Digital Design using HDL (21ECPC702) –

UNIT I Notes (Lecture-2)

(b) Architectural Design
Q1. Explain Architectural Design in digital systems. Why is it important?

Answer:
Architectural Design is the second step in the digital system design methodology. It focuses
on the high-level structure of the system and deals with breaking it into modules and
subsystems along with their interconnections.

 Definition:
Architectural Design defines the organization of the system, specifying how data
flows between registers, ALU, memory, and other units.
 Key Aspects:
1. Modules/Subsystems – Breaking the system into blocks (e.g., ALU, Control
Unit, Memory).
2. Interconnections – Data buses, multiplexers, control signals.
3. Data Paths – Flow of information between registers, ALU, and memory.
4. Control Path – Manages sequencing and synchronization of operations.
5. Trade-offs – Speed vs area, power vs performance, complexity vs cost.
 Importance:
o Provides a blueprint for logic and circuit design.
o Optimizes system performance while balancing area and power.
o Determines whether the system is RISC, CISC, or custom architecture.

Q1. Explain the high-level structure of a digital system with a neat block
diagram. Discuss the role of modules, subsystems, interconnections, and data
paths in architectural design.

Answer:
Architectural design deals with the high-level organization of a digital system before
detailed circuit design.
  Modules: Independent blocks such as ALU, Control Unit, Memory, I/O.
 Subsystems: Group of modules working together (e.g., Execution Unit = ALU +
Registers).
 Interconnections: Communication links (system bus, point-to-point connections).
 Data Paths: Flow of data between modules (fetch → decode → execute → memory
→ output).

Q2. Explain Architectural Design in digital systems. Why is it important?

Answer:
Architectural Design is the second step in the digital system design methodology. It focuses
on the high-level structure of the system and deals with breaking it into modules and
subsystems along with their interconnections.

 Definition:
Architectural Design defines the organization of the system, specifying how data
flows between registers, ALU, memory, and other units.
 Key Aspects:
1. Modules/Subsystems – Breaking the system into blocks (e.g., ALU, Control
Unit, Memory).
2. Interconnections – Data buses, multiplexers, control signals.
3. Data Paths – Flow of information between registers, ALU, and memory.
4. Control Path – Manages sequencing and synchronization of operations.
5. Trade-offs – Speed vs area, power vs performance, complexity vs cost.
 Importance:
o Provides a blueprint for logic and circuit design.
o Optimizes system performance while balancing area and power.
o Determines whether the system is RISC, CISC, or custom architecture.

(c) Behavioural or Functional Design

Q1. Explain Behavioural or Functional Design in digital systems.

Answer:
Behavioural or Functional Design is the stage where the functionality of the system is
described without worrying about the internal implementation details. It focuses on what the
system does, not how it is physically built.

 Definition:
It uses algorithms, flowcharts, or state machines to specify the required operations
of the system.
 Features:
1. Abstract representation – Describes functions at a high level.
2. Technology-independent – Does not specify the actual hardware.
3. Focuses on operations like addition, subtraction, shifting, decision-making,
etc.
4. In HDL, modeled using behavioural constructs (e.g., if, case, always
blocks in Verilog, or process in VHDL).
 Example:
Writing VHDL/Verilog code for an ALU that performs addition, subtraction, AND,
OR operations is a behavioural design.

Q3. What methods are used in Behavioural or Functional Design?

Explain briefly.
Answer:
Behavioural or Functional Design uses high-level methods to describe the system’s
functionality. These include:

1. Algorithms – Step-by-step procedure describing the operations to be performed.

o Example: Algorithm for division or multiplication.
2. State Machines (FSMs) – Represent sequential system behavior in terms of states
and transitions.
o Example: Traffic light controller FSM.
3. Flowcharts – Graphical representation of operations and decision-making paths.
o Example: Flowchart for an elevator controller.
4. HDL Constructs –
o In Verilog: if, case, always blocks.
o In VHDL: process, if-then-else, case-when.

 Example: Writing HDL for an ALU to perform arithmetic and logic operations is a
behavioural model.
Logic Design
Q1) Design a Full Adder using Boolean algebra. Write the truth table, derive
Sum and Cout, and draw the logic diagram (description).

Answer:

Inputs: A, B, Cin Outputs: Sum, Cout

Truth table

A B Cin Sum Cout

000 0 0

001 1 0

010 1 0

011 0 1

100 1 0

101 0 1

110 0 1

111 1 1

Derivation (via Boolean/K-map):

 Sum = A ⊕ B ⊕ Cin
 Cout = A B + B Cin + A Cin (carry occurs when any two (or three) inputs are 1)

Logic diagram (verbal):

 Compute P = A ⊕ B, then Sum = P ⊕ Cin.

 Three 2-input ANDs for AB, B·Cin, A·Cin; one 3-input OR for Cout.
(Equivalently, two half-adders + an OR for carries.)

Circuit Design
Q1. Explain Circuit Design in digital systems. How does it translate logic into
transistor-level circuits? Give an example.

Answer:

 Circuit Design is the process of converting logic equations or gate-level designs into
actual transistor circuits.
  Digital ICs are mostly built using MOSFETs, in CMOS (Complementary MOS)
style.
 In CMOS, both PMOS (pull-up) and NMOS (pull-down) transistors are used
together to implement gates.
 Advantages: Low static power, high noise immunity, scalability.

Example – CMOS Inverter:

 Consists of 1 PMOS and 1 NMOS.

 When input = 0 → NMOS OFF, PMOS ON → Output = 1.
 When input = 1 → NMOS ON, PMOS OFF → Output = 0.
 This realizes the NOT gate at transistor level.

Thus, circuit design provides the bridge from Boolean logic → transistors → chip
fabrication.

Physical Design
Q1. Explain Physical Design in VLSI. What are the main steps involved?

Answer:

 Physical Design is the process of converting transistor-level circuits into their actual
geometric layout on silicon.
 It shows where transistors and interconnections are placed and how they are
connected.
 The design must follow λ-based rules to ensure manufacturability.

Main Steps:

1. Partitioning – Divide the design into blocks (ALU, memory, control).

2. Placement – Assign positions to transistors and blocks.
3. Routing – Connect the blocks using metal lines (data, control, power).
4. Compaction – Minimize area and optimize the layout without breaking design rules.

Output: Final mask layout → used in photolithography for chip fabrication.