altitude from the surface of the
earth?
A) Increase
B) Decrease
C) First decreases and then increases
D) First increases and then decreases
4. Which of the following statements is /are correct?
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1) Mass of an object is the measure of its inertia.
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2) Heavier the object smaller is the inertia

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3) The mass of an object is variable

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A) only 1 B) 1 and 3 C) 2 and 3 D) 1 and 2

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5. The mass of a body is measured to be 12 kg on the earth. If it is taken to the moon, its mass will be
A) 12 kg B) 6 kg C) 2 kg D) 72kg
6. Which of the following statements is true?
A) g is same at all places on the surface of earth.
B) g has its maximum value at the equator
C) g is less at the earth’s surface than at a height above it or a depth below it.
D) g is greater at the poles than at the equator
7. If more force is required to bring a body into a unit acceleration, the body has
A) less mass B) zero mass
C) more mass D) mass is independent of force
8. The weight of a body is 120 N on the earth. If it is taken to the moon, its weight will be about
A) 120 N B) 60 N C) 20 N D) 720 N
9. The value of acceleration due to gravity at the Mount Everest is
A) g B) >g C) <g D) zero

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10. Which of the following is correct?

A) Weight is a scalar quantity

B) Weight is not a fundamental quantity

C) Weight is not depend on acceleration due to gravity

D) None of these

11. Gravitational force is a

A) repulsive force B) attractive force

C) neither A nor B D) both A and B

12. A coin and a feather are dropped together in a vacuum. Then

A) the coin will reach the ground first

B) the feather will reach the ground first

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C) both will reach the ground at the same time
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D) the feather will not fall down

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13. Gravitational force is the

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A) weakest force B) strongest force

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C) short- range force D) non- central force

14. The universal constant of gravitation G has the unit

A) N B) m/s2 C) (NM2)/kg2 D) J

15. The mass of a body is increased 4 fold and mass of other body is increased 16 fold. How should the
distance between them be changed to keep the same gravitational force between them?
1 1
A) 4 times B) times C) 8 times D) times
4 8
16. When you put an object on a spring balance, what do you measure?

A) Weight B) Force C) Mass D) Acceleration

17. Acceleration due to gravity is maximum at (R is the radius of earth)

R
A) a height from the earth’s surface B) the centre of the earth
2
R
C) the surface of the earth D) a depth from earth’s surface
2

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18. The value of G was first determined experimentally by

A) Newton B) Henry Cavendish C) Kepler D) Galileo

19. If two bodies of equal masses 1 kg are separated by a distance of 1 m. Then the force of attraction is
G
A) GN B) N C) 2 G N D) 1 N
2
20. Fluid means
A) Liquid alone B) Gas alone
C) Solid liquid and gas D) Liquid and gas
21. The mass of an object is 10 kg, its weight on the earth is
A) 4.9 N B) 9.8 N C) 19.6 N D) 98 N
22. Weight of an object of mass 50 Kg is
A) 50 Kgwt B) 490 N C) 49 N D) Both A and B
23. When an object is brought to the moon
A) Mass and weight will not change
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B) Mass and weight will change
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C) Mass will not change but weight will increase

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D) Mass will not change but weight will decrease

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24. What is the mass of an object of mass 100 Kg on the earth and moon ?
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100
A) 100 Kg, 600 Kg B) 100 Kg, Kg C) 100 Kg, 100 Kg D) 100 N, 100 N
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25. The mass of a planet is half of the Earth and the radius is 1
4 times that of the Earth. The acceleration
due to gravity of the planet is _________ times that of the Earth

A) 1 B) 4 C) 1 D) 8
4 8
26. Is an object heavier at the poles or at the equator ? why ?
A) At equator because g is more at equator B) At poles because g is more at poles
C) At equator because g is lesser at equator D) At poles because g is lesser at poles
27. What is the weight of an object at the centre of the Earth ? Why ?
A) Zero because g is zero at centre of the earth
B) Maximum because g is maximum at cente of the earth
C) 9.8 N because g is 9.8 m/s2 at centre of the earth
D) None of these

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28. The weight of an object on the Moon’s surface is

A) 1 B) 1
3rd of the weight on earth 5th of the weight on Earth

C) 1 D) 1
6th of the weight on earth 2nd of the weight on earth
29. What is the value of the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the earth ?
A) 9.8 m/s2 B) 18.8 m/s2 C) 4m/s2 D) 12m/s2
30. What holds the Earth’s atmosphere ?
A) Gravity B) Clouds C) Wind D) Earth’s Magnetic field
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ANSWERS
1. D 6. D 11. B 16. A 21. D 26. B
2. B 7. C 12. C 17. C 22. D 27. A
3. B 8. C 13. A 18. B 23. D 28. C
4. A 9. C 14. C 19. A 24. C 29. A
5. A 10. B 15. C 20. D 25. D 30. A

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CHAPTER - 04
WORK AND ENERGY

WORK
 Work is defined if a force is applied on an object it will displaces in the direction of force.
 For workdone
(i) A force should act on an object
and
(ii) the object must be displaced
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eg :
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i) Push a pebble lying on a surface. The pebble moves through a distance work is done.
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ii) A girl pulls a trolley and the trolley moves through a distance work is done.
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iii) Lift a book through a height. There is a force applied on the book and book has moved. Hence work
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is done.
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iv) A bullock pulling a cart. The cart moves and work is done.
WORKDONE BY A CONSTANT FORCE

In the figure ‘F’ acts on an object, the object displaced through a distance ‘S’ in the direction of the
force. Let ‘W’ be the workdone.
Workdone in moving a body is equal to the product of force exerted on the body and the distance
moved by the body in the direction of force.
Work = Force × Displacement
W = FS
 Workdone has only magnitude and no direction. So it is a scalar quantity.
 S.I unit of work is Joule (J)
 W = FS
If F = 1 N and S = 1 m

Then W = 1 × 1 = 1 J J  Nm

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 One joule of work is said to be done on an object when a force of 1 N displaces the object by 1 m along
the line of action of force.
 Work is done when a force produces motion in a body.
 Workdone by a force can be positive, negative or zero.
 Work is positive when force acts in the direction of motion of the body. (W = FS)
 Work is negative when a force acts opposite to the direction of motion of the body. (W = – FS)
 Work is zero when S = 0 or net force = 0 or force acts at right angles to the direction of motion of the
body. (W = 0)
ENERGY
 We define energy as the ability to do work
 The amount of energy possessed by a body is the amount of work it can do when that energy is
released.
 Energy is a scalar quantity
 SI unit of energy is Joule (J)
Another unit is kJ (kilo joule)
1 kJ = 1000 J
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 Sun is the biggest natural source of energy
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transferred from former to the latter. The second object may move as it receives energy and therefore
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do some work. Thus, the first object had a capacity to do work. This implies that any object that
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possess energy can do work.

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 The main forms of energy are kinetic energy, potential energy, chemical energy, heat energy, light
energy, sound energy, electrical energy and nuclear energy.

KINETIC ENERGY
 Energy possessed by a body by virtue of its state of motion is called kinetic energy.
 Kinetic energy is always positive and is a scalar
 A moving object can do work. An object moving faster can do more work than an identical object
moving relatively slow.
 Kinetic energy of an object increases with its speed.

 Kinetic energy of an object of mass ‘m’ moving with a velocity ‘v’ is EK = 12 mv 2

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Expression for K.E

Consider a body of mass ‘m’ at rest. A force is applied on it, the body moves from ‘A’ to ‘B’ through a
distance ‘s’. The final velocity of ‘B’ is ‘v’. The acceleration produced is ‘a’.

We have,
v2 - u2 = 2as

v 2  u2
s
2a
The workdone by the force

 v 2  u2 
W = FS = maS = ma   
 2a 

 
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W  1 m v 2  u2
2
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W  1 mv 2
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if u = 0 2
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theorem.

if u=0 W  1 mv 2
2
Thus, the K.E possessed by an object of mass ‘m’ and moving with a uniform velocity ‘v’ is

EK  1 mv 2
2

Note :
i) K.E of a body moving with a certain velocity is equal to the work done on it to make it acquire that
velocity.
ii) A falling coconut, a speeding car, a rolling stone, a flying aircraft, flowing water, flowing wind, a running
athlete etc. possess kinetic energy.

POTENTIAL ENERGY
 The energy possessed by a body because of its position or configuration is known as potential energy.
 A stretched rubber band, stretched spring, water stored in dam possess P.E
 The P.E stored in the bow due to the change of shape.
 Energy possessed by a body due to change in shape is called Elastic P.E.

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P.E OF AN OBJECT AT A HEIGHT

An object increases its energy when raised through a height. This is because work is done against
gravity. The energy present in that object is the gravitational P.E.

The gravitational P.E of an object at a point above the ground is defined as the workdone in raising it
from the ground to that point against gravity.

In the figure, an object of mass ‘m’ raised through a height ‘h’. The minimum force required to raise the
object is equal to the weight of the object, ‘mg’. The object gains energy equal to the work done on it.
The workdone on the object against gravity,
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Workdone, W = force × displacement

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W = mgh
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An energy equal to ‘mgh’ units is gained by the object. This is the P.E (Ep) of the object.

Potential energy, Ep  mgh

Note
The workdone by gravity depends on the difference in vertical heights of the initial and final positions of
the object and not on the path along which the object is moved.
eg :

In the figure a block is raised from position ‘A’ to ‘B’ by taking two different paths. Let the height AB = h.
In both the situations the workdone on the object is ‘mgh’.

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LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

According to this law, energy can only be converted from one form to another, it can neither be created
or destroyed. The total energy before and after the transformation remains the same. The law of
conservation of energy is valid in all situations and for all kinds of transformation.
By mechanical energy conservation
K.E + P.E = constant

1 mv 2  mgh = constant
2
Proof
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In the figure a body of mass ‘m’ is dropped from a height ‘h’. A, B & C are the different positions of the
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body during its motion. When the body falls P.E decreases and K.E increases.
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AT point A
u = 0, EK = 0
EP = mgh
T.EA = EK + EP = 0 + mgh = mgh
T.EA = mgh
At point B
EP = mg(h - x)
Velocity at ‘B’
2
v ' = u2 + 2as = 2 gx u = 0, s = x, a = g
2
EK  1 mv ' = 1/2 m × 2gx
2
EK = mgx
T.EB = EK + EP = mgx + mg(h - x) = mgx + mgh - mgx
T .EB = mgh

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At point C

h = 0, EP = 0
Velocity at ‘C’
v2 = u2 + 2as
= 0 + 2gh
v2 = 2gh

EK  1 mv 2  1 m  2gh  mgh
2 2
T.EC = EK + EP = mgh + 0 = mgh

T.EC = mgh
 T.EA = T.EB = T.EC = mgh = constant
i.e, Total energy remains constant during the motion of the body.  It obeys law of conservation of
energy.

RATE OF DOING WORK (POWER)

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Power is defined as the rate of doing work or the rate of transfer of energy.
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If an agent does a work ‘W’ in time ‘t’. Then power is given by

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Power 
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time
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W
or P
t

 SI unit of power is watt (W)

watt = J/s

 P = W/t if W = 1 J and t = 1 s
Then P = 1 watt

 1 watt is the power of an agent which does work at the rate of 1 joule per second

 Another unit of power is kilowatt (kW)

1 kW = 1000 watt = 1000 J/s

1 megawatt = 106 watt

1 horse power (1 hp) = 746 watt

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 The power of an agent varying with time. This means the agent may be doing work at different rates at
different intervals of time.

Total workdone Total energy consumed

 Average power = 
Total time Total time taken
COMMERCIAL UNIT OF ENERGY

The unit joule is too small and hence is inconvenient to express large quantities of energy. We use a
bigger unit of energy called kilowatt hour (KWh)

A machine that uses 1000 J of energy every second. If this machine is used continuously for one hour,
it will consume 1 KWh of energy.

1 KWh is the energy used in one hour at the rate of 1000 Js-1 (or kW)

1 K Wh = 1 KW × 1 h = 1000 W × 3600 s

1 KWh = 3.6 × 106 J

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 The energy used in households, industries and commercial establishments are usually expressed in
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1 unit = 1 KWh.

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QUESTIONS

1. What is required for work to be done ?

A) Force only B) Displacement only C) Force & displacement D) None of these
2. The SI unit of work is
A) Newton B) Joule C) Meter D) Watt
3. What is the formula to calculate work done ?
A) W= F × S B) W = F S C) W = F + S D) W = F × h
4. The unit of power is
A) Joule B) Watt C) Newton D) Ampere
5. What is the SI unit of energy
A) Newton B) Watt C) Joule D) Meter
6. Which of the follwoing is an example of positive work ?
A) Work done by friction
B) Work done by gravity when lifting an object
C) Work done by friction when an object is pushed on rough surface
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D) Work done by a crane in lifting a load
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C) The speed of an object D) The temperature of an object

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8. The formula for calculating potential energy is

1
A) Ep = mgh B) Ep = mv 2 C) Ep = mgEp D) Ep = F × 5
2
9. What is the energy possessed by a moving object called ?
A) Gravitational energy B) only speed C) Speed D) Kinetic energy
10. Kinetic energy depends on
A) Only mass B) Only speed C) Mass & speed D) Speed & direction
11. When a body falls freely towards the earth, then its total energy
A) Increases B) Decreases
C) Remain constant D) First increases and then decreases
12. A car is accelerated on a levelled road and attains a velocity 4 times of its initial velocity. In this process
the potential energy of the car
A) does not change B) becomes twice to that of initial
C) becomes 4 times that of initial D) becomes 16 times that of initial

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13. In case of negative work the angle between the force and displacement is
A) 00 B) 450 C) 900 D) 1800
14. An iron sphere of mass 10 kg has the same diameter as an aluminium sphere of mass is 3.5 kg. Both
sphere are dropped simultaneously from a tower. When they are 10 m above the ground, they have
the same
A) acceleration B) momentum C) potential energy D) kinetic energy
15. A girl is carrying a school bag of 3 kg mass on her back and moves 200 m on a levelled road. The work
done against the gravitational force will be (g = 10 ms-2)
A) 6 × 103 J B) 6 J C) 0.6 J D) 0
16. Which of the following is not the unit of energy
A) Joule B) Newton metre C) Kilowatt D) Kilowatt hour
17. The workdone on an object does not depend upon the
A) displacement B) force applied
C) angle between force and displacement D) initial velocity of the object
18. Water stored in a dam possesses
A) no energy B) electrical energy C) kinetic energy D) potential energy
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A body is falling from a height ‘h’. After it has fallen a height h 2 , it will possess
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C) half potential and half kinetic energy D) more kinetic and less potential energy
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20. The number of joules contained in 1 KWh is

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A) 36 × 105 J B) 3.6 × 107 J C) 3.6 × 106 J D) 3.7 × 107 J

21. Two army persons ‘A’ and ‘B’ each of weight of 500 N climb up a rope through a height of 10 m. A takes
20 s while ‘B’ takes 40 s to achieve this task. What is the ratio of the power of person ‘A’ and ‘B’
A) 1 : 2 B) 1 : 4 C) 2 : 1 D) 4 : 1
22. If speed of a car becomes 2 times, its kinetic energy becomes
A) 4 times B) 8 times C) 16 times D) 12 times
23. When a coil spring is compressed, the work is done on the spring. The elastic potential energy
A) increases B) decreases C) disappears D) remains unchanged
24. How much time will be required to perform 520 J of work at the rate of 20 W
A) 24 s B) 16 s C) 20 s D) 26 s
25. A student carries a bag weighing 5 kg from the ground floor to his class on the first floor that is 2 m
high. The workdone by the boy is
A) 1J B) 10 J C) 100 J D) 1000 J
26. The momentum of a bullet of mass 20 g fired from a gun is 10 kgm/s. The kinetic energy of this bullet
in kJ will be
A) 25 B) 2.5 C) 0.25 D) 5

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27. Potential energy of a person is maximum when

A) person is sitting on a chair B) person is standing
C) person is lying on the ground D) person is sitting on the ground
28. In a generator which type of energy is converted into electrical energy
A) Chemical energy B) Electrical energy
C) Potential energy D) Thermal Energy
29. When a force retards the motion of a body, the workdone is
A) positive B) zero C) negative D) undefined
30. In an electric flashlight the chemical energy of the cell is
A) converted into heat energy only B) converted into light energy only
C) converted into heat and light energy D) None of these
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ANSWERS
1. C 6. D 11. C 16. C 21. C 26. B
2. B 7. B 12. A 17. D 22. A 27. B
3. A 8. A 13. D 18. D 23. A 28. A
4. B 9. D 14. A 19. C 24. D 29. C
5. C 10. C 15. D 20. C 25. C 30. C

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CHAPTER - 05
SOUND

Sound: Sound is a form of energy which produces a sensation of hearing in our ears.

Production of Sound

• Sound is produced due to vibration of objects.

• Vibration - A rapid back and forth (to and fro) motion of a particle about its mean
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position is known as vibration.
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ii) A stretched rubber band when plucked vibrates and produces sound.

iii) When a bell is struck, the bell vibrates and produces sound.

Propagation of Sound

• Sound is propagated through a medium such as solid, liquid or gas.

Eg: Solid medium - iron

Liquid medium - water

Gaseous medium – air

• The matter or substance through which sound is transmitted is called a medium.

• Medium is necessary for the propagation of sound. Sound cannot travel through vacuum.

Eg: We cannot hear the voice in moon since there is no medium in the moon.

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How sound travels through a medium: -

When an object vibrates, particles of the medium in contact with the vibrating object also vibrates.
These particles exerts a force and sets vibrations to their neighboring particles. This process continues
in the medium till the sound reaches your ear.

Note:

The particles just vibrates only, they do not travel all the way from the vibrating object to the ear. Only
the sound energy travels through the medium.

Sound as a wave: -

• A wave is a disturbance (energy) that moves through a medium. The disturbance (energy)
created by a source of sound in the medium travels through the medium. So sound can be
visualized as a wave.

• Sound waves are characterized by the to and fro motion of particles in the medium and are
called mechanical waves.
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Mechanical wave - Disturbance (energy) produced by the vibration of objects.

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Compressions and rarefactions: -

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When a vibrating object moves forward, it pushes and compresses the air in front of it creating
a region of high pressure called a compression (C).

• When the vibrating object moves backwards, it creates a region of low pressure called a
rarefaction (R).

Sound travels in air through C and R: -

• Compression (C) is the region of high pressure and rarefaction (R) is the region of low pressure.

• As the object moves back and forth rapidly, a series of compressions (C) and rarefactions (R)
is created in the air. These make the sound wave that propagates through the medium.

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• Pressure (P) is related to the density (d) of medium. More density gives more pressure and
less density gives less pressure.
number of particles (N) x mass of each particle(m)
Density (d) =
Volume (V)
• In compressions (C), number of particles in a given volume (N/V) is more, so density is more,
so pressure is more. In rarefactions (R), number of particles in a given volume (N/V) is less, so
density is less, so pressure is less. Propagation of sound can be visualized as propagation of density
variations or pressure variations in the medium.

Longitudinal wave: - the individual particles of the medium move in a direction parallel to the direction of
propagation of the disturbance (energy). ie.. particles oscillate back and forth about
their mean position.

Eg: Propagation of disturbance in a slinky

Sound waves are longitudinal waves.

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Transverse wave: - the individual particles of the medium move in a direction perpendicular to the direction
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of propagation of the disturbance (energy). ie.. particles oscillate up and down about
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their mean position.

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Eg: Waves in water

Compression Rarefaction

Particles are crowded together Particles are spread apart

Pressure is high Pressure is low

Density is high Density is low
The peak (crest) represents the The valley (trough) represents the region
region of maximum compression of minimum rarefaction

Characteristics Of Sound Wave

i) Amplitude (A):- The maximum displacement of vibrating particles from its mean position is called
amplitude. So unit of amplitude is metre (m).

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For sound, the max pressure or density variation is called Amplitude.

The amplitude of the sound wave depends upon the force with which an object is made to vibrate.

When sound is propagated through a medium, the density of the medium oscillates between a
maximum value and a minimum value. The change in density from the maximum value to the
minimum value, then again to the maximum value, makes one complete oscillation.

ii) Wavelength (  ):- The distance between two consecutive compressions or two consecutive
rarefactions of a longitudinal wave is called the wavelength. SI unit is metre (m).

Wavelength can also be defined in following different ways:

a) It is the distance travelled by a wave during one complete vibration of the vibrating particle.

b) It is the length of one complete wave.

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(iii) Time period (T):- The time taken by two consecutive compressions or rarefactions to cross a fixed
point is called time period. SI unit of period is second (s).

Time taken by a wave to move a distance equal to its wavelength is called time period.

The time taken for one complete oscillation is called time period.

iv) Frequency (  ):- The number of oscillations per unit time is called frequency. SI unit is HZ (hertz).

The number of the compressions or rarefactions that cross us per unit time is called frequency.

The number of waves passing a given point in one second is called frequency.

1
Frequency and time period are related as 
T

v) Wave velocity (v):- The distance travelled by the wave per unit time is called wave velocity. SI unit is
m/s.

The distance that a compression or a rarefaction, travels per unit time is called wave velocity.

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Wave velocity ( )     / T

 = wavelength

 = frequency

T = period

The speed of sound is almost the same for all frequencies in a given medium under the same physical
conditions.

vi) Pitch :- Pitch is the sensation (brain interpretation) of the frequency of an emitted sound. The faster
the vibration of the source, the higher is the frequency. High pitch sound corresponds to high frequency
and low pitch sound corresponds to low frequency.

A high pitch sound is called a shrill sound. eg: humming of a bee, sound of a guitar etc.

A low pitch sound is called a hoarse sound. eg: roar of a line, car horn etc.
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(vii) Loudness or softness: - The loudness or softness of a sound is determined basically by its
amplitude. The amplitude of the sound wave depends upon the force applied for vibration. If we strike
a table lightly, we hear a soft sound ie.. less energy and amplitude. If we hit the table hard, we hear a
louder sound ie.. more energy and amplitude.

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Loudness is a subjective quantity. It depends upon the sensitivity of the human ear. A sound wave
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spreads out from its source. As it moves away from the source its amplitude and loudness decreases.
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Louder sound can travel a larger distance (as its energy is higher).
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(viii) Quality or timbre: -

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The quality or timbre of sound is that characteristic which enables us to distinguish one sound from
another having the same pitch and loudness.

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The quality of two sounds of same pitch and loudness produced by two different sources are
distinguishable because of different waveforms produced by them.

Music is pleasant to hear and is of rich quality. A sound of single frequency is called a tone. The sound
which is produced due to a mixture of several frequencies is called a note and is pleasant to listen to.

Noise is unpleasant to the ear.

(ix) Intensity: - The amount of sound energy passing each second through unit area is called the
intensity of sound. Intensity of a sound is an objective physical quantity.

Speed of sound in different media: -

Speed of sound at room temperature= 350 m/s

The speed of sound depends on the properties of the medium through which it travels.
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Speed of sound in medium in solid > in liquid > in gas

The speed of sound (v) in a medium depends on temperature (T) of the medium.
As T increases, then v increases; as T decreases, then v decreases
Speed of sound in air at 00 C = 332 m/s
Speed of sound in air at 300 C = 350 m/s
Reflection of Sound: - Sound gets reflected at the surface of a solid or liquid and follows the same laws of
reflection as light.
1) Angle of incidence (i) = angle of reflection (r)
2) Incident ray, reflected ray & normal all lie in the same plane.

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Echo: - If we shout near a suitable reflecting object, we will hear the same sound again a little later. This is
called an echo.

Persistence of hearing: - The sensation of sound persists in our brain for about 0.1 s.

So, to hear a distinct echo

1) The time interval between the original sound and the reflected sound = 0.1s.

2) The minimum distance of the obstacle from the source of sound = 17.2 m (This distance will
change with the temperature of air).

Vt = V0 + 0.6 t

Vt = velocity of sound at any room temp

V0 = velocity of sound at 00 C = 332 m/s

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Echoes may be heard more than once due to successive or multiple reflections.
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Reverberation: - The repeated reflection in a big hall that results the persistence of sound is called
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reverberation.
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To reduce reverberation: -

i) The roof and walls of the auditorium are covered with sound - absorbent materials.

eg: compressed fiberboard, rough plaster, draperies.

ii) The seat materials should have sound absorbing properties.

Uses of multiple reflection of sound

1) Megaphones: - Designed to send sound in a particular direction without spreading.

2) Stethoscope: - Medical instrument used for listening to sounds produced within the body, mainly in
the heart or lungs.

3) The ceilings of concert halls, conference halls and cinema halls are curved so that sound after
reflection reaches all corners of the hall.

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Range of Hearing: - The audible range of sound frequency f = 20 Hz to 20000 Hz

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Unit of frequency = Hz (Hertz). (one Hz = one cycle/s).

Children under the age of five and some animals, such as dogs can hear up to 25 kHz

(1 kHz = 1000 Hz). As people grow older their ears become less sensitive to higher frequencies.

Infrasonic sound f < 20 Hz. eg: wings vibration of a bee. Rhinoceroses communicate using infrasound
of frequency as low as 5 Hz. Whales and elephants produce sound in the infrasound range.

Ultrasonic sound f > 20 kHz (20000 Hz). Ultrasound is produced by animals such as dolphins, bats
and porpoises. Moths of certain families have very sensitive hearing equipment to detect ultrasonic
sound. Bats produces squeaks of ultrasonic frequency.

Hearing Aid: - A hearing aid is an electronic, battery operated device. The hearing aid receives sound
through a microphone. The microphone converts the sound waves to electrical signals. These electrical
signals are amplified by an amplifier and are given to a speaker. The speaker converts the amplified
electrical signal to sound and sends to the ear for clear hearing.

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Applications of Ultrasound: - Ultrasounds are high frequency waves. Ultrasounds are used extensively
in industries and for medical purposes.

• used to clean parts located in hard-to-reach places, eg: spiral tube, odd shaped parts, electronic
components, etc.

• Ultrasounds can be used to detect cracks and flaws in metal blocks. Ultrasonic waves are
allowed to pass through the metal block and detectors are used to detect the transmitted waves.
If there is defect, the ultrasound gets reflected back indicating the presence of the defect.
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• Echocardiography: - Ultrasonic waves are made to reflect from various parts of the heart and
form the image of the heart. This technique is called ‘echocardiography’.

• Ultrasound scanner: - Uses ultrasonic waves for getting images of internal organs of the human
body, which helps the doctor for diagnosis. The ultrasonic waves travel through the tissues of
the body and get reflected from a region where there is a change of tissue density. These waves
are then converted into electrical signals that generate images of the organ. These images are
then displayed on a monitor or printed on a film. This technique is called ‘ultrasonography’.

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QUESTIONS
1. The sound of the human voice is produced due to vibrations in the ––––––––––
A) Lungs B) vocal cords C) tongue D) teeth
2. Sound waves are
A) mechanical waves B) electromagnetic waves
C) radio waves D) none of these
3. A rapid back and forth ( to and fro) motion of a particle about its mean position is known as
A) rotation B) vibration C) translation D) all the above
4. When a vibrating object moves forward, it pushes and compresses the air in front of it creating a
region of high pressure. This region is called
A) rarefaction B) compression C) node D) antinode
5. Speed of sound in vacuum is
A) 340 ms-1 B) 335 ms-1 C) zero D) 1500 ms-1
6. A ––––––––– is the one in which the individual particles of the medium move about their mean positions
in a direction perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
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A) transverse wave B) longitudinal wave C) ultrasonic wave D) infrasonic waves
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A) n = 1/T B) n = T C) n = 1/T2 D) n2 = T
9. When a sound wave moves away from the source its amplitude as well as its loudness
A) increases B) decreases C) does not change D) both A and B
10. Characteristic of sound which enables us to distinguish one sound from another having the same
pitch and loudness
A) timbre B) intensity C) loudness D) note
11. A sound wave has a frequency of 2 kHz and wave length 35 cm. How long will it take to travel 1400m?
A) 2.5s B) 3s C) 2s D) 1s
12. Calculate the wavelength of a sound wave whose frequency is 220 Hz and speed is 1500 m/s in a
given medium
A) 6.81m B) 7.3m C) 5m D) 2m
13. To hear a distinct echo the time interval between the original sound and the reflected one must be at
least
A) 0.1s B) 1s C) 10s D) 0.5s
14. The audible range of hearing for average human beings extends from about
A) 20 Hz – 20 kHz B) 20 Hz – 200 Hz C) 20 Hz – 30 kHz D) 20 Hz – 50 kHz

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15. The pressure variations are turned in to electrical signals by the cochlea at
A) outer ear B) middle ear C) inner ear D) brain
16. A stone is dropped from the top of a tower 500 m high into a pond of water at the base of the tower. The
splash heard at the top after : (Given, g = 10 ms-2 and speed of sound = 340 ms-1)
A) 10s B) 11.5s C) 1.5s D) 9.5s
17. A sonar device on a submarine sends out a signal and receives an echo 6 s later. Calculate the speed
of sound in water if the distance of the object from the submarine is 4350 m.
A) 1450 ms-1 B) 1500 ms-1 C) 340 ms-1 D) 725 ms-1
18. A source of frequency 500Hz emits waves of wavelength 0.2m. How long does it take the wave to
travel 300m ?
A) 5 s B) 2 s C) 3 s D) 60 s
19. A dog barks in a park and hears its echo after 0.5 s. If the sound of its bark gets reflected by a nearby
building, find the distance between the dog and the building? Take speed of sound in air as 346 ms-1
A) 90m B) 86.5m C) 72.5m D) 60m
20. The deepest recorded point below the sea level is in the Mariana Trench, Pacific Ocean. This point is
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11km below the sea level. A research vessel sends down a sonar signal to confirm this depth. After
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how long can it expect to get the echo? Take the speed of sound in sea water as 1520 ms-1
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A) 14.47 s B) 10 s C) 7.24 s D) 6 s
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A) Gold B) Kerosene C) Hydrogen D) None of these

22. Sound produced by
A) Vibration of objects B) Rotation of objects
C) Translation of object D) None of these
23. A tuning fork produces sound due to
A) The vibration of its stem B) Due to the vibration of its prongs
C) Due to the heating of its material D) Due to the vibration of hammer
24. Speed of sound in solid, liquid and gas medium are V1, V2 and V3 respectively then
A) V1 = V2 = V3 B) V1 < V2 < V3 C) V1 > V2 < V3 D) V1 > V2 > V3
25. Speed of sound in air is
A) 350 mm/s B) 350 cm/s C) 350 m/s D) 350 km/s
26. The phenomenon where a sound produced is heard again due to reflection is called _______
A) Sound bounce B) Mirage C) An echo D) Interference

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27. The frequency of a sound wave determines its

A) Loudness B) Speed C) Wave length D) Pitch

28. The phenomenon of persistence of sound after the source has stopped is called

A) Reverberation B) Echo C) Resonance D) Reflection

29. Sound propagates maximum in

A) Gas B) Liquid C) Solid D) All

30. Which of the following is not a characteristic of sound ?

A) Intensity B) Frequency C) Speed D) Quality

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ANSWERS
1. B 6. A 11. C 16. B 21. D 26. C
2. A 7. C 12. A 17. A 22. A 27. D
3. B 8. A 13. A 18. C 23. B 28. A
4. B 9. B 14. A 19. B 24. D 29. C
5. C 10. A 15. C 20. A 25. C 30. C

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CHEMISTRY

CHAPTER - 06
MATTER IN OUR SURROUNDINGS

Matter
Any substance which occupies space and mass
Characteristics of particles of matter
 Particles of matter have space between them.
 Particle of matter are continuously moving
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 When temperature increases, kinetic energy also increases. 
 
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 "Intermixing of particles of matter is called diffusion" 

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 Particles of matter attract each other

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STATES OF MATTER
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SOLID LIQUID GAS

Fixed volume, shape will be No fixed shape and

Fixed shape and fixed volume
the shape of container fixed volume

Negligible compresibility Greater than solid High compressibility

Rigid Fluid (tendency to flow) Fluid

Strong attraction Weaker than solids Negligible attraction

May break due to force

eg : diamond, ice eg : water, mercury eg : oxygen, ammonia, LPG

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 Liquids and gases which have an ability to flow is called fluids

 Pressure exerted by gas is due to the bombardment of gas molecules with the walls of container.
Changing the states of matter
Heating Heating
SOLID LIQUID GAS
Cooling Cooling
 The minimum temperature at which a solid melts to become a liquid at the atmospheric pressure is
called its melting point.
Melting point of ice = 273.15 K
 The change of solid state into liquid state is also known as fusion
 Latent heat of fusion : The amount of heat energy required to change 1 kg of a solid into liquid at
atmospheric pressure at its melting point is called as latent heat of fusion
 The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling at atmospheric pressure is known as its boiling point
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 SO N
SUBLIMATION
SOLID GAS
DEPOSITION
Effect of change of pressure
Applying pressure and reducing temperature can liquefy gases.
Solid Carbon dioxide
It is stored under high pressure solid CO2 gets converted directly into gaseous state on decrease of
pressure to 1 atmosphere without coming into liquid state. This is the reason that solid carbon dioxide
is also known as dry ice.
Evaporation
Change of liquid into vapours at any temperature below its boiling point is called evaporation
Factors affecting evaporation
 Surface area : when surface area increases rate of evaporation increases
 Temperature : when temperature increases, evaporation increases
 Humidity : when humidity increases, rate of evaporation decreases
 Increase in wind speed, also increases evaporation
“ Evaporation causes cooling, because latent heat of vapourisation is absorbed from the body”

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QUESTIONS
1. Which one of the following sets of phenomena would increase on raising the temperature
A) Diffusion, evaporation, compression of gases
B) Evaporation, compression of gases, solubility
C) Evaporation, diffusion, expansion of gases
D) Evaporation, solubility, diffusion, compression of gases
2. Fluids are
A) Solids B) Liquids C) Gases D) Both B and C
3. During summer, water kept in an earthen pot becomes cool because of the phenomenon of
A) Diffusion B) Evaporation
C) Osmosis D) Transpiration
4. When we add sugar in water, particles of sugar disappear because they
A) are very large B) get into the spaces between water particles
C) are moving D) all the above
5. If molecules of solvent tend to pass through a semipermeable membrane from less concentrated
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A) water, air, wind B) air, sugar, oil

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C) oxygen, water, sugar D) salt, juice, air

7. On converting 350, 1000 and 1020 C to kelvin scale, the correct sequence of temperature will be
A) 308, 373, 375 B) 238, 173, 171
C) 335, 373, 378 D) 318, 383, 385
8. A form of matter has no fixed shape, but it has a fixed volume. An example of this form of matter is
A) Krypton B) Kerosene
C) Carbondioxide D) Carbon steel
9. Which one of the following statements is not true ?
A) The molecules in a solid vibrate about a fixed position
B) The molecules in a liquid are arranged in a regular pattern
C) The molecules in a gas exerts negligibly small forces on each other, except during collisions
D) The molecules of a gas occupy all the space available
10. When water at 00 C freezes to form ice, at the same temperature of 00 C, then it
A) absorbs some heat B) releases some heat
C) neither releases nor absorbs heat D) not predictable

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11. Which of the following phenomena always result in the cooling effect ?
A) condensation B) evaporation
C) sublimation D) none of these
12. Which of the following cannot be considered as a form of matter
A) atom B) water C) humidity D) electron
13. Which of the following statement is correct
A) Materials existing at room temperature have their melting point and boiling points lower than that of
room temperature
B) The phenomenon involving the transition of a substance from solid state to liquid state is called
sublimation
C) To convert a temperature on the celsius scale to kelvin scale, substract 273 from the given
temperature
D) The density of ice is less than H2O
14. Which of the following is not true regarding the characteristic of matter ?
A) Particles of matter are randomly moving in all directions
B) Kinetic energy of the particles increases with a rise in temperature
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C) Kinetic energy of the particle of all matter remains the same at a particular temperature
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15. Which condition out of the following will increase the evaporation of water ?
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A) Increase in temperature of water B) Decrease in temperature of water

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C) Less exposed surface area of water D) Adding common salt to water

16. Which of the following is not a characteristics of particles of matter ?
A) Particles of matter are very small
B) When temperature rises, rate of diffusion increases
C) Particles of matter attracts each other
D) There is no space between particles of matter
17. CNG is
A) Complete natural gas B) Compressed natural gas
C) Complicated natural gas D) Condensed natural gas
18. The smell of hot cooked food reaches us in seconds, because of
A) Evaporation B) Condensation C) Transpiration D) Diffusion
19. Which state of matter can exert large amount of pressure
A) Gas B) Liquid C) Solid D) Plasma
20. At 273.15 K, if you are heating ice, then melting starts with
A) Increase in temperature B) Decrease in temperature
C) Constant temperature D) Can’t be predicted

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21. Which of the following contain highest amount of heat energy

A) Ice at 00 C B) Water at 1000 C
C) Steam at 1000 C D) Both B and C
22. The conversion of gas to solid without changing into liquid is called ––––––––––––
A) Sublimation B) Deposition
C) Condensation D) Vapourisation
23. Which of the following is not related to evaporation ?
A) At hot sunny day, people sprinkle water on the roof
B) During summer, we wear cotton clothes
C) Acetone vapourises after pouring
D) When a tyre punctures, air effuses out
24. Which of the following is not a SI unit of below mentioned quantity
A) Length - Metre B) Volume - Litre
C) Pressure - Pascal D) Weight - N
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A B
Solid Liquid Gas

D C

Find the correct match

A) A  vapourisation B) E  Sublimation
F  Sublimation C  Evaporation

C) C  Condensation D) A  Melting
F  Deposition D  Condensation

26. 1 atm is equal to

A) 1.01325 × 105 Pa B) 101.325 KPa
C) 105 Pa D) Both A and B

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27. For the liquifaction of gases

A) Increase pressure B) Decrease pressure
C) Reduce the temperature D) Both A & C
28. With increase in humidity, rate of evaporation
A) Increases B) Decreases
C) Doesnot depend on humidity D) First increases, then decreases
29. Which of the following is not a Bulk phenomenon ?
A) Evaporation B) Melting C) Boiling D) Absorption
30. Flame is an example of which state of matter ?
A) Gas B) Liquid
C) Bose Einstein condensate D) Plasma
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ANSWERS
1. C 6. C 11. B 16. D 21. C 26. A
2. D 7. A 12. D 17. B 22. B 27. D
3. B 8. B 13. D 18. D 23. D 28. B
4. B 9. B 14. C 19. A 24. D 29. A
5. B 10. B 15. A 20. C 25. C 30. D

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CHAPTER - 07
IS MATTER AROUND US PURE ?

Matter
Anything which has mass and occupies space is called matter. It may be solid, liquid or gas.
Matter is of 2 types
1. Pure Matter
2. Impure matter
Pure Matter
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Pure substances may be defined as material which contains only one kind of atoms or molecules.
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Pure substances are of 2 kinds : -

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1. Elements -
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Pure substances which are made up of only one kind of atoms are known as elements. All atoms in an
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element are identical. Atoms of different elements are different.

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2. Compounds -
Pure substances which are made up of only one kind of molecules are known as compounds. Atoms
constituting are from two or more different elements. The different elements are combined in fixed
proportion in a compound.
Impure Matter
Impure matters are also called mixture. A mixture is a material which contains two or more different
kinds of particles (atoms or molecules) which do not react chemically but are physically mixed together
in any proportion.
Mixtures are of 2 types:
(a) Homogeneous mixtures -
A mixture is said to be homogeneous if all the components of the mixture are uniformly mixed and
there are no boundaries of separation between them. For example - Salt in water etc.
(b) Heterogeneous mixtures -
A mixture is said to be heterogeneous if all the components of the mixture are not thoroughly mixed
and there are visible boundaries of separation between them. For example- Sand in water etc.
Before we proceed further we should know the difference between the properties of compounds and
mixtures.

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Properties of compounds
1. A compound is a homogeneous substance.
2. A compound has a definite composition.
3. A compound has definite melting point or boiling point.
4. Energy is absorbed or evolved in the form of heat or light during the formation of a compound.
5. The properties of compound are entirely different from those of its constituents.
For example - If we mix Iron and Sulphur in a watch glass, we get a mixture. This is then heated till a
black mass is formed. This leads to formation of compound called Iron Sulphide.


Fe  S 
Heat
 FeS
 element   element   compound

On bringing magnet near to it, no Iron is attracted towards it. Also, Sulphur does not dissolve on adding
carbon disulphide, thus, not showing the properties of its constituents.
6. The constituents of a compound cannot be separated by simple physical means.
Properties of mixtures -
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1. A mixture may be homogenous or heterogeneous.

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2. The composition of a mixture is variable.

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3. A mixture does not have a definite melting point or boiling point.

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4. Energy is neither absorbed nor evolved during the formation of a mixture.

5. The properties of mixture are the properties of its constituents.
For example- If we mix Iron and Sulphur in a watch glass, we obtain a mixture. Now, if we bring a
magnet near it, it attracts the iron-filings which is the property of its constituent (Iron) whereas if we
dissolve it in carbon disulphide, then Sulphur gets dissolved leaving the iron-filings unchanged, thus
showing the property of its constituent (Sulphur).
6. The constituents of mixture can be separated by simple physical methods.
Physical and Chemical Changes
Physical Change -
Those changes in which only physical properties of the substances change but no new substances
are formed are called physical changes.
For example - Melting of ice to form water, breaking of glass, preparing a solution etc.
Chemical Change -
Those changes in which new substances are formed are called chemical changes and chemical
properties of a substance gets changed in a chemical change. For example - Rusting of iron, burning
a piece of paper etc.

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NOTE : There are many features which distinguish a physical and a chemical change. They are as follows:

Physical change Chemical change

1. A physical change brings about change in
1. A chemical change brings about change in
physical properties such as physical state,
chemical properties
shape, size etc
2. There is always a change in chemical
2. There is no change in chemical composition
composition of a substance during chemical
of a substance during physical change
change
3. No new substance is formed 3. A new substance is always formed

4. It is temporary and hence reversible 4. It is permanent and hence irreversible

Tyndall Effect
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If a light is passed through a medium and its path can be seen, then the substance is said to show
Tyndall effect.
Example - When a beam of sunlight enters a dark room through some hole in the window, path of light
becomes visible due to scattering of light by the colloidal dust particles present in the air of cinema
hall. This shows Tyndall effect.
Solutions, Suspensions and Colloids
Solution -
A solution is defined as a homogeneous mixture of two or more chemically non-reacting substances
whose composition can be varied within limits.
A solution as 2 components;
1. Solute : The component which is dissolved or which is present in small amount is called solute. It is
also called dispersive medium.
2. Solvent : The component which is present in larger amount is called solvent. It is also called dispersion
medium.

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Types of solutions -
1. Solid in Liquid : Like sugar in water, tincture of iodine (in it iodine is dissolved in alcohol) etc.
2. Liquid in Liquid : Like alcohol in water etc.
3. Gas in Liquid : Like CO2 dissolved in water in cold-drinks.
4. Solid in Solid : Like Alloys such as Brass (copper + zinc), Bronze (copper + tin) etc.

5. Gas in Gas : Like in air, various gases are mixed such as O2, N2 etc.

6. Liquid in Solid : Like copper sulphate in dental amalgam.

7. Gas in Solid : Gas is adsorbed over the surface of metal.

8. Solid in Gas : Like camphor in air.

9. Liquid in Gas : Like clouds and fog.

Properties of Solutions -

1. A solution is a homogeneous mixture.

2. Size of particles is smaller than 1 nm (10–9 m).

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3. The particles cannot be seen by microscope.

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4. It is a stable mixture, solute does not settle down over a period of time.
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6. It does not scatter light i.e. it do not show Tyndall effect.

Suspensions -

A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which the solute particles do not dissolve but remain
suspended throughout the bulk of medium.

Properties of Suspension -

1. It is a heterogeneous mixture.

2. Size of the particles is greater than 100 nm.

3. Particles can be seen by naked eyes.

4. It is unstable mixture. Solute settle down at the bottom over period of time.

5. If the solution is passed through filter paper, solute and solvent gets separated.

6. It scatters light when light is passed through the solution i.e. it shows Tyndall effect.

Colloids -

Solutions in which the size of particles lies in between those of true solutions and suspensions are
called colloidal solutions or simply colloids.

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Types of colloids -

Dispersed Phase Dispersion Medium Type Examples

1. Solid Solid Solid Sol Milky glass
2. Solid Liquid Sol Muddy water
3. Solid Gas Solid aerosol Smoke
4. Liquid Solid Gel Jelly
5. Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk
6. Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog
7. Gas Solid Solid foam Pumice stone
8. Gas Liquid Foam Shaving cream

Properties of Colloids -

1. It is a heterogeneous mixture

2. Size of particles is smaller than suspensions but greater than solutions (1 nm to 100 nm).
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6. No Tyndall effect is observed.

Terms related to Solution

1. Dilute and concentrated solution -

Dilute and concentrated are comparative terms. A solution having a small amount of solute in a given
solvent is dilute whereas a large amount of solute in that given solvent is concentrated when compared
with one another.

2. Unsaturated, saturated solution and supersaturated solution

 A solution that can dissolve more solute in it at a given temperature is called unsaturated solution.

 A solution which contains maximum amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of solvent at the
given temperature and which cannot dissolve any more solute at that temperature is called saturated
solution.

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 A solution which contains more amount of solute than that is required to saturate it is known as
supersaturated solution

3. Solubility -

The maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in 100 gm of solvent is called solubility of that
solute in that solvent at a particular temperature.

Alternatively, we can say that

The amount of solute needed to make saturated solution of 100 gm of solvent is called solubility of that
solute in that solvent at a particular temperature.

4. Effect of Temperature on Solubility -

(a) Solubility of Solid solute in Liquid :

 As temperature increases, solubility also increases.

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(b) Solubility of Gas in Liquid:

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 As temperature increases, solubility decreases.

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5. Concentration of Solution -
(a) Solid in Liquid:

Mass of solute
Concentration   100
Mass of solution

(b) Liquid in Liquid :

Volume of solute
Concentration   100
Volume of solution

Concentration is the measure of amount. It is the amount of solute present in the amount of solution.

Mass of solute
(c) Mass by volume percentage of a solution   100
Volume of solution

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QUESTIONS
1. The quantity of matter present in an object is called its :
A) Weight B) Volume C) Mass D) Density
2. Which among the following is not metalloid ?
A) Germanium B) Silicon C) Iodine D) Arsenic
3. Latent heat of vaporisation of water is :
A) 2.25 × 102 J/kg B) 22.5 × 105 J/kg C) 3.34 × 105 J/kg D) 34.4 × 102 J/kg
4. In sublimation process :
A) Solid changes into liquid B) Liquid changes into gas
C) Solid changes directly into gas D) Liquid changes into solid
5. Dry ice is :
A) Solid ammonia B) Solid carbondioxide
C) Solid sulphurdioxide D) Normal ice
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6. In which phenomenon water changes into water vapour below its boiling point ?
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A) evaporation B) condensation C) boiling D) sublimation

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1) respiration B) digestion of food C) melting of wax D) curdling of milk

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8. The reverse of sublimation is called

A) fusion B) deposition C) condensation D) solidification
9. At melting point,
A) kinetic energy remains constant and potential energy increases
B) kinetic energy increases and potential energy remains constant
C) both potential energy and kinetic energy increase
D) potential energy increases with a decrease in kinetic energy
10. Which of the following will respond to sublimation ?
A) Common salt B) Sugar C) Camphor D) Potassium nitrate
11. Solids cannot be compressed because :
A) constituent particles are very closely packed
B) interparticle attractive forces are weak
C) movement of constituent particles is restricted
D) constituent particles diffuse very slowly

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12. During evaporation, particles of a liquid change into vapours only :

A) from the surface B) from the bulk
C) from both surface and bulk D) neither from surface nor from bulk
13. The bulb of a thermometer when dipped in petrol and then taken out, the level of the mercury thread in
the thermometer
A) starts falling B) starts rising
C) remains at the same level D) initially falls and then rises
14. Water kept in an earthen pot, during summer days becomes very cold due to
A) condensation B) evaporation C) freezing D) fusion
15. The electric bulb on long use forms a black coating on its inner surface. The process associated with
this is
A) melting of tungsten B) sublimation of tungsten
C) oxidation of tungsten D) reduction of tungsten
16. In which of the following cases, cooking is very slow ?
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A) pressure cooker at sea level B) pressure cooker at higher altitude
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C) open vessel at sea level D) open vessel at higher altitude

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C) Same composition throughout D) Different kinds of particles

18. Which of the following is a homogeneous mixture ?
A) Air B) Soil C) Oil and water D) Sand and iron filings
19. Which among the following is not a homogeneous mixture ?
A) Solder B) Aqueous solution of NaCl
C) Sulphur in carbondisulphide D) Sulphur in water
20. A solution is a :
A) Pure substance B) Heterogeneous mixture
C) Homogeneous mixture D) Compound
21. Tyndall effect is shown by :
A) True solution B) Colloid C) Suspension D) Both B and C
22. Which of the following will scatter light ?
A) Salt solution B) Sugar solution
C) Colloidal solution D) Distilled water

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23. Liquid dispersed in solid type colloid is known as

A) Sol B) Gel
C) Emulsion D) Foam
24. Purity of a solid substance can be checked by its

A) boiling point B) melting point

C) solubility in water D) solubility in alcohol

25. A sample contains two substances and has uniform properties. The sample is

A) a compound B) a heterogeneous mixture

C) an element D) a homogeneous mixture

26. Which of the following is considered to be pure substance ?

A) granite B) sodium chloride

C) muddy water D) milk of magnesia

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C) Physical methods D) None of these

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28. Which of the following is an example of a suspension ?

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A) Milk B) Muddy water C) Air D) Sugar in water

29. Smoke is an example of

A) gas dispersed in liquid B) gas dispersed in solid

C) solid dispersed in gas D) solid dispersed in solid

30. Which of the following forms a colloidal solution in water ?

A) NaCl B) glucose

C) starch D) barium nitrate

ANSWERS
1. C 6. A 11. A 16. D 21. D 26. B
2. C 7. C 12. A 17. C 22. C 27. C
3. B 8. B 13. D 18. A 23. B 28. B
4. C 9. A 14. B 19. D 24. B 29. C
5. B 10. C 15. B 20. C 25. D 30. C

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CHAPTER - 08
ATOMS AND MOLECULES

Ancient Greek philosophers (Democritus and Leucippus) suggested that, if we go on dividing matter,
a stage will come when particles obtained cannot be divided further. Democritus called these indivisible
particles atoms (meaning indivisible). Several Indian and Greek philosophers tried to explain the except
of atoms in several ways but their ideas could not satisfy modern scientists. The first meaningful effort
in this directions was made by John Dalton (1804). By the end of the 18th centuary scientists recognist
the difference between elements and compounds and naturally became interested in finding out how
and why elements combine and what happens when they combine.
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Antoine Lavoisier laid the foundation of chemical science by establishing two important laws of chemical
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Laws of chemical combination

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Chemistry deals mainly with the reactions. In 18th century, chemist found that all chemical reactions
always takes place in accordance to certain laws. These laws referred to as laws of chemical
combination.

1. Law of conservation of mass (Lavoisier) - 1774.

Law of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be created nor be destroyed in a chemical
reaction.

OR

During a chemical or physical change, the total mass of the product obtained is always equal to the
total mass of the reactants taken at the beginning of the change ie total mass is conserved in a
reaction. Matter can be changed from one form to another.

This law can easily be understood by considering following examples :

(i) When calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is strongly heated, it decomposes to give CaO and CO2. If
100 g CaCO3 are strongly heated, we get 56 g CaO and 44 g CO2. The total mass of the product
(56 + 44 = 100 g) is exactly the same as the mass of CaCO3 taken in the beginning of the reaction.

Heat
CaCO3   CaO CO2
100 g 56 g 44 g

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2. Law of constant propotion (Joseph Proust) - 1799

Law of constant/definite propotion states that in a chemical substance the elements are always present
in definite proportions by mass.
For example, water (H2O) is composed of two elements hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio 1 : 8 by
mass, what ever the source of water.
The carbon dioxide contains only two elements carbon and oxygen combined together in the ratio 3 :
8 by mass.
DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY - 1804
Laws of chemical combinations suggest that, the matter is composed of descrete particles which
donot break up during a chemical reaction. On the basis of these laws and the work of Greek
philosophers. Dalton proposed a very important theory known as Daltons atomic theory.
The basic postulates of this theory are the follows
1. All matter is made up of very tiny particles called atoms, which participate in chemical reactions
2. Atoms are indivisible particles which cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction
3. Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and chemical properties
4. Atoms of the different elements have different masses and chemical properties
5. Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers to form compounds
6. The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound
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Atom is the smallest particle of the element and is the unit of chemical reaction. It may or may not
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have independent existance.

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Atoms of the element like hydrogen, oxygen etc cannot exist independently. Atoms of the element like
helium Argon, Xenon etc posses independent existance.
Atoms are very small, they are smaller than anything that are can imagine.
Atomic radius is measured in nanometers
1 nm = 10–9 m
1 m = 109 nm
SYMBOLS OF ATOMS OF DIFFERENT ELEMENT
Dalton was the first scientist to use the symbols for elements in a very specific sense.

eg : - Hydrogen - Sulphur

- Oxygen C - Copper
In the beginning, the name of the elements, were derived from the name of the place where they were
found for the first time eg : copper were taken from Cyprus. Some name were taken from specific
colums : eg Gold was taken from the English word meaning yellow.
Now a days IUPAC (International union of pure and applied chemistry) approves name of the
elements, symbols, and units. Many of the symbols are first one or two letters of the elements name
in English. First letter of the symbol is always written as a capital letter and second letter as small
letter.

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eg : Hydrogen - H Aluminium - Al
Cobalt - Co
Symbols of some elements are formed from first letter of the name and a letter appearing later in the
name.
Eg : Zinc - Zn Chlorine - Cl
Other symbols have been taken from the names of elements in Latin, German or Greek.
Eg : The symbol of iron is Fe from its Latin name ferrum, sodium is Na from natrium, potassium is K
from kalium.
Symbols of some elements
Aluminium - Al Copper - Cu
Arger - Ar Gold - Au
Barium - Ba Hydrogen - H
Bromine - Br Iron - Fe
Carbon - C Lead - Pb
Cobalt - Co Oxygen - O
ATOMIC MASS
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Since determining the mass of individual atom was a relatively difficult task, relative atomic masses
were determined using the laws of chemical combinations and the compounds formed.
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In 1961, C - 12 (the most stable isotope of carbon was adopted by international union of chemists to
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calculate the relative atomic mass of the elements. The new scale adopted is called atomic mass unit
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scale. On this scale, the relative atomic mass of an element is expressed in terms of atomic mass
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unit (abbreviated as amu), now it is written as u - unified mass.

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th
One atomic mass unit (1 amu) is defined as the mass equal to 1 mass of an atom of C - 12. The
12
relative atomic masses of all elements have been found with respect to an atom of C - 12.

1
1 amu =  mass of carbon  12 atom  1.66  1023 g
12
The relative atomic mass of an element is the number of times the atomic mass of an element is
1
heavier than th mass of C - 12 atom.
12

1
Eg 1 : Mass of one atom of oxygen is 16 time heavier than th mass of C - 12 atom.
12
Therefore relative atomic mass of oxygen is 16.

1
Eg 2 : Mass of one atom of nitrogen is 14 times heavier than th mass of C - 12 atom.
12
Therefore relative atomic mass of nitrogen is 14.
On atomic mass unit scale, atomic mass of oxygen is 16 u and that of nitrogen 14 u.
Similarly, the relative atomic mass of the atom of an element is defined as the average mass of the

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1
atom, as compared to th mass of one carbon atom.
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Element Atomic mass (u)
Hydrogen 1
Carbon 12
Nitrogen 14
Oxygen 16
Magnesium 24
Chlorine 35.5
EXISTANCE OF ATOM
Atoms of the most element are not able to exist independently. Atoms form molecules and ions.
These molecules and ions aggregate in large numbers to form the matter.
MOLECULES (Term molecule was first used by Avogadro)
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A molecule in general a group of two or more atoms that are chemically bonded together by attractive
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force.
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A molecule is defined as the smallest particle of the substance which can exist independently and
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show all the properties of that substance.

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It can be subdivided as

1) Homoatomic molecules

Homoatomic molecules are the molecules of same element. Homoatomic molecules can be further
divided into monoatomic, diatomic and polyatomic molecules depending on the number of atoms.

Monoatomic molecules - He, Ne, Ar

Diatomic molecule - O2, N2, H2

Polyatomic molecules - P4, S8

2) Heteroatomic molecules

Heteroatomic molecules are molecules of compound or contain atoms of the different element. They
can be diatomic or polyatomic.

Eg : NO, HCl, H2SO4, PCl5

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Molecules of the element

The molecules of an element constituted by the same type of atoms.

Monoatomic molecule - He, Ne, Ar, Kr

Diatomic molecules - N2, O2, H2

Triatomic molecule - O3

The number of atoms constituting a molecule is known as its atomicity.

Metal and some elements such as carbon do not have simple structure but consist of a very large and
indefinite number of atoms bonded together.

Element Atomicity
Ar Monoatomic
He Monoatomic
Hydrogen (H2) Diatomic
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Chlorine (Cl2) Diatomic
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Phosphorus (P4) Tetraatomic

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Molecules of compounds
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Compound Elements combining Rate by mass

Water (H2O) Hydrogen, oxygen 1:8
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Carbon, Oxygen 3:8
IONS
An atom or group of atoms that carries positive or negative charge as a result of loss or gain of one or
more electrons. Compounds composed metals and non metals contain charged species. There are
two types of ions.
1. Cations
A positively charged ions are called cations.
eg : Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, NH4
2. Anions
A negatively charged ion are called anions
eg : Cl ,Br  ,O2 ,SO 24 ,PO34 ,CO32 

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A group of atoms carrying charge is known as polyatomic ion. Consider sodium chloride (NaCl), its
constituents are positively charged sodium ion (Na+) and negatively charged chloride ions (Cl–)
Writing chemical formula
Chemical formula of a compound is a symbolic representation of its composition. The chemical formula
of different compounds can be written easily. For this we need to learn symbol and combining capacity
of the elements. The combining capacity of an element is known as its valency. The valencies of
some common ions are given in following table.

Non metallic
Valency Name of ion Symbol Symbol Polyatomic ions Symbol
element
Sodium Na+ Hydrogen H+ Ammonium NH4+
+ - -
1 Potassium K Hydride H hydroxide OH
Silver Ag+ Chloride Cl- Nitrate NO 3
-

Magnesium Mg2+ Oxide O 2- Carbonate CO 32-

Calcium Ca2+ Sulphide S2 - Sulphate SO42 -
2
Zinc Zn 2+
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2+
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Copper(II) Cu
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Al 3+ N3- 3-
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Aluminium Nitride Phosphate PO4

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Iron (III) Fe 3+
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Rules for writing chemical formula

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1. The valencies or charges on the ion must balance.

2. When a compound consists of a metal and non-metal, the name or symbol of the metal is written
first.

eg : Calcium oxide (CaO)

Sodium chloride ( NaCl)

Copper oxide (CuO)

3. In compounds formed with polyatomic ions, the number of ions present in the compound is indicated
by enclosing the formula of the ion in the bracket and writting the number of ions outside the bracket

eg : Mg(OH)2

FORMULAE OF SIMPLE COMPOUNDS

While writting the chemical formulae for compounds, we write the constituent elements and their
valencies. Then we must crossover the valencies of the combining atoms.

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eg :
1) Formula of hydrogen chloride

Symbol H Cl

Valency 1 1
Formula of the compound = HCl
2) Formula of hydrogen sulphide
Symbol H S

Valency 1 2
Formula of the compound = H2S
3) Formula of aluminium oxide
Symbol Al O
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Valency 3 2
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Formula of the compound = Al2O3

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Symbol Ca O
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Valency 2 2
Formula of the compound = CaO
Molecular mass

The molecular mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule
of the substance. It is therefore the relative mass of a molecule expressed in atomic mass unit (u).

Eg : Relative molecular mass of HNO3

The molecular mass of HNO3 = The atomic mass of H + Atomic mass of N + 3 × Atomic mass of
oxygen

= 1 × 1 + 1 × 14 + 3 × 16 = 63 u

FORMULA UNIT MASS

The formula unit mass of a substance is a sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a formula unit of
a compound. Formula unit mass is calculated in the same way as we calculate the molecular mass.
The only difference is that we use the word formula unit for those substance whose constituent particles
are ions.
Eg : Formula unit mass of NaCl = 1 × 23 + 1 × 35.5 = 58.5 u

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QUESTIONS
1. A balanced chemical equation is in accordance with

A) Avogadros law B) Law of constant proportion

C) Law of conservation of mass D) Law of definite proportion

2. Two elements X and Y combine in gaseous state to form XY in the ratio 1 : 35.5 by mass. The mass
of Y that will be required to react with 2 g of X is

A) 7.1 g B) 3.55 g C) 46 g D) 71 g

3. Which of the following is not correct postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory ?

A) All matter is made up of tiny particles called atom

B) Atoms of the given element are identical in mass

C) Atoms of the different elements have same masses and same chemical properties

D) Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers to form compounds

4. A sample of NH3 molecule irrespective of source contains 82.35 % nitrogen and 17.65 % of hydrogen
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by mass. This data supports
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C) Avogadros law D) Law of definite proportion

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5. Molecular mass is defined as the

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A) Mass of one molecule of any substance compared with the mass of one atom of C - 12

B) Mass of one atom compared with the mass of one atom of hydrogen

C) Mass of one atom compared with mass of molecule

D) Mass of one molecule of compared with mass of one atom of nitrogen

6. Which of the following is not an element :

A) Diamond B) Graphite C) Silica D) Ozone

th
7. An atom is 20 times heavier than 1 mass of the C - 12 atom. The atomic mass is
12
A) 10 B) 20 C) 240 D) 1.66
8. Which of the following statement is not true about an atom ?
A) Atoms are the basic units from which molecules and ions are formed
B) Atoms are always neutral in nature
C) Atoms of most elements are not able to exist independently
D) Atoms aggregate in large number to form matter that we can see, feel or touch

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9. An element X is divalent and another element Y is tetravalent. The compound formed by these two
element will be
A) XY B) XY2 C) XY4 D) X2Y
10. Which of the following is the smallest particle of an element ?
A) Molecule B) Atom C) Ion D) Compound
11. Which law states that “mass can neither be created nor destroyed” ?
A) Law of constant proportions B) Law of conservation of mass
C) Law of definite volume D) Law of multiple proportions
12. The formula unit mass of NaCl is
A) 58.5 u B) 23 u C) 35.5 u D) 18 u
13. The formula of a chloride of a metal M is MCl2, the formula of the phosphate of metal will be
A) MPO4 B) M3(PO4)2 C) M2(PO4)3 D) M2PO4
14. Which of the following is a polyatomic ion ?

A) Na+ B) Cl- C) Mg2+ D) NO3

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15. The molecular mass of X is 106. X can be

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A) 1 mass of C - 12 atom B) Mass of C - 12 atom
12
C) Mass of O - 16 atom D) Mass of hydrogen molecule
17. The percentage of hydrogen in H2O is
A) 8.88 % B) 11.12 % C) 20.60 % D) 80.0 %
18. When an atom loses electrons, it is called a (an) ––––––––– and has a –––––––– change
A) Anion, positive B) Cation, positive C) Cation, negative D) Anion, negative
19. What is the valency of oxygen ?
A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4
20. The formula of the nitride of metal X is XN, the formula of metal sulphate is
A) X2(SO4)3 B) X3(SO4)2 C) X2SO4 D) X4(SO4)3
21. The molecular formula of magnesium nitrate
A) MgNO3 B) Mg2(NO3)3 C) Mg(NO3)2 D) Mg3(NO3)2

22. Which of the following represent a correct chemical formula ?

A) CaCl B) Na3(SO4)2 C) Na2S D) Al3O2

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23. The atomicity of phosphorous is

A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4

24. A student heats 25 g of reactant A with 50 g of reactant B. He obtains 50 g of product C and recover
25 g unreacted B. Which of the following law is confirmed in the following reaction

A) Law of constant proportion

B) Law of conservation of mass

C) Law of conservation of mass and law of constant proportion

D) Law of multiple proportion

25. Which of the following is a triatomic molecule ?

A) O 2 B) CO 2 C) HCl D) CH 4

26. A molecule of sulpher contains how many atom ?

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A) 2 B) 4 C) 6 D) 8
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27. Calculate the formula unit mass of MgCl2 ?

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A) 36 B) 83 C) 59.5 D) 95
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28. The formula of calcium chloride is :

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A) CaCl B) CaCl2 C) Ca2Cl D) Ca2Cl3

29. Which of the following does not change when a chemical reaction takes place ?

A) Volume B) Physical properties C) Mass D) Chemical properties

30. The molecule of methane (CH4) contains how many atoms ?

A) 2 B) 4 C) 5 D) 6

ANSWERS
1. C 6. C 11. B 16. A 21. C 26. D
2. D 7. B 12. A 17. B 22. C 27. D
3. C 8. B 13. B 18. B 23. D 28. B
4. D 9. D 14. D 19. B 24. B 29. C
5. A 10. B 15. C 20. A 25. B 30. C

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CHEMISTRY

CHAPTER - 09
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

We know that all the substances in our surroundings are made up of small particles called molecules.
They can be sub divided into extremely small particles which are called as atoms. ie atoms and
molecules are the fundamental building blocks of matter.
Dalton’s Atomic theory
John Dalton proposed the Atomic theory in 1807 and they were based on logical thinking
Major ideas of atomic theory
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 Matter is made up of minute particles called atoms.
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 Atoms of the same elements are identical in properties, size and mass.
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 Atoms of different elements differ in their properties and mass

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 Atom is the smallest particle that can take part in chemical reactions
 Compounds are formed when atoms of two or more elements combine in a simple ration
Particles smaller than Atoms
Even when the atomic theory existed, studies on matter and inquiries on the possibilities of
dividing atom had been continuing. Given below are the observations, experiments and assumptions
of some scientists.
1. Eugen Goldstein (1850-1930)
Goldstein recognized the presence of the + ve charge in gases by conducting the discharge
tube experiments. In 1886 he produced anode rays using discharge tube and found the presence of
+ve charge by studying the features of anode rays. Thus he got the credit for the discovery of proton.
2. J.J. Thomson (1856-1940)
J. J Thomson proved that the rays originating from the cathode (cathode rays) are made up
of -vely charged particles. These particles possess mass and energy. When an electric discharge
was passed, all the gases gave the same -ve particles. These -vely charged particles are called
electrons and these are smaller than an atom and are part of atoms. Thus it is proved that an atom
can be divided.

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3. Ernest Rutherford (1871 -1937)

Rutherford proved authentically the presence of + ve charge in substances which has been
identified earlier by Goldstein. He conducted experiments by passing +vely charged  -particles through
a very thin gold foil. The  -rays that come out through the gold foil were allowed to fall on a circular
photographic film. Based on this experiment he substantiated that the major portion of an atom is
empty and there is a small part inside the atom where all the +ve charge is concentrated. This central
region of atom is called nucleus. On the basis of his further experiments, it was proved that particles
responsible for the +ve charge are protons. Its charge was found to be equal and opposite to that of
an electron. He also predicated the presence of a chargeless particle in the nucleus.
4. James Chadwick (1891-1974)
In 1932, James Chadwick proved that inside the nucleus of an atom, there are neutral particles
having mass equal to that of protons. This chargeless particle is called neutron.
 The total mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus because the particles protons and neutrons
that possess mass are in the nucleus.
 Atoms of all elements are made up of the particles namely, proton, neutron and electron
 The difference in the number of these particles make an element different from others
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 Atom is electrically neutral because the number of negatively charged electron and positively charged
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protons are equal in an atom

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Features of electron, proton and neutron

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Electron Proton Neutron

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- ve charge + ve charge chargeless

mass is very less (1/1837 part of mass is equal to that of a mass is equal to that of a
the mass of a hydrogen atom) hydrogen atom hydrogen atom

seen outside the nucleus seen in the nucleus seen in the nucleus

The structure of an Atom

We have learnt Dalton’s atomic theory in which suggested that the atom was indivisible and
indestructible. But the discovery of two fundamental particles (electrons and protons) inside the atom.
led to the failure of this aspect of Dalton’s atomic theory. It was then considered necessary to know
how electrons and protons are arranged within an atom. For explaining this, many scientists proposed
various atomic models. J.J Thomson was the first one to propose a model for the structure of an
atom.
Thomson’s Model of an Atom
Thomson proposed the model of an atom to be similar to that of a christmas pudding. The electrons,
in a sphere of positive charge were like currants (dry fruits) in a spherical christmas pudding. This
model is also called watermelon model.
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Thomson’s model of an atom

Thomson proposed that :
(i) An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons are embedded in it.
(ii) The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. So, the atom as a whole is
electrically neutral.
Although Thomson’s model explained that atoms are electrically neutral.
Rutherford’s planetary model of atom
Rutherford’s,  - scattering experiment (1909)
Rutherford allowed a beam of fast moving  - particles having + ve charge to fall on a thin gold foil. He
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observed that,
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1) Most of the  -particles passed through the gold foil in a straight line
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2) Some of the  - particles were slightly deflected by small angles

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3) Very few  - particles appeared to rebound

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He concluded that
1) Most of the space inside an atom is empty. (from observation 1)
2) The atom had a small nucleus having + ve charge (from observation 2)
3) The size of the nucleus is very small compared the size of the atom (from observation 3)

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Postulates of Rutherford’s, model of atom (1911)

 An atom has a centre called nucleus
 Compared to the size of an atom the size of the nucleus is very small
 All the +vely charged particles and most of the mass are concentrated in the nucleus of atoms
 Negatively charged electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular path
 This atom model is known as planetary model of atom because sun at the center is compared to the
nucleus, planets revolving around the sun is compared to electrons
Limitations of Rutherford model of atom
According to James Clerk Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory, a charged body in circular motion
continuously emits energy as radiations. Electrons which revolve around the nucleus are - vely charged.
Hence while electrons revolve around the nucleus, they should emit electromagnetic radiations lose
energy and come closer to the nucleus. Finally the - vely charged electrons should collapse into the
nucleus. But this does not happen in an atom. Rutherford’s model failed to explain this
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Bohr’s model of atom (1913)

Niels Bohr proposed a new atomic model by giving a better explanation to the Rutherford model. This
model is known as Bohr’s model.

Main ideas of the Bohr model

 Electrons revolve around the nucleus of an atom in fixed paths called orbits or shells
 Electrons in each shell have a definite energy. Hence shells are also called energy levels
 As long as an electron revolves in a particular orbit its energy remains constant
 The energy of the shells increases as the distance from the nucleus increases
 The shells around the nucleus can be numbered from near the nucleus as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ....... or
represented by the letters K, L, M, N, O, ...........

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Fundamental particles in an atom

Position in the Mass used for

Name of particle Charge Mass
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atom practical purpose
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Proton Inside the nucleus + ve 1.00727 u 1u

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Electron Outside the nucleus - ve 0.00548 u

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Neutron Inside the nucleus Chargeless 1.00866 u 1u

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Mass number & atomic number

Mass number :

The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is called the mass number. It is represented by
the letter ‘A’.

Atomic number :

The total number of protons in an atom or number of electrons in a neutral atom is called its atomic
number. It is represented by the letter ‘Z’.
 Atomic number (Z) = number of protons = number of electrons

Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons

Number of neutrons = mass number - atomic number = A - Z

We know symbols are used to represent elements. If we include the mass number and atomic number
to the symbol of an atom, more details about the atom can be inferred. We write the mass number on
the top left side of the symbol and atomic number on the bottom left side of the symbol.

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23
eg : 11 Na

Symbols Atomic no. Mass no. Protons Electrons Neutrons

1
1H 1 1 1 1 0
4
2 He 2 4 2 2 2
7
3 Li 3 7 3 3 4
12
6 C 6 12 6 6 6
20
10 Ne 10 20 10 10 10
23
11 Na 11 23 11 11 12
40
Ar
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18 18 40 18 18 22
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Electronic configuration of an atom

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We have studied that atoms of different elements differ in their atomic numbers as well as mass
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numbers. Therefore they have also different number of electrons. These are distributed in the various
energy shells (K, L, M, N, .......). The distribution of the electrons in various energy shells is known as
electronic configuration. The electronic configuration of atoms of elements from atomic number 1 to
18 is given in the following table.

Rules for filling electrons in shells

1. The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in any given shell is 2n2 (n = shell
number)

Maximum number of
Name of shell Shell number (n) 2
electrons (2n )
K 1 2 × 12 = 2
L 2 2 × 22 = 8
M 3 2 × 32 = 18
N 4 2 × 42 = 32

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2. Filling up of electrons in shells of higher energy happens only after the shells of lower energy are
filled.

3. The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in the outermost shell of an atom is
8.

Bohr model of atoms of certain elements

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Valency

The electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are known as the valence electrons. From the
Bohr-Bury scheme the outermost shell of an atom can accomodate a maximum of 8 electrons,
which show little chemical activity. In other words, their combining capacity or valency is zero. Of
these insert elements, the helium atom has two electrons in its outermost shell and all other elements
have atoms with eight electrons to the outermost shelf.

An outermost shell, which had eight electrons was said to possess an octet. Atoms would thus react,
so as to achieve an octet. Atoms would thus react, so as to achieve an octet in the outermost shell.
This was done by sharing, gaining or losing electrons.

Therefore, an atom of each element has a definite combining capacity, called its valency.

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Number Electronic configuration (shell wise)

Atomic Valency
Element of
number
electrons K L M N O
H 1 1 1 1
He 2 2 2 0
Li 3 3 2 1 1
Be 4 4 2 2 2
B 5 5 2 3 3
C 6 6 2 4 4
N 7 7 2 5 3
O 8 8 2 6 2
F 9 9 2 7 1
Ne 10 10 2 8 0
Na 11 11 2 8 1 1
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Mg 12 12 2 8 2 2
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Al 13 13 2 8 3 3
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Si 14 14 2 8 4 4
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P 15 15 2 8 5 3.5
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S 16 16 2 8 6 2
Cl 17 17 2 8 7 1
Ar 18 18 2 8 8 0

Isotopes
Atoms of the same element having the same atomic number but different mass number are called
isotopes.
eg (1) : Isotopes of hydrogen
1 2 3
1H 1H 1H
Protium Deuterium Tritium

Name of atom Protium Deuterium Tritium

Number of protons 1 1 1
Number of neutrons 0 1 2
Number of electrons 1 1 1
Atomic number 1 1 1
Mass number 1 2 3

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eg (2) : Isotopes of carbon :

12 13 14
6 C 6 C 6 C
Carbon-12 Carbon13 Carbon14

eg (3) : Isotopes of oxygen

15 16 17
8 O 8 O 8 O

The isotopes of an element show slight differences in their physical properties. But their chemical
properties are same.
Average Atomic Mass
Many elements consists of a mixture of isotopes. Each isotope of an element is a pure substance.
Chlorine occurs in nature in two isotopic forms with masses 35 u and 37 u in the ratio of 3:1
The average atomic mass of chlorine atom.

 75 25   105 37  142 
 35  100  37  100    4  4   4 35.5u 
    
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Importance of isotopes
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2) An isotope of carbon, carbon - 14 is used to determine the age of fossils and prehistoric objects
1 2-
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3) An isotope of phosphorous, phosphorous - 31 is used as tracers for identifying the nutrient exchange
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in plants
4) Iodine - 131 and cobalt - 60 are used in medical field for diagonosis and treatment of aliments like
cancer & tumor
5) Uranium - 235 is used as fuel in atomic reactors

Isobars

Atoms having the same mass number but different atomic number are called isobars.

40 40 14 14
eg (1) : 20 Ca, 18 Ar (2) : 6 C, 7 N

Isotones
Atoms with same number of neutrons are called isotones.
15 14
eg : 7 N , 6 C
Number of Number of
neutrons 15 7 8 neutrons 14  6 8

Isotones and isobars are atoms of different elements.

 Besides the fundamental particles like protons, electrons and neutrons, some other particles are
discovered in the nucleus of an atom. They include mesons, neutrino, antineutrino, positron etc.
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QUESTIONS
1. The fundamental building blocks of matter are
A) Atoms B) Molecules C) Symbols D) Both A & B
2. Which of the following statements about the electron is incorrect ?
A) It is a – vely charged particle
B) The mass of electron is equal to the mass of neutron
C) It is a basic constituent of all atoms
D) It is a constituent of cathode rays
3. Which is the fundamental particle of an atom that can be displaced when atoms rub against each
other or they undergo chemical reactions with other atoms ?
A) proton B) neutron C) electron D) neutrino
4. The nucleons are
A) Protons and electrons B) Electrons and neutrons
C) Protons and neutrons D) Protons, neutrons and electrons
5. Rutherford’s alpha    particles scattering experiment resulted in the discovery of
A) Electron B) Proton
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C) Nucleus in the atom D) Neutron

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embedded in it ?
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A) Electron B) Protons C) Neutrons D) Positron

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7. Which of the following are true for an element ?

1) Atomic number = number of protons + number of electrons
2) Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
3) Atomic mass = number of protons = number of neutrons
4) Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons in atom
A) 1 and 2 B) 1 and 3 C) 2 and 3 D) 2 and 4
8. The number of electrons in an element X is 15 and the number of neutrons is 16. Which of the
following is the correct representation of the element ?
31 31 16 15
A) 15 X B) 16 X C) 15 X D) 16 X
9. Which of the following statements is incorrect about the structure of an atom ?
A) The whole mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus
B) The atom is an indivisible particle
C) The atom as a whole is neutral
D) Isotopes are atoms of the same elements
10. The electronic configuration of chlorine (atomic number = 17) is
A) 2, 7 B) 2, 8, 8, 7 C) 2, 8, 7 D) 2, 7, 8

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11. How many electrons are present in M-shell of an element with atomic number 18
A) 2 B) 8 C) 18 D) 10
12. Isotopes have same –––––––
A) atomic number B) mass number
C) number of neutrons D) number of nucleons
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13. 13 Al has
A) 13 protons and 27 neutrons B) 13 protons and 13 neutrons
C) 13 protons and 13 electrons D) 27 protons and 13 electrons
14. The mass number ‘A’, atomic number ‘Z’, and number of neutrons ‘n’ are related as
A) n = A - Z B) n = A + Z C) n = A × Z D) n  A  Z
15. Which of the following is not true about neutron ?
A) It is a neutral particle B) It is present in the nucleus of atom
C) It is highly unstable in nature D) It contributes to the mass of the atom
16. What is the average atomic mass of chlorine ?
 35
17 Cl  75 % and 37
17 Cl  25 % 
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A) 35 B) 37 C) 35.5 D) 36
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17. Why do most of the elements try to participate in the chemical combinations ?
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i) To gain more electrons ii) To achieve inert gas configuration

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iii) To completes their octet iv) To complete their inner shells

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Choose the correct options among the following

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A) Both i & iii B) Both ii & iii C) Only ii D) Both i & iv

18. The maximum number of electrons present in any main energy level is given by
A) 2n2 B) n2 C) n D) 2n
19. The atomic mass of element is 19. The second shell of its atom contains 7 electrons. The number of
neutrons in its nucleus is
A) 10 B) 9 C) 7 D) 12
20. An isotope of ––––––– is used in the treatment of goitre
A) Hydrogen B) Uranium C) Iodine D) Carbon
21. Match the following
Scientist Contribution
1) John Dalton p) Discovered neutron
2) J.Chadwick q) Planetary model of atom
3) J.J. Thomson r) Atomic theory
4) Rutherford s) Proposed watermelon model of atom
A) 1 - r, 2 - s, 3 - q, 4 - p B) 1 - r, 2 - p, 3 - s, 4 - q
C) 1 s, 2 - q, 3 - p, 4 - r D) 1 - q, 2 - r, 3 - p, 4 - s
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22. Maximum number of electrons that can be accomodated in the outermost shell of an atom is
A) 2 B) 8 C) 18 D) 32
23. The maximum number of electrons in N shell is
A) 32 B) 18 C) 8 D) 2
P 17
24. 8X atom is isotonic to 9 Y atom. The value of ‘P’ is

A) 8 B) 16 C) 9 D) 17
25. The energy of shells –––––––– as the distance from the nucleus increases
A) decreases B) increases
C) remains same D) first increases then decreases
26. What property of an element determines its chemical behaviour ?
A) Size of an element B) Valency of an element
C) Molar mass of an element D) Number of neutrons in an element
27. Mass of electron is
A) equal to hydrogen atom B) double the mass of hydrogen atom
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C) half the mass of hydrogen atom D) part of the mass of the hydrogen atom
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28. Symbols (not real symbols) of some atoms are given

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17 40 16 40
1) 8 P 2) 18 Q 3) 8 P 4) 20 R
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Which among these are isobaric pairs

A) 1 & 2 B) 2 & 4 C) 1 & 3 D) 2 & 3

29. Number of electrons in the nucleus of 12

C is
A) 6 B) 12 C) 0 D) 3
30. The number of electrons, neutrons and protons in a species are equal to 2, 2 and 2 respectively. The
proper symbol of the species is

A) 22 He B) 64 Be C) 24 He D) 62 He

ANSWERS
1. D 6. A 11. B 16. C 21. B 26. B
2. B 7. D 12. A 17. B 22. B 27. D
3. C 8. A 13. C 18. A 23. A 28. B
4. C 9. B 14. A 19. A 24. B 29. A
5. C 10. C 15. C 20. C 25. B 30. C

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BIOLOGY

CHAPTER - 10
THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

CELL
 Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms
 A cell is defined as a mass of cytoplasm and nucleus surrounded by plasma membrane
 Structural organisation of cell can be studied under a microscope by peelings of onion bulb etc.
Discovery of cell
1. Robert Hooke - 1665 - First discovered the cell ie, dead, cork cells
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2. A.V. Leeuwenhoek - 1674 - First observed living cells
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3. Robert Brown - 1831 - First discovered nucleus

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4. Purkinje - 1839 - Coined term ‘Protoplasm’

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M.J Schleiden-1838 
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5.  -1839- Proposed cell theory

T Schwann-1839 

6. Rudolf Virchow - 1855 - Modified cell theory

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Cell theory
Proposed cell theory by Schleiden & Schwann
 All living organisms are made up of cells
 Cell is the basic structural & functional unit of life
 All cells are formed from pre-existing cells
Shape of cell
 Shape of cell may be variable in Amoeba
 Cell shape is fixed in some case and is based on functions
 In human cell
Elongated - Nerve cell
Spherical - RBC, Egg
Spindle - Smooth muscles
Flattened - Skin cell
Type of cells
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Unicellular Multicellular
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Body consists of single cell Many cells together constitute the body
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All functions carried out by a single

There is division of labour
cell

eg : Chlamydomonas, Amoeba,
eg : Plants, Animals, Fungi
Paramoecium, Bacteria

Types of cells based on structural organisation

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Size : 1 - 10  m Size : 5 - 100  m
W ell defines nucleus absent .
W ell defined nucleus with
Nuclear m em brane absent.
nuclear m em brane
ie, Nucleoid
Not true chrom osom e/single
More than 1 chrom osom e
chrom osom e
Eg : Bacteria Eg : Plants, Anim als, Fungi

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Structure of cell
Structural components of cells are
1) Plasma membrane
2) Cell wall
3) Nucleus
4) Cytoplasm - cell organelles
1. Plasma membrane

 It is the outermost covering of cell in both plants and animals and also in prokaryotes
 It is living, thin and delicate membrane
 It is flexible and is made up of lipid & proteins
 It is a selectively permeable membrane, ie, it allow the movement of selected substances across
cells.
Functions
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 It is the outer boundary of cell and ensures protection to cell from undesirable materials
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 Exchange of materials between cells as well as between cells and external environment by diffusion
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or osmosis - ie, it is selectively permeable.

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 Flexibility of PM enables the cell to engulf in food and other materials from external environment
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(Endocytosis) as in Amoeba
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Membrane transport
Diffusion
 Movement of any substances (Gas, Liquid, Solid) from region of high concentration to lower
concentration.
 It involved in gaseous exchange within the plant body and environment like exchange of CO2,
oxygen etc.
Osmosis
 Osmosis is the movement of only solvent molecules (water) through a semipermeable membrane
from high water concentration area to low water concentrated area.
 Osmosis is based on concentration of water or amount of solutes present in it (Tonicity)
Types of solution
Isotonic :
Concentration (water) of external medium is same as that of cell.
There is no net flow of water

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Hypotonic
External solution is dilute (higher water concentration) than the cell
It results swelling of cells due to entry of water
Hypertonic
External solution is more concentrated than cell (Lower concentration of water)
It results shrinkage of cell (Plasmolysis) due to exosmosis
2. Cell wall
 Cell wall is absent in animal cells
 It is the outer covering around plasma membrane, in plants fungi and bacteria
 Plant cell wall is freely permeable to substances
 Plant cell wall is made up of cellulose
Functions
 It provide structural strength to plant cells
 It maintain the shape of cells and preventing the bursting of plant cells in hypotonic solution due to
pressure exerted by cell wall.
3. Nucleus
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 Discovered by Robert Brown in 1831
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 It is the controlling unit of cell which contain the genetic material for inheritance
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 It is present in both plant and animal cells

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 Structure of nucleus can be observed under microscope as spherical structure from human cheek
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cells
Structure of nucleus
A) Nuclear membrane : It is double layered covering around nucleus, with several opening called
nuclear pores, which allow transfer of material into or out of the nucleus.
B) Nucleoplasm : It is the inner fluid part.
It contain nucleolus and chromatin fibres
C) Chromatin material and chromosome
 Chromatin material is a mass of thread like structure and it is organised to form a thick, rod -
shaped structure called chromosome during cell division
 It carry unit of inheritance called “genes”
 It consists of protein and DNA (Deoxyribo nucleic acid)
Functions
 It controls all the activities of cell
 It carry unit of inheritance ‘genes’ and involved in transfer of characters from one generation to next
 It regulate cell division and cellular reproduction
4. Cytoplasm
 It is the inner fluid part of cell inside the PM
 It contains water, dissolved materials and different cell organelles carrying different functions
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5. Cell organelles
Single membraneous - Endoplasmic reticulum,Golgi apparatus, Lysosomes, Vacoules
Doubled membraneous - Mitochondria, Chloroplast
Non-membraneous - Ribosomes
5.1 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
 It is a network of membrane bound tubules, vesicles or sheets
 Its appearance is different in different eukaryotic cells
 They are 2 types

Rough endoplasmic re ticulum (RER) Smooth ER (SER)

Ribosom e attached on the surface Ribosom e not attached

Involved in protein synthesis Lipid or fat synthesis

Detoxification of poisons or drugs
in liver cells
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Functions
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 Membrane biogenesis - Formation of plasma membrane by lipids and protein synthesised in ER

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 It acts as channels for transport of materials within the cell

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 It acts as a cytoplasmic frame work and provide structural support to cellular components
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5.2. Golgi apparatus

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 Discovered by Camilo Golgi

 It consists of membrane bound parellely arranged stacks-cisternae, vesicles and vacoules, arranged
in connection with ER
Functions
 Secretion of variety of materials as vesicles after modification and packaging
 Synthesis of complex sugars from simple sugars
 Formation of lysosomes
5.3. Lysosomes
 They are small, spherical, sac like membrane bound vesicles contain digestive enzymes
 It acts as the waste disposal system of cell
 When the cell gets damaged, lysosome may burst and their enzymes digest its own whole cell, so
it is commonly known as ‘Suicidal bags’
Functions
 Helps in digestion of foreign substances or worn-out cell organelles and keep the cell clean
 Provide protection against bacteria & fungal infection
 Acts as waste disposal unit of cell
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5.4. Vacoules
 They are solid/liquid filled, membrane bounded vesicle found in cytoplasm
 They are different in different organisms
1) Animals : Vacoules are smaller but numerous
2) Plants : Single, large vacoule
It occupies 50 - 90 % of cell volume in somecase
Functions
It store water and other substances
It helps in maintaining turgidity & rigidity of plant cell
3) Amoeba :
Food vacoules - Contains engulfed food
Contractile vacoule - Helps in excretion
5.5. Mitochondria
 Small rod-shaped structure
 Also known as “power house of the cell”
Structure
 It is double membrane bounded structure

Outer membrane - Porous

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Inner membrane - Folded, that increases surface area

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 Inner fluid portion is called matrix

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 It contain their own DNA and ribosomes

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Functions
 Synthesize energy for various chemical activities of cell in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)
 It acts as power house of cell because ATP is the energy currency of cell
 Synthesize their own proteins with ribosomes
5.6 Plastids
 Present only in plant cells & absent in animal cells
 They are different types
1) Leucoplast
 White or colourless plastids
 Involved in storage of materials such as starch, oil, protein etc
2) Chromoplast
 Variously coloured plastids
 Present in flower, leaf etc
3) Chloroplast
 Green coloured chromoplast containing chlorophyll pigment
 It is a double-membrane bound structure
 Inner fluid part is stroma which contains numerous stacked membraneous structure called grana
 It also have their own DNA and ribosomes
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Functions
 Photosynthesis - Synthesize food by trapping solar energy
5.7. Ribosome
 Non-membraneous cell organelle
 Present in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes
 It consists of a larger & smaller subunits
 Its function is protein synthesis

Plant ce ll Animal ce ll

Cell wall present Cell wall absent

Plastids present Plastids absent

Vacoules - single & large Sm all num erous, vacoules

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Cell division
 It is the process of formation of daughter cells by division of parental cell
 It is 2 types
M itosis M e iosis

Equal division Reduction division

O ne cell  2 daughter cells 1 cell  4 daughter by 2 division

Chrom osom e num ber sam e in Daughter cells have half the
parent and daughter cell num ber of chrom osom es as that
of parental cells

It occur for growth, repair etc It occurs for gam ete form ation
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QUESTIONS
1. Which one of the following is correct according to cell theory ?
A) All living organisms are made up of cells
B) Cell is the basic unit of life
C) All cells arise from pre-existing cells
D) All are correct
2. Categorise the following organisms into unicellular and multicellular and choose the correct option ?
1) Amoeba 2) Paramecium 3) Chlamydomonas
4) Humans 5) Plants 6) Bacteria 7) Mushroom

A) Unicellular  1,2,3 B) Unicellular  1,6,7

Multicellular  4,5,6,7 Multicellular  2,3, 4,5

C) Unicellular  1,2,3,6 D) Unicellular  1,2,6

Multicellular  4,5,7 Multicellular  3, 4,5,7

3. If we study a cell under a microscope, we see the basic structural component of cells. They are
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A) Plasma membrane B) Nucleus
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C) Cytoplasm D) All the above

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4. Identify the wrong statement regarding plasma membrane ?

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A) Plasma membrane is the outermost covering of every cell, that separates cell from its external
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environment
B) Cell membrane is fully permeable to all the substances into or out of the cell
C) Flexible plasma membrane is chemically made up of lipids and proteins
D) It control the exchange of materials between cells as well as external environment and cells
5. What would happen, if a deshelled egg cell is put in concentrated salt solution and why ?
A) Egg cell shrinks, because water passes out of the egg cell into the hypertonic solution
B) Egg cell swells, because water passes into the cell by osmosis
C) No change in the size of egg cell, because the cell is isotonic with external salt solution
D) Egg cell become huge due to plasmolysis (exosmosis)
6. Identify the wrongly matched option from the following ?
A) Diffusion - movement of substances from high concentration to low concentration
B) Osmosis - movement of water from high to low concentration through a semipermeable membrane
C) Plasmolysis - swelling of cells due to entry of water through osmosis and attain turgidity
D) Endocytosis - engulfing of food and other materials from environment by flexible plasma membrane
as in amoeba

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7. Put dried raisins or apricots in plain water and leave them for sometime. Again placed them into
concentrated sugar or salt solution. What is the result in these 2 cases respectively ?
A) Swells in water and shrinks in solution
B) Shrinks in water and swells in concentrated solutions
C) No change in the shape or structure of raisins and apricots in both cases
D) Raisins swells and apricot shrinks in both situations
8. Given below are steps for preparing a temporary mount of human cheek cells to observe the nucleus.
Arrange them in correct sequence of steps.
i) Taking scraping from inner side of the cheek and spreading it on a clean slide
ii) Adding 1/2 drops of methylene blue
iii) Rinsing the mouth with fresh water and disinfectant solution
iv) Place the slide with materials on the microscope
A) i - ii - iii - iv B) iii - i - ii - iv
C) iv - i - iii - ii D) i - iii - ii - iv
9. Which of the following is not a part of nucleus ?
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A) Nuclear membrane with pores
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B) Chromatin and chromosomes

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C) Nucleoplasm and nucleolus

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D) Cytoplasm with organelles

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10. Where do the lipids and proteins constituting the cell membrane get synthesised respectively ?
A) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum and rough ER
B) Rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth ER
C) Endoplasmic reticulum and lysosomes
D) Golgi complex and ribosomes
11. Why lysosomes are called suicidal bags ?
A) It synthesize protein for cellular activities
B) It digest the whole cell during cell damage
C) It is involved in breakdown of foreign materials
D) It is involved in cell division or reproduction
12. Which is not a function of Golgi complex ?
A) Packaging of materials in vesicles
B) Synthesis of complex sugars from simple sugars
C) Detoxification of poisonous substances in liver
D) Formation of lysosomes
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13. Identify the mis-matched option ?

A) Lysosome - suicidal bags of cell B) Mitochondria - power house of cell
C) Chloroplast - kitchen of cell D) Vacuole - ATP factory of cell
14. Can you name the two organelles we have studied that contain their own genetic material ?

A) Nucleus and vacoules B) Mitochondria and chloroplast

C) ER and Golgi complex D) Lysosome and ribosome
15. Where are proteins synthesised inside the cell ?
A) SER B) Golgi complex
C) Ribosomes D) Vacoules
16. Energy currency of the cell is ––––

A) Adenosine triphosphate B) Ribonucleic acid

C) Deoxy ribonucleic acid D) Chromosome
17. Identify the mis-matched option ?
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A) Chromoplast - coloured plastids in flowers
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B) Chloroplast - chlorophyll containing plastid in leaf

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C) Leucoplast - colourless plastid for storage

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D) Plastids - organelle in plants and animals for storage and colour

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18. Which type of cell division is required for growth and repair and which type involved in gamete formation
respectively ?
A) Mitosis and meiosis B) Meiosis and mitosis
C) Reduction and equal divisions D) Endocytosis and fission
19. Match the following correctly
Column I Column II

a) Robert Hooke 1) Cell theory

b) Robert Brown 2) Dead cell
c) Leeuwenhoek 3) Nucleus
d) Schleiden and Schwann 4) Living cell

ab c d ab c d
A) 123 4 B) 23 41

ab c d ab c d
C) 4 3 21 D) 3 2 41

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20. Match the items in column I with column II and choose the correct option
Column I Column II
a) Endoplasmic reticulum 1) Digestion of materials
b) Golgi complex 2) Packaging of materials
c) Lysosome 3) Channel for transport of materials
d) Vacoules 4) Storage of materials

ab c d ab c d ab c d ab c d
A) 123 4 B) 4 3 21 C) 3 214 D) 23 41

21. Listed below are the cell organelles.Classify them into single membrane bounded, double
membraneous and non-membraneous structures and choose the correct option
1) Ribosome
2) Lysosome
3) Nucleus
4) Mitochondria
5) Chloroplast
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7) ER
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8) Golgi complex
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A) Single  1,2,7,8 B) Single  2,3,8

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Double  4,5 Double  4,5,6

Non  memb  3,6 Non  memb  1,7

C) Single  1,7,8 D) Single  2,6,7,8

Double  3,4,5 Double  3,4,5
Non  memb  2,6 Non  memb  1

22. Match the items in column I and column II and choose the correct option ?
Column I Column II
a) Small, numerous vacoule 1) Amoeba
b) Large sap vacoule 2) Plants
c) Food vacoule 3) Animals
d) Contractile vacoule 4) Paramecium

ab c d ab c d
A) 123 4 B) 3 214

ab c d ab c d
C) 4 3 21 D) 213 4

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23. Observe the following statements and choose the correct option ?
Statement A : In eukaryotic cell, DNA is found in nucleus, mitochondria & chloroplast
Statement B : DNA is present only in prokaryotes
A) Statement A is correct and B is wrong
B) Statement A is wrong and B is correct
C) Both statement A and B are correct
D) Both A and B are wrong
24. Observe the distinguishing features of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Fill in the gaps in the table and
choose the correct option

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

1. Size = 1 - 10  m 1. Size = 5- 100  m
1
2. Nuclear region - 2. Well defined nucleus

3. Chromosome single 3. More than 1 chromosome

4. Membrane bound cell organelles 2
4
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absent
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B) 2- no nucleus, 2- cell organelles present except ribosome

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C) 1-nucleoid, 2- all cell organelles present

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D) 1- well nucleus with nuclear membrane, 2-cell organelles present without exception
25. Fill in the gaps in following column and select the correct option based on difference between plant
and animal cell.

Characteristics Plant cell Animal cell

1. Cell wall Present Absent

2. Vacoules 1 2

3. Plastids Present 3

4. Centrosome Absent Present

A) 1- small, numerous, 2- single large, 3- absent

B) 1- single, large, 2- small numerous, 3- absent
C) 1- sap vacoule, 2 - food vacoules, 3- present except chloroplast
D) 1- gas vacoule, 2- single large, 3- present except humans

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26. You want to see microscopic view of a cell structure which takes part in the transmission of hereditary
characters from one generation to the next. Which labelled part will your teacher focus to make a
microscopic view of that structure

A) P B) Q C) R D) S
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27. Identify the structure given below and its function ?

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A) Golgi complex - breakdown of complex molecules

B) Endoplasmic reticulum - membrane biogenesis

C) Mitochondria - synthesis of ATP

D) Nucleus - storage of water and other materials

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28. Figure given below represents the differently shaped cells from different parts of human body. Identify
the cells and their shapes

1.

2.
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A) 1 - Nerve cell - elongated

2 - RBC - spherical

3 - Smooth muscle cell - spindle shaped

B) 1- Neuron - largest cell

2 - WBC - spindle shaped

3 - Sperm cell - elongated, tailed

C) 1 - Muscle cell - elongated

2 - Red blood cell - rounded

3 - Bone cell - longest, narrow cell

D) 1 - Sperm cell - elongated, tailed

2 - Ovum cell - rounded

3 - Muscle cell - spindle shaped

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29. Oberve the figure given below and identify the labelled part and its function ?

A) 1 - Nucleus - controlling unit

2 - Vacoules - storage of water & materials
3 - Mitochondria - ATP production
B) 1 - Chloroplast - photosynthesis
2 - Vacoules - waste disposal unit
3 - ER - synthesis of proteins & lipids
C) 1 - Vacoule - dumping yard of cell
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2 - Nucleus - kitchen of cell
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3 - Mitochondria - power hour of cell

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2 - Chloroplast - food synthesis

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3 - Lysosome - scavenges of cell

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30. In a biology class, your teacher provide or give detailed clues regarding a particular cell structure, and
finally he told the name of that. Mention the cell structure based on the characteristics given below ?
1) It is present only in eukaryotic plant cell 2) It is a double - membrane bound structure
3) Structurally it consists of stroma & grana
4) It also have their own genetic material and protein synthesizing machineries
5) It involved in synthesis of their own food
Your teacher lectured the idea about –––––
A) Nucleus B) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
C) Chloroplast D) Mitochondria

ANSWERS
1. D 6. C 11. B 16. A 21. D 26. B
2. C 7. A 12. C 17. D 22. B 27. B
3. D 8. B 13. D 18. A 23. A 28. A
4. B 9. D 14. B 19. B 24. B 29. A
5. A 10. B 15. C 20. C 25. B 30. C

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CHAPTER - 11
TISSUES

In unicellular organisms, a single cell performs all basic functions

But in multicellular organisms there are millions of cells.
Most of the cells are specialised to carry out specific functions.
Each specialised function is taken up by a different group of cells.
Since these cells carry out only a particular function, they do it very efficiently.
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Are Plants and Animals Made of Same Types of Tissues?
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 Plants are stationary or fixed – they don’t move.

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 Plants to be upright, they have a large quantity of supportive tissue.

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 The supportive tissue generally has dead cells.

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 The growth in plants is limited to certain regions,

 Based on the dividing capacity of the tissues, various plant tissues can be classified as growing
or meristematic tissue and permanent tissue.

 Animals move around in search of food, mates and shelter.

 They consume more energy as compared to plants.
 Most of the tissues they contain are living.
 Growth is seen in all parts, Cell growth in animals is more uniform

PLANT TISSUES

1. MERISTEMATIC TISSUE

The growth of plants occurs only in certain specific regions. This is because the dividing tissue, also
known as meristematic tissue, is located only at these points.

Depending on the region where they are present,

meristematic tissues are classified as apical, lateral and intercalary

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New cells produced by meristem are initially like those of meristem itself, but as they grow and mature,
their characteristics slowly change and they become differentiated as components of other tissues.
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Cells of meristematic tissue are very active, they have dense cytoplasm, thin cellulose walls and
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prominent nuclei. They lack vacuoles

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 Apical meristem
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Present at the growing tips of stems and roots increases the length of the stem and the root.

 Lateral meristem

The girth of the stem or root increases due to lateral meristem (cambium).

 Intercalary meristem

Seen in some plants is located near the node.

 PERMANENT TISSUE

Meristematic cells take up a specific role and lose the ability to divide. And they form a permanent
tissue. This process of taking up a permanent shape, size, and a function is called differentiation.

Differentiation leads to the development of various types of permanent tissues.

(i) SIMPLE PERMANENT TISSUE

(ii) COMPLEX PERMANENT TISSUE

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(i) SIMPLE PERMANENT TISSUE

 A few layers of cells beneath the epidermis are generally simple permanent tissue.

 Parenchyma is the most common simple permanent tissue.

 It consists of relatively unspecialised cells with thin cell walls.

 They are living cells.

 They are usually loosely arranged, thus large spaces between cells (intercellular spaces) are
found in this tissue (Fig. 6.4a).

 This tissue generally stores food.

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 In some cases, it contains chlorophyll and performs photosynthesis, and then it is called
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chlorenchyma.

 In aquatic plants, large air cavities are present in parenchyma to help them float. Such a parenchyma
type is called aerenchyma.

 The flexibility in plants is due to another permanent tissue, collenchyma.

 It allows bending of various parts of a plant like tendrils and stems of climbers without breaking. It
also provides mechanical support.

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 Another type of permanent tissue is sclerenchyma.

 It is the tissue which makes the plant hard and stiff.
 We have seen the husk of a coconut. It is made of sclerenchymatous tissue.
 The cells of this tissue are dead. They are long and narrow as the walls are thickened due to lignin.
 Walls are so thick that there is no internal space inside the cell (Fig. 6.4 c).
 This tissue is present in stems, around vascular bundles, in the veins of leaves and in the hard
covering of seeds and nuts. It provides strength to the plant parts.
 The outermost layer of cells, called epidermis.
 The epidermis is usually made of a single layer of cells.
 In some plants living in very dry habitats, the epidermis may be thicker since protection against
water loss is critical.
 The entire surface of a plant has an outer covering epidermis. It protects all the parts of the plant.
 Epidermal cells on the aerial parts of the plant often secrete a waxy, water-resistant layer on their
outer surface.
 This aids in protection against loss of water, mechanical injury and invasion by parasitic fungi.
Since it has a protective role to play, cells of epidermal tissue form a continuous layer without
intercellular spaces.
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 Epidermal cells are relatively flat. Often their outer and side walls are thicker than the inner wall.
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(Fig. 6.5).
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exchanging gases with the atmosphere.

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 Transpiration (loss of water in the form of water vapour) also takes place through stomata.

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Epidermal cells of the roots, whose function is water absorption, commonly bear long hairlike parts
that greatly increase the total absorptive surface area.

In some plants like desert plants, epidermis has a thick waxy coating of cutin (chemical substance
with waterproof quality) on its outer surface.

A strip of secondary meristem located in the cortex forms layers of cells which constitute the cork.

Cells of cork are dead and compactly arranged without intercellular spaces (Fig. 6.6). They also have
a substance called suberin in their walls that makes them impervious to gases and water
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(ii) COMPLEX PERMANENT TISSUE

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 A type of permanent tissue is complex tissue.

 Complex tissues are made of more than one type of cells. All these cells coordinate to perform a
common function.

 Xylem and phloem are examples of such complex tissues. They are both conducting tissues and
constitute a vascular bundle.

 Vascular tissue is a distinctive feature of the complex plants,

o Xylem consists of tracheids, vessels, xylem parenchyma (Fig. 6.7 a,b,c) and xylem fibres.

o Tracheids and vessels have thick walls, and many are dead cells when mature.

o Tracheids and vessels are tubular structures. This allows them to transport water and minerals
vertically.

o The parenchyma stores food.

o Xylem fibres are mainly supportive in function.

o Phloem is made up of five types of cells: sieve cells, sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem
fibres and the phloem parenchyma [Fig. 6.7 (d)].

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o Sieve tubes are tubular cells with perforated walls. Phloem transports food from leaves to other
parts of the plant. Except phloem fibres, other phloem cells are living cells.
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ANIMAL TISSUE

 Tissue is a group of specialized cells together with extracellular (Intercellular) substances

performing specific function

Tissue

Epithelial tissue Connective tissue Muscular tissue Nervous tissue

1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE

 The covering or protective tissues of the animal body are epithelial tissues

 The cells are compactly packed with little or no intercellular space/matrix

 Epithelium covers most organs and cavities within the body and also faces outside environment.

 Avascular (Blood vessels are absent)

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 It also forms a barrier to keep different body systems separate. They grows on other tissue, resting on
basement membrane, derive nourishment from underneath connective tissue, by diffusion

Occurrence:-

 The skin (covering), the lining of the mouth, the lining of blood vessels, lung - alveoli and kidney tubules
are all made of epithelial tissue.

Function:- Protection, Secretion, Absorption, reproduction, Excretion, Sensory.

 Any substances enters or leaves the body through the epithelium, and the permeability of the cells of
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various epithelia play an important role in regulating the exchange of materials between the body and
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the external environment and also between different parts of the body.
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1. Epithelial Tissue:-

(A) Simple epithelium:- Possess single layer of cells

(i) Simple squamous/Pavement epithelium—Squama = Scale of skin

 Made of single thin layer of flattened cells with irregular boundaries

 Cells are extremely thin and flat and form a delicate lining

Occurrence:-

 Walls of blood vessels, lung-alveoli, oesophagus, lining of mouth.

Function:-

 Acts as a diffusion boundary. Transportation of substances occurs through a selectively permeable

surface

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(ii) Cuboidal epithelium:-

 Made of a single layer of cube-like cells. May have micro villi at the apical surface
Occurrence:-

Ducts of salivary glands and tubular parts of nephrons (Lining of kidney tubule)
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Function:-
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Secretion and absorption, also provide mechanical support.

(iii) Columnar epithelium:-
 Made of a single layer of tall, pillar like and slender cells.
 Free surface may have microvilli
 Nuclei are located at the base.

Occurrence:-
Lining of stomach and intestine
Function:-
Secretion and absorption
 Ciliated columnar epithelium:- Bears cilia on their free surface

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Occurrence:-
Inner surface of hollow organs-trachea, bronchiole (respiratory tract), fallopian tube (genital tract).
Function: -
These cilia can move, and their movement pushes the mucus forward and thus to clear the dust
particles from the respiratory tract and helps to move the egg through the oviduct or mucus in a
specific direction over the epithelium.
Glandular epithelium:- Modified cuboidal or columnar – For Secretion
(a)Simple gland (Unicellular):- Eg:-Goblet cell of Alimentary canal secrete Mucus
(b)Multicellular gland:- Consisting of cluster of cells Eg:-Salivary gland
(B) Compound epithelium (Stratified)
 It is composed of two or more cell layers.
 Skin epithelial cells are arranged in many layers to prevent wear and tear. Since they are ar-
ranged in a pattern of layers, the epithelium is called stratified squamous epithelium.
Occurrence: -
Cover the dry surface of the skin, moist surface of buccal cavity, inner lining of duct of salivary gland
and pancreatic duct.
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Function:-
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2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE:-
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Connective Tissue

Blood Bone Ligament Tendon Cartilage Areolar tissue Adipose tissue

 Most abundant & widely distributed tissue – 30%

 The cells of connective tissue are loosely spaced and embedded in an intercellular matrix and the
matrix may be jelly like, fluid, dense or rigid
 The major protein content of connective tissue-----Collagen
 Function:- Linking and supporting other tissues/organs of the body.
(A) Loose connective tissue:-
 Cells and fibres loosely arranged in a semi-fluid ground substance.
(a) Areolar tissue:-
 Found between skin (Integument) and muscle, around blood vessels and nerves and in the bone
marrow.

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Function:-
 It fills the space inside the organs, supports internal organs and helps in repair of tissues.
(b) Adipose Tissue
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 Located mainly beneath the skin and between internal organs.

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 The cells of this tissue are specialised to store fat globules called Adipocytes
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Function:-
 It synthesise, store and metabolize fat.
 Act as insulating layer – to prevent loss of heat from the body.
 It forms shock absorbing cushion around-kidney (Adipose capsule) and eye ball
 Hump of camel & Blubber of whale is a stored fats (Acts as insulator in whale)
(c) Tendon:-
It is a type of connective tissue made of White collagen fibres
 It connects ----------Muscle to bone
 Provide good strength & Limited flexibility/less elastic
(d) Ligaments:-
It is a type of connective tissue made of Yellow elastin fibres.
 It connects ----------Bone to Bone
 Not very strong, more flexible/more elastic
“Sprain caused due to stretching of ligament”

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[The skin is composed of 2 main layers.

(i) Epidermis : - Made of closely packed stratified squamous epithelial cells, cover dry surface of skin
(ii) Dermis : - Made of dense, irregular, connective tissue and it supports the epidermis]
(B) Specialised connective tissue:-
Bone, Cartilage, Blood
(i) Bone:- Study of bone--------------Osteology
 It is a strong and nonflexible tissue
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 Bone cells are embedded in a hard matrix that is composed of calcium and phosphorus compounds
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Function:-
 Provides structural frame to the body.
 Bones support and protect softer tissues and organs.
 Limb bones serve weight-bearing functions.
 Limb bones interact with skeletal muscles attached to them to bring about movements/locomotion
 The bone marrow in some bones is the site of production of blood cells.
(ii) Cartilage:- Study of cartilage - Chondrology-
 Intercellular material (matrix) of cartilage is solid, composed of proteins and sugars.
 It is flexible and resists compression
 Chondrocytes are the cells.

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Occurrence:-
 Tip of nose, external ear, trachea, larynx, and smoothens bone surface, at joint
(iii) Blood:- Haematology-Study of blood
 Blood is a fluid connective tissue and fibres are absent in matrix
 Fluid portion is called Plasma and solid components (RBCs, WBCs and platelets) suspended in
plasma
 Plasma contains plasma proteins, salts and hormones.
Different types of blood cells
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Function:-
 Blood transports gases, digested food, hormones and waste materials to different parts of the body
and regulate body temperature.
3. MUSCULAR TISSUE - Around 639 muscles in our body-40 -50%]
 Sarcology/Myology:-Study of muscles
 Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells called Muscle fibres.
 Muscles contain contractile proteins (Actin & Myosin), which contracts and relax causes
movement.

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1. Skeletal Muscle 2. Smooth Muscle 3. Cardiac Muscle

Feature Striated Muscles Non-Striated Muscles Cardiac Muscles

Other Name Skeletal muscles Smooth muscles Heart muscles

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Walls of internal organs

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Location Attached to bones Walls of the heart

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(intestines, bladder, etc.)

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Control Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary

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Striations Present Absent Present (faint)

Multinucleated
Nucleus Uninucleated ( one nucleus) Uninucleated or binucleated
(many nuclei)

Shape Long, cylindrical Spindle shaped (pointed ends) Cylindrical

Branches Unbranched Unbranched Branched

Intercalated Discs Absent Absent Present

Fatigue Fatigues easily Fatigues slowly Does not fatigue easily

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Cardiac muscle - Function

 Presence of intercalated disc is a unique feature of cardiac muscle and acts as a booster of
contraction
 They are involuntary muscle
They show rhythmic contraction and relaxation through out life without any fatigue, results pumps
the blood throughout the body.
4. NERVOUS (NEURAL TISSUE):-

 Nervous tissues are found in nerves, brain, and spinal cord

 They are capable of transmitting information quickly from the brain to different parts of the body and
vice-versa. Thus we can react to different stimuli.

 The Nervous tissue is made up of cells called the Nerve Cells or Neurons.
 These neurons connect together to form the nerves of our body.
Structure of a Neuron

 Neuron is the structural and functional unit of nervous system

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 Neuron is an elongated cell with a Cell Body (Soma/Cyton), and it has cytoplasm and Nucleus.
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From the cell body arises some branches called Dendrons, and it branches again to form Dendrites
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 One of the dendrons elongated to form an Axon. (Axon is a nerve fibre)

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 Many nerve fibres bound together by connective tissue make up a nerve.

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 Neuron is the longest cell in our body (1 m long)

 Neuron has no / least regenerating power.
 The functional combination of nerve and muscle tissue (Neuro muscular junction) is enables
animals to move rapidly in response to stimuli.

 The signal that passes along the nerve fibre is called a nerve impulse
 Dendrites and dendrons carry impulses towards cell body and Axon carry impulses away from the
cell body.

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QUESTIONS
1. Group of cells performing similar function is called
A) Tissues B) Organs C) Organ system D) Cell aggregate
2. Meristems are cells that :
A) Store food B) Help in excretion
C) Provide support D) Divide continuously to produce new cells
3. Which of the cell organelle is absent or very small in meristematic tissue ?
A) Nucleus B) Chloroplast
C) Vacuole D) Mitochondria
4. In plants, cell division is restricted to :
A) Meristematic cells B) Permanent Cells C) Xylem D) Phloem
5. Which one of the following plant tissues causes growth in girth of stem and root ?
A) Apical meristem B) Intercalary meristem
C) Lateral meristem D) Secondary meristem
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6. Which among the following is the most abundant permanent tissue in a young plant ?
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A) Parenchyma B) Collenchyma C) Sclerenchyma D) Phloem

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7. Which tissue acts to increase length of a grass stem ?

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A) Primary meristem B) Apical meristem

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C) Lateral meristem D) Intercalary meristem

8. A permanent plant tissue made up of living cells having thickening at the corners is:
A) Parenchyma B) Collenchyma C) Sclerenchyma 3) Phloem
9. The walls of sclenchyma cells are thickened due to :
A) Cutin B) Suberin C) Lignin D) Gum
10. Lignified elongated dead cell are :
A) Parenchyma B) Collenchyma C) Sclerenchyma D) None
11. In desert plants (Xerophytes) the rate of waterloss get reduced due to covering of epidermis by :
A) Cutin B) Suberin C) Lignin D) Gum
12. The hardest tissue in the plant body is :
A) Collenchyma B) Sclerenchyma C) Xylem D) Phloem
13. In plants phloem tissues perform the functions of :
A) Conduction of water B) Conduction of food
C) Photosynthesis D) Mechanical support

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14. The function of xylem in plants is :

A) Transport of food B) Transport of oxygen
C) Transport of water and minerals D) Transport of aminoacids
15. Of the following, which is not a component of phloem tissue

A) Sieve cells B) Tracheids C) Companion cells D) Sieve tube

16. The most abundant type of tissue in our body is :

A) Epithelial tissue B) Connective tissue C) Muscular tissue D) Nervous tissue

17. The entire body surface and cavities inside the body are lined by :

A) Epithelial tissue B) Connective tissue

C) Muscular tissue D) Nervous tissue

18. Columnar epithelium is present in :

A) Kidney tubules B) Small intestine

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C) Skin D) Blood capillary
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19. Which one of the following is a fluid connective tissue?

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A) Cartilage B) Ligament C) Blood D) Areolar tissue

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20. The tissue which is under the control of animal’s will is

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A) Striated muscle B) Non Striated muscle

C) Cartilage D) Cardiac muscle

21. Longest cell in our body is :

A) Liver cell B) Bone cell C) Muscle fibre D) Neuron

22. Tendon join :

A) Muscle to bone B) Bone to bone C) Muscle to muscle D) Muscle to skin

23. External ear contains a flexible structure composed of ?

A) Ligament B) Cartilage C) Bone D) Tendon

24. Bone matrix is rich in :

A) Calcium and potassium B) Phospherous and potassium

C) Calcium and phospherous D) Calcium and flouride

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25. A person met with an accident in which two long bones of the hand were dislocated. Which among
the following may be the possible reason ?

A) Tendon break B) Break of skeletal muscle

C) Areolar tissue break D) Ligament break

26. The muscular tissue which function throughout life continously without fatigue is :

A) Skeletal muscle B) Cardiac muscle C) Striated muscle D) Voluntary muscle

27. The site of formation of blood cell is ?

A) Heart B) Liver C) stomach D) Bone marrow

28. Match the columns. Find the correct option
Column A Column B
a) Adipocyte 1) Blood
b) Cartilage 2) Fat storing cell
c) Tendon 3) Tip of nose
d) Ligament 4) join bone to bone
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e) Fluid connective tissue 5) join muscle to bone

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abcd e abcd e abcd e abcd e

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A) B) C) D)
5 4 321 2 35 41 2 3 4 51 12345
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29. Sprain caused due to

A) Stretching of tendon B) Stretching of ligament
C) Breakage of cartilage D) Breakage of bone
30. Tissue that forms the inner lining of our mouth is :
A) Simple squamous epithelium B) Simple cuboidal epithelium
C) Simple columnar epithelium D) Compound epithelium

ANSWERS
1. A 6. A 11. A 16. B 21. D 26. B
2. D 7. D 12. B 17. A 22. A 27. D
3. C 8. B 13. B 18. B 23. B 28. C
4. A 9. C 14. C 19. C 24. C 29. B
5. C 10. C 15. B 20. A 25. D 30. D

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CHAPTER - 12
IMPROVEMENT IN FOOD RESOURCES

To fulfil the need of food to geometrically growing population, the various practices involved in crop
production should be more scientific. Till now following revolutions to increase food, fish, milk and oil
production have been successful with due efforts made by scientist.
1. Green revolution: for increase in food grain production.
Father of green revolution in India – Mr. M.S.Swaminathan
2. Blue revolution: for increase in fish production.
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3. White revolution: for increase in milk production.
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4. Yellow revolution: for increase in oil production.

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5. Golden revolution: for increase in pulse production.

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Different types of crop:

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(A) On the basis of nutrients they provide:

(i) Cereals: contain high amount of carbohydrate to provide energy.
e.g. – Wheat, Maize, Rice, Barley, Rye, Oats, Sorghum etc
(ii) Pulses: are rich in protein.
e.g.- Gram (Chana),Black gram(Urad), Greengram (Moong), Pigeon Pea (Arhar),
Lantil (Massor)
(iii) Oil yielding plant: provide fatty acid.
e.g. – Ground nut, Castor, Cotton, Sunflower, Coconut, Mustered, Sesame, Linseed, Niger.
(iv) Vegetable, Spices & Fruits: are sources of vitamins, minerals, and small quantity of
protein, carbohydrate and fats.
e.g. – Spices – Ginger, Turmeric, Cloves, Pepper, Fennel, Coriender, Cumin.
(v) Fibre yielding plant: e.g.- Cotton, Jute.
(vi) Beverages: have very little nutritive value but are very stimulating. e.g.- Tea, Coffe
(vii) Fodder crop: e.g. – Berseem, Sudan grass, Oats

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B) On the basis of season in which they are grown:

(i) Kharif crop: grown in rainy season (from June to October)

e.g. – Paddy, Soya bean, Arhar, Maize, Cotton, Urad, Moong etc.

(ii) Rabi crop: grown in winter season (November to April)

e.g.- Wheat, Gram, Peas, Mustard, Linseed

Since from 1960 – 2004 the total crop production has been increased by four times whereas only
25% increase in cultivated land has been seen. This can be made possible due to

1. Choice of good & healthy seed.

2. Supplying proper nutrition for crops.

3. Protecting growing and harvested crop.

To obtain higher yield from farmland following three systems are being used:
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1. Crop variety improvement.
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2. Crop production management.

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3. Crop protection management.

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1. CROP VARIETY IMPROVEMENT:

The first and foremost important step to improve the crop yield is to improve the variety of crop which has
following characteristics i.e. crop variety improvement is done for the following purposes:

1. Higher yield.

2. Better quality.

3. Biotic & abiotic resistance i.e. disease, insects & pest resistance.

4. Desirable agronomic characters for specific crops like dwarfness, intensive branching, more
tillering & increased fertiliser responsiveness.

5. Wider adaptability: developed improved crops help in stabilizing crop production under different
climatic conditions.

6. Early maturation(ripening)

7. Better response to fertilisers.

Crop variety can be improved by plant breeding.

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Hybridisation is the crossing of two plants differing from each other genetically in one or more characters.
By hybridisation it is possible to combine all the good characters in a single variety and to exploit &
utilise the hybrid vigour.
Hybridisation or crossing over may be Intervarietal (between different verities), Interspecific (between
two different species of same genus) or Intergeneric (between different genera). The objective of
hybridisation becomes more fulfilled by the genetic engineering. Nowadays the desired characters
in plants can be obtained by introducing the gene of desired characters; such crops are called
“Genetically modified crops” or GM Crops.

2. CROP PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT: Includes - Nutrients requirement, Irrigation & Cropping

pattern.

(i) NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT: There are two types of nutrients required by the plants
(a) Macronutrients: needed by the plants in large amount. E.g.- N2, P, K, Ca,Mg, S
(b) Micronutrients: needed by the plants in very small amount.e.g. - Fe, Cu, Zn, Bo, Mo, Cl.
Sources of plant nutrients:
Air – Carbon, Oxygen
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Water – Hydrogen
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Soil – N2, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Bo, Zn, Co, Mo, Cl
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“Most important nutrients needed for growth of plants are N2, P, and K”.
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Differences between Manures & Fertilisers:

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Manure Fertlizers
1. Are partially decayed wastes and animal residue 1. Is a salt or organic compound containing
by microbes essential part of nutrients

2. It is nutrient specific i.e. it contain much

2. It is not nutrient specific and tends to remove
higher amount of particular nutrients and are
general defeciency of the soil
used to remove particular deficiency of the soil
3. It adds humus to the soil 3.It does not add any humus to the soil
4. Nutrients present in the manure are absorbed 5. Since it is soluble in water it is readly
slowly to the crop since it is not soluble in water absorbed by plants
6. It is voluminous and bulky so it is inconvenient to 6. It is compact so it is easy to store transport
store, transport, handle and apply to the crop and apply to crops

Disadvantages of fertilisers:
1. They are expensive.
2. It does not add any humus to the soil.
3. In a long run it destroys the soil texture making it infertile.

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Types of manure:
1. Compost and vermi compost - Farm waste like cow dung, vegetables waste straw, weeds,
sewage etc. is decomposed in pits. In vermicompost earthworms are used to speed up
decomposition . Rich in organic matter & nutrients
3. Green manure: In preparing green manure a quick growing crop is cultivated and ploughed under
to incorporate into the soil. E.g.- Sunhemp, Dhaincha, Gur etc.
Adds nitrogen and phosphorus to the soil
Advantages of manure:
1. It enriches soil with nutrients.
2. It adds organic matter to the soil which improves the texture and increase water holding
capacity of the soil.
3. It provides food for soil organisms.
Limitations of manure:
1. It is voluminous and bulky so it is inconvenient to store, transport, handle and apply to the crop.
2. The nutrients of manure are released slowly.
3. They are not nutrient specific.
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FERTILIZERS
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Commercially produced plant nutrients

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They supply
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• Nitrogen (N)
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• Phosphorous (P)
• Potassium (K)
Benefits of fertilizers
• Help in faster growth and higher yield especially in high-cost farming
• Supply specific nutrients to plants
Precautions in using fertilizers
• Apply in correct dose and at the right time
• Over use or excessive irrigation can lead to
Loss of fertilizers (washed away before absorption)
Water pollution
Soil fertility loss
BIO-FERTILISERS: Living beings used to increase the soil fertility are called bio-fertilisers. e.g.- Anabaena,
Nostoc, Rhizobium, Blue-green algae, Azolla etc.

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(ii) IRRIGATION:
The technique of providing water to the crops in the fields by means of Canals, Reservoir, Wells and
Tube-wells etc is called irrigation.
Importance of irrigation:
1. Irrigation water supplies two essential elements to crops i.e. Hydrogen and Oxygen.
2. Moisture available in the soil leads to germination of seeds.
3. Water made available to field by the process of irrigation helps in absorption of nutrients by plants
from the soil.
Irrigation System: The design equipment and technique of replenishing the soil water deficit by
applying irrigation water is referred to as irrigation system.
Requirement of good irrigation system:
1. There should be minimum or no wastage of water.
2. It should be inexpensive and economically justifiable.
Types of irrigation system: Canal system, Tanks, Wells, River valley system.
(iii) CROPPING PATTERN: Following ways of growing crops can be used to give maximum
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benefits
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2. Inter cropping
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3. Crop rotation
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Mixed Cropping: The process of growing two or more different crops together in the same piece of land is
called mixed or multiple cropping.

e.g. - Cotton & ground nut, Maize & Urad, Rice with Jowar or Maize, Cotton with Jowar or Red
gram or Coriander etc, Wheat with Mustard.

“While doing mixed cropping it is ensured that different crops may mature at different times:.

Advantages of mixed cropping:

1. Multiple cropping saves time and labour of farmers.

2. It helps in optimum utilisation of the soil.

3. It avoids depletion of soil nutrients due to different nutrient requirement of different crops in the
same field.

4. The waste material and product released by one crop may be beneficial to the other crop in mixed
cropping.

5. When two crops of different nature are grown simultaneously, risk of total crop failure is
minimised due to uncertainty in monsoon.

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6. It results in increase in yield because growing of legume crop along with cereals will increase
the yield of cereals due to coverage of nitrogen deficiency in soil.

7. Minimise pest damage because a particular type of plant is infected by a particular type of pest.
Disadvantages of mixed cropping:
1. It is impossible to use any labour saving equipment or machinery on the field.

Inter Cropping: is the growing of two or more crops simultaneously in the same field in definite row pattern.

A few rows of one crop alternate with a few rows of a second crop. Crops are selected in a fashion that their
nutrients needs differ. E.g. - Soyabean + Maize, or Bajra + Lobia(Cow pea)
Advantages of inter cropping:
1. It ensures maximum utilization of nutrients.
2. It checks spreading of pests and disease to all plants.
3. Both crops can give better returns.

Crop rotation: the process in which different types of crops are grown alternately in the same field is
called crop rotation.
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Advantages of crop rotation:
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2. It helps in pest control.

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3. It improves crop quality.

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4. It keeps the land occupied with greater part of time with crops.
3. CROP PROTECTION MANAGEMENT: It includes protection of the growing crops
and harvested crops.
Weeds, insects, pests and diseases infest the field crops. It can be controlled by adopting following
methods:-
1. To grow resistant verities.
2. Optimum time of sowing the crops.
3. Crop rotation and cropping systems.
4. Deep ploughing in summers to kill weeds, pathogen etc. i.e. summer ploughing.
Weed control:
Weeds are unwanted plants which grow of their own along with crop plants.
e.g. - Xanthium (gokhroo), Parthenium (gajar ghas), Cyprinus rotundus (motha), Opuntia etc.
The growth of weeds is harmful because of the following reasons:
1. The weeds consume a lot of nutrients, sunlight, water and fertilizers thereby reducing crop
production.

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2. It occupies space meant for crop thereby reducing crop yield and lower the quality of food grain.
3. The weeds spread very fast because they produce a large quantity of seeds.
Weeding: The process of removing weeds from a crop field is called weeding. It can be done by following
methods:
1. Removal by hands.
2. Removal by instruments like trowel (khurpa)
3. By using chemicals called weedicides. Eg-2,4-D (2,4-Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid), Butachlor,
Atrazine, Isoproturon, Fluchloralin etc.
4. Control of weed by biological methods: in this method some selective insects or other organisms
are put into the crop field having weeds. These insects or organisms selectively destroy the weed
plants without harming the crop plants. Eg- Cochineal insects are used to remove weeds called
Opuntia.
Cultural methods: Proper seed bed prepration , timely sowing of crops, inter cropping & crop rotation
control the weeds growth.

Insect’s pests control:

Usually the insect’s pests attack the plants by producing following three types of symptoms:
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1. By cutting plants like roots stem and leaves.
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Pesticides: chemicals which can kill or destroy the pests are called pesticides.eg- Bordeaux mixture
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(mixture of copper sulphate and Lime in a 4:4 ratio). Pesticides are of several types depending on the types
of pests killed or controlled. Thus they may be:
(i) Fungicides: kill fungi

(ii) Insecticides: kill insects

(iii) Nematicides: kill nematodes

(iv) Rodenticides: kill rodents

(v) Herbisides: kills herbs.

Plant disease:

e.g. - black stem Rust of wheat, loose smut of wheat, Late blight of potato, Yellow vein mosaic of Lady’s
finger.
Storage of grains:
Need for safe storage:
1. Ensures availability of grains throughout the years.
2. It facilitates distribution to far away places of a country.

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3. Grains are harvested once in a year, however due to fixed eating habits they are needed regularly
throughout the year.

4. It helps in making buffer stocks for emergency periods.

5. For surplus food, if available , storage is required.

Modes of storing of grains:

1. Perishable food material: the food material which gets spoiled easily on keeping for some time at
room temperature is called Perishable food. E.g.- fruits, vegetables, fish, meat, milk, etc. they can be
stored in cold-storage.

2. Non- Perishable food material: The food materials which don’t get spoiled even on keeping for long
time at room temperature are called Non- Perishable food material. These contain very less amount of
water and are alsao called dry food. E.g. - foodgrains, wheat-flour, sugar, spices, etc. they can be stored by
dry storage methods.

Non-perishable food materials are stored on a commercial scale in gunny bags or in grain silos.

The stored food grains are generally attacked and damaged by pests such as insects and rodents. Therefore
the stored food grains should be regularly checked to detect any infestation. While storing the grains
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application of pesticides - by either spraying (like Malathion, Pyrethrum, D.D.T.) or Fumigation of fumigants
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bromide); Rat poison/ Rodenticides like Zinc phosphide should be done at regular intervals.
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ORGANIC FARMING: Organic farming avoids the use of synthetically compound fertilizers, pesticides.
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Organic farming rely upon crop rotation, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, off
farm organic wastes, biological pest control.

Objective of organic farming:

1. To develop sustainable agriculture system
2. To develop an alternative strategy over chemical farming.
3. This system rely upon recourses within own recourses.
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
The science of rearing, feeding, caring, breeding and disease control of animals is called animal husbandry.
Main elements of animal husbandry are:
1. Proper feeding of animals.
2. Providing fresh water and good shelter to animals.
3. Proper health and protection against diseases.
4. Proper breeding of animals.
Need for animal husbandry: To ensure proper nutrition to our growing population

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Advantages of animal husbandry:

1. Increased milk production through cattle farming.
2. Increased egg production through cattle farming.
3. Improvement of quality of meat through fish farming, pig farming, goat farming etc.
4. Proper utilization of animal waste.
5. To produce more honey and bees wax through bee keeping.
On the basis of utility animals have been categorized into following four types:
1. Milch (milk-yielding) animals: e.g.- cow, buffalo, goat
2. Meat and Egg-yielding animals: e.g.- goat, sheep, pig, fish, chicken, duck, etc
3. Draught (working) animals: e.g.- horse, bullock, camel, donkey, mule, elephant
4. Hair and skin: yielding animals; e.g.- sheep, goat, rabbit, cow, buffalo etc.
CATTLE FARMING
Cattle farming is done for two purposes: - milk production and bullock labour (e.g.- tilling, irrigation, and
carting).
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Breeds of cattle:
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Indigenous breed:
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Milch breed: e.g. - Gir,Sahibal, Red Sindhi, Deoni etc.

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Draught breed: e.g. - Nageri, Hallikar, Malvi etc.

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Dual purpose breed: e.g. - Deoni, Sahibal, Kankrej, tharparkar, Dangi etc.
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Breeds of Indian buffalo: e.g. - Murrah, Nagpuri, Mehsana, Jaffrabadi, Surti, Bhadawari, Nilli,
Ravi etc.
Exotic breed of milch cow: eg- Holstein-Friesien(Holland), Jersey(Island of Jersey of England), Ayrshire
(Scotland), Brown-Swiss(Switzerland), Red Dane(Denmark), etc.

Cross breeds of cow:- eg- Karan-Swiss, Karan-Fries, Frieswal, Brown Swiss-Sahiwal, Jersey- Sindhi,
Ayrshire-Sahiwal, Karan-Swiss etc.
Feeding of cattle:
The foods given to animals are called Feed. Feeding requires balanced ration in correct quantities to each
animal proportionate to their body requirements and productive capacity. Both over feeding and under
feeding should be avoided. Feed constitutes two main components i.e. roughage & Concentrate.
The animal feed is of two types:

Roughage: contains large amount of fibres with low nutrition. Eg- hay, fodder, silage, legumes like barseem,
lucrene, cowpea; etc. it also includes fodder grasses, like Napier grass, Guinea grass and Elephant grass.

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Concentrate: They are rich in protein and other nutrients. It contains mixture of cereals, like maize, jowar,
broken grass, rice polish, cotton seed, molasses, oilseed cake etc.
The animal food requirement is divided into two categories:
1. Maintenance requirement: which supports the basic function of the life?
2. Milk- producing requirement: which increase the milk production.
Farm management practice:

A good animal shelter is also important aspects of animal husbandary.a good animal shelter should have
following characteristics:
1. It should protect the animals from heat, cold, and rain and also from other animals.
2. It should be clean, dry, airy, and well ventilated.
3. It should have proper sunlight during the day.
4. It should have proper arrangement for clean drinking water.
5. It should be spacious so as to provide enough space for each animal to stay comfortabely.
6. It should have a sloping floor for the hygienic disposal of animal excreta.
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7. Regular brushing of animals to remove dirt and loose hair.

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1. Natural breeding: It is further of two types:-

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a) Random breeding: here pedigree bulls are kept along with grazing cows.
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b) Controlled cross breeding: in this type of breeding native cows are crossed with exotic bulls of
superior quality in natural breeding.

2. Artificial breeding: in this, semen of bull of good breed is collected and stored at freezing
temperature. The introduction of semen of high quality bull in the body (vagina) of healthy females by
artificial means during heat period or oestrous (fertility) period is called artificial insemination. This
method is comparatively better and economical and has following advantages:
· Several cows can be inseminated by semen of a single bull.
· It ensures progeny of good quality and also avoids the transportation of animqals.
· Sperms can be stored for long at freezing temperature.
Some common animal disease:
Ø Bacterial: Anthrax, Tuberculosis, Rinderpest.
Ø Viral: Rabies, Cowpox, Encephalitis, Foot & mouth disease.
Ø Fungal: Ring worm
Ø Worms: Ascariasis.

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POULTRY FARMING
Poultry is the branch of animal husbandry concerned with rearing of birds for eggs and meet. Egg laying
birds are called LAYERS while meat-yielding birds are called BROILERS. It includes chickens (fowls),
ducks, turkeys, pigeons etc. among these fowls are most widely domesticated birds in India.
Poultry breeds:

Indigenous: Assel-has four popular breed Peela, Yakub, Nurie, & Kajal, Ghagus, Basara, Chittagong
Exotic: white leghorn cock, white leghorn hen, rhode island red hen,

Cross bread: IBL-80, B-77, HH-260, etc.

Desired traits for improved verities:
1. Quality and quantity of chicks.
2. Dwarf broiler parent for commercial chick production.
3. Summer adaptability capacity / tolerance to high temperature.
4. Low maintenance requirement.
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5. Reduction in size of egg laying birds.
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Care should be taken to avoid mortality and to maintain feathering & carcass quality. To prevent poultry
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from diseases following measures should be taken.

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1. They should be kept in spacious, airy, and ventilated shelter.

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2. The shelter should be clean properly and regularly.

3. Quick and hygienic disposal of excreta should be ensured.
4. Disinfectant should be sprayed regularly.
5. Animal should be vaccinated at regular interval to minimize it from common infection and disease.
FISH FARMING (PISCICULTURE)

Pisciculture or fishery or fish farming involves the rearing and breeding of fish scientifically by man in
ponds, tanks, etc.
TYPE OF FISH FARMING:

On the basis of nature of source of fishes:

1. Capture fisheries: fish caught directly from their natural resources.

2. Culture fisheries: fish is cultivated in artificial water bodies called breeding ponds.

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On the basis of nature of water sources:

1. Marine fisheries: it involves fish production in marine waters.

2. Inland fisheries: it involves fish production in fresh water systems and brackish waters like
estuaries and lagoons.
Breeds of fishes:
Indigenous breeds: - fresh water: katla, rohu, calbusa, mrigla. Salt water fish-chanos, mullets
Exotic breeds: - fresh water- common carp, mirror carp, Chinese carp, silver carp and grass carp

MARINE FISHERIES: Important marine food fishes are –Pomphrets,Mackererls, tuna, sardines, Bombay
duck, mullets, bhetki, pearl spots, etc. In addition sea weeds and shelfish (like prawns), oyster, etc . This is
called MARICULTURE.

COMPOSITE FISH CULTURE (POLYCULTURE): it is the method of fish farming in which many types of
fishes are cultured together into a pond or water body.
Significance of Composite fish culture:
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(i) All the zones of water body is exploited.
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(ii) There will be no competition between different species because they have different habits e.g.-
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catla is a surface feeder, rohu is a column feeder, cirrhinus is a bottom feeder.

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(iii) These fishes help in growth of each other.

The fish capturing is now easier due to employing of modern technologies like echo-sounders and use of
satellites which are used to locate the fish shoals.

APICULTURE

Apiculture is the process of rearing of honey bees in the artificial hives, called apiaries, for the production of
honey at commercial level.

Species of honey bee:

Indigenous species: Apis dorsata commonly called rock bee or giant bee, Apis indica commonly called

Indian bee, Apis florae commonly called little bee etc

Exotic species: Apis mellifera commonly called Italian bee etc.

BEE FORAGE / PASTURAGE: it includes all those flowering plants which provide pollens and nectar to
the honey bees. The pasturage is different from region to region and depends upon the geographical location.
The quality and taste of honey depends upon the nature of flora from which the nectar is collected.

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QUESTIONS
1. Using fertilizers in farming is an example of

A) No cost production B). Low cost production

C). High cost production D). None of these

2. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are examples of

A). Micro-nutrients B). Macro-nutrients C). Fertilizers D) Both I and II

3. Cyperinus and Parthenium are types of

A) Diseases B). Pesticides C). Weeds D) Pathogens

4. Mullets, prawns, mussels are examples of

A). Marine fishes B). Fresh-water fishes

C). Finned fishes D) Shell fish

5. What is the other name for Apis cerana indica?

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A). Indian cow B). Indian buffalo C) Indian bee D) None of these
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6. The management and production of fish is called

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A). Pisciculture B). Apiculture C). Sericulture D). Aquaculture

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7. Rohu and catla are types of

A). Freshwater fish B). Marine water fish C). Both I and II D). None of these

8. Pasturage is related to

A). Cattle B) Fishery C) Apiculture D) Sericulture

9. What is the process of growing two or more crops in a definite pattern?

A) Crop rotation B) Inter-cropping C) Mixed cropping D) Organic cropping

10. Leghorn is related to

A). Apiculture B) Dairy farming C) Pisciculture D) Poultry

11. We get proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins from…………

A) DNA B) RNA C) Food D) Water

12. Newspapers made from………………

A) proteins B) cellulose C) carbohydrates D) vitamins

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Tuition Classes IX (CBSE)Science

13. White revolution is deals with………….

A) Agriculture B) Milk production C) Indigo production D) Rice production

14. Green revolution happened on………….

A) Agricultural production B) Milk production

C) Indigo production D) Rice production

15. Rice, maize, sorghum, provides us ………………… for energy requirement

A) Proteiens B) Crabohydrates

C) Vitamins D) Amino acids

16. Vegetables, fruits, spices provides us ………………………

A) Crabohydrates B) Vitamins C) Amino acids D) Proteiens

17. Plants manufacture there food with the help of………..

A) Oxygen, sunlight, water B) CO2, Oxygen, sunlight

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C) Water, sunlight, CO2 D) Oxygen, sunlight

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18. There are some crops which are grown in rainy season called………………
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A) Kharif season B) Rabi season C) a and b D) none of the above

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19. Some of the crops are grown in the winter season called……………….

A) Kharif season B) Rabi season C) a and b D) none of the above

20. It is not way to improve crop

A) by incorporation of gene B) inter varietal hybridisation

C) inter specific hybridisation D) inter changeable fertilizers

21. Factor which does not increase productivity of crop

A) improved quality B) biotic resistance

C) change in fertilizers D) change in maturity duration

22. Plants needs ……………… for grow themselves

A) Proteins B) Vitamins C) Serials D) Nutrients

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23. Soil supplies ………………. Nutrients to plants

A) 11 B) 12 C) 13 D) 14

24. Macronutrients found in soil

A) N, C, Ca, Hg, Pb B) N, P, K, Mg, S D) N, C, Ga D) K, Mg, S, C, Ga

25. It is not micronutrient present in soil

A) Iron B) Manganese C) Chlorine D) Nitrogen

26. Manure contains large amount of ……………….

A) Inorganic matter B) Organic matter C) Humus D) Black soil

27. Manure is rich in ………………… and………….. hence it improves fertility of soil

A) Nutrients, vitamins B) Nutrients, inorganic matter

C) Nutrients, organic matter D) A and B

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28. Green plants is responsible to making…………………..
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A) Fertilizers B) Compost C) Green manure D) A and C

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29. Excess of fertilizers causes…………..

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A) Air pollution B) Water pollution C) Soil pollution D) B and C

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30. What is the main purpose of rearing broiler chickens ?

A) For egg production B) For producing manure

C) For meat production D) For controlling pest

ANSWERS
1. C 6. A 11. C 16. B 21. D 26. B
2. B 7. A 12. B 17. C 22. D 27. C
3. C 8. C 13. B 18. A 23. C 28. C
4. A 9. B 14. A 19. B 24. B 29. B
5. C 10. D 15. B 20. D 25. D 30. C

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