Pedagogy of natural

Science
Assignment 1: Understanding the nature of science
Sub theme:- Differentiating observations from Inference
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Introduction
What is science?
Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the
form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. It is both a
body of knowledge and a process or method for acquiring that knowledge.
Science relies on empirical evidence obtained through observation,
experimentation, and logical reasoning. The primary goal of science is to
understand the natural world, explain phenomena, and make predictions.

Key characteristics and principles of science include:

​ Empirical Observation: Scientific knowledge is based on observations of

the natural world. These observations are made using the human senses
or through the use of instruments.
​ Systematic Inquiry: Science involves systematic and organized methods
of inquiry. This typically includes formulating hypotheses, conducting
experiments or making observations, and analyzing data.
​ Testability and Falsifiability: Scientific ideas and hypotheses must be
testable and potentially falsifiable. This means that there must be ways to
experimentally or observationally determine whether a claim is true or
false.
​ Reproducibility: Scientific experiments and observations should be
reproducible by other researchers. Reproducibility enhances the reliability
and validity of scientific findings.
​ Use of Evidence: Scientific conclusions are drawn from evidence gathered
through rigorous experimentation and observation. This evidence is
subject to peer review and scrutiny within the scientific community.
​ Theory Construction: A scientific theory is a well-substantiated
explanation of some aspect of the natural world that is substantiated
through empirical evidence and has stood up to repeated testing and
scrutiny. Theories are the highest level of scientific understanding.
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​ Openness to Revision: Scientific knowledge is dynamic and subject to

change in light of new evidence or better explanations. The scientific
community is open to revising theories and models as our understanding
of the natural world advances.
​ Predictive Power: A successful scientific theory not only explains past
observations but also has the power to predict future phenomena.
Predictions can be tested and used to further validate or refine scientific
theories.

There are various branches of science, including physics, chemistry, biology,

astronomy, psychology, and many more, each with its own set of principles and
methods tailored to the specific phenomena studied within that field. Science has
played a crucial role in technological advancements, medical breakthroughs, and
our overall understanding of the world around us.

Observation
Observation refers to the process of gathering information about the natural
world through direct sensory experience or by using instruments and tools.
Observations are a fundamental part of the scientific method and are often the
first step in the scientific inquiry process.

Observations can take various forms, including:

​ Qualitative Observations: These involve characteristics that are descriptive

and not easily measured. For example, noting the color, texture, or smell of
a substance.
​ Quantitative Observations: These involve measurable properties and are
typically expressed with numbers. Examples include measuring the
temperature of a liquid, the length of an object, or the rate of a reaction.

Observations serve as the foundation for asking scientific questions, forming

hypotheses, and conducting experiments. They are crucial for generating data,
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which can then be analyzed to draw conclusions and make inferences about the
natural world.

It's important to note that while observations are essential, they are not always
sufficient on their own to fully understand complex scientific phenomena. Often,
observations lead to questions, and scientists design experiments or further
investigations to explore and explain the underlying mechanisms or principles.

Inference
An inference is a logical conclusion based on previous experiences, observations,
and knowledge. It is an educated guess. Inferences can lead us to a
hypothesis.Similar to a hypothesis, an inference is an informed guess about
science or scientific relationships. Inferences are based on real, observed
evidence but are still just guesses about the true relationship that exists.

Here's a simple example. If you see your friend wearing a team's baseball jersey,
an inference would be that they are a fan of that team.

How is it related to observation?

When you infer something, you make a guess based on what you notice. Let's go
back to that example of your friend wearing a sports jersey. How did we decide
that your friend is a fan of that baseball team? Well, we wouldn't have been able
to come to that conclusion unless:

We noticed them wearing it.We saw that it was a jersey for a sports team.Based
on what we observed, we were able to make a decent guess that they are a fan of
that team.
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Difference between observation and inference

The key difference between observation and inference is that observations are
directly observable facts or data, while inferences are interpretations or
conclusions drawn from observations. Observations are based on evidence or
sensory information and can be verified or falsified, while inferences are based
on prior knowledge or logical reasoning and are not always verifiable or
falsifiable.

●​ Observation is receiving data from the external environment while

inference is making a conclusion using those observed information.
●​ Inference is affected by observations. Without observation, there won’t be
any inference.
●​ Inference gives validity to observed data.
●​ For observation senses are used. Intelligence is used to make inferences.
●​ An inference can be correct or incorrect.
●​ An inference can be plausible or implausible.
●​ An inference with little or no evidence is often called a speculation.
●​ An inference can be supported (or refuted) by gathering more data.

For example:-

Fig 1.1:- Desert plant​ ​ ​ ​ Fig 1.2:- Climbing plant

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Name of plant Observation Inference

Desert plant VERY SMALL SIZE LEAVES Small sized leaves help in
reducing loss of water.

Climbing plant Thread like spirally coiled The spirally coiled

Structures are arising from structures (tendrils) help in
the stem of plant providing support to plants

INSTANCES FROM HISTORY

●​ Galileo’s Observations of the Moon:
○​ Observation: Galileo observed the Moon through a telescope.
○​ Inference: He inferred that the Moon’s surface is not smooth but has
mountains and craters.
●​ Newton’s Observation of Falling Apple:
○​ Observation: Newton observed an apple falling from a tree.
○​ Inference: He inferred the existence of gravity, formulating the law of
universal gravitation.
●​ Darwin’s Observations on the Galapagos Islands:
○​ Observation: Darwin observed variations in species among the
Galapagos Islands’ finches.
○​ Inference: He inferred that these variations contributed to the
development of different species, leading to his theory of evolution.
●​ Fleming’s Discovery of Penicillin
○​ Observation: Alexander Fleming observed mold killing bacteria in a
petri dish.
○​ Inference: He inferred that the mold (penicillin) could be use as an
antibiotic, revolutionizing medicine.
●​ Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment:
○​ Observation: Rutherford observed the scattering of alpha particles
by a thin gold foil.
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○​ Inference: He inferred the existence of a small, dense atomic

nucleus, refining the model of the atom.

These historical examples demonstrate how keen observations led to significant

scientific inferences, shaping our understanding of the natural world.These
instances highlight the crucial role of observation and inference in scientific
discoveries.

The importance of observation and Inference in

science classroom teaching.
The integration of observation and inference in science classroom teaching not
only enriches the learning experience but also lays the foundation for developing
key scientific skills, critical thinking abilities, and a genuine appreciation for the
wonders of the natural world.

●​ Encourage active engagement

●​ Develop scientific enquiry skills
●​ Enhance critical thinking skills
●​ Connects theory of practice
●​ Promotes hands on learning
●​ Cultivate curiosity and wonder
●​ Align with the scientific method
●​ Foster the love for science
●​ Prepare the students for real World problem solving.etc.

MIDDLE SCHOOL INTERNSHIPS

So here are some activities from our middle school internship. From these
activities we tried to foster observation and Inference skills in students.
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NAME :-ABC

School:-xyz

Class 7

Chapter name- Acids,Bases and Salt.

Activity 1:-

During a classroom activity on acids, bases, and salts, teacher perform an

experiment using a blue litmus paper. As part of the experiment, you carefully
add a few drops of a different solution onto the blue litmus paper. Upon contact
with the solution, the blue litmus paper undergoes a noticeable color change,
turning from blue to red. Students have to observe different solutions and change
in litmus paper.

Observation:-

Using different senses of observation students observe through eye, nose and
tongue to see the solution,to smell and taste the solution.

The observation is the empirical evidence I gather through your senses—the

visible alteration in the litmus paper's color.

Inference:-

Now, to analyze the observed phenomenon. The transformation of the blue

litmus paper to red is a direct and tangible observation. However, the crucial
aspect lies in interpreting this change.

Drawing from your knowledge of acid-base indicators, you recall that blue litmus
paper turns red in the presence of an acidic substance. This recollection forms
the basis for your inference. You logically conclude that the solution you added to
the litmus paper is acidic.
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On the other hand, the inference is the deduction or logical conclusion you make
based on your understanding of how blue litmus paper behaves in the presence
of acidic substances.

Observation and inference both are different. In observation we observe through

our senses what we see, smell ,taste ,ear and feel and in inference, we make a
conclusion on the basis of observation with our prior knowledge.
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NAME:- abc

SCHOOL –xyz

Class-6th

Chapter-4:- getting to know plants ️

Activity 2:-

Name of activity:- stem! stem!

Concept:- stem(upward movement of water in stems)

Material required:- stem ,food color,water and glass

Activity Description :- in this activity I tried to develop observation and inference

skills in students by conducting an experiment .in this experiment firstly teacher
pour some water in a glass and mix the food color in it and dip the stem and
asked the students to observe what they are seeing and put the glass aside and
after 15-20 hr. (another day) teacher again ask the students what you are seeing
now note down your observations by this way students collected their
observations and by using these observations I (teacher) tried to get their
Inferences .means I asked the students can you think the reasons for your
observations ?And after this they started doing infer observations and by their
Inferences we reached our concept of upward movement of water in stems.

Observation (From students) Inference (From Students)

Stem is dip in color water

Color of water is red

Color of flower is white at the time it

dipped in water

Next day ( After 14-15 hours)

Still color of water is red

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Color of flower is changed Color of water transfer to the flower

There is reddish pink color is visible in Color of water and color transfer to
white color flower flower is same because flower is
taking this water only
1.​ Stem is dipped in water so with
the help of stem it transferred to
the flower
2.​ Water transferred to the flower
with the help of stem means
stem helps in upward
movement of water

Flower is fresh Because of the water, Plant is still

alive.

Fig:- 2.1,2.2, 2.3, 2.4

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Activity 3:-

Class -6th

Concept – air occupies space.

Material required:- bottle ,balloon

Activity description:-

In this activity I used a balloon and bottle to show how air occupies space.by this
activity firstly students would observe then infer about their observations . First,
the teacher called a student and asked her to inflate the Balloon inside the bottle.
Then students will observe it then the teacher will make a hole in the bottle and
again ask the students to observe what happened. By this activity using
observation and inference we conclude that air occupies space.

Observation Inference

Case 1:- Balloon is not inflating in bottle

Balloon is not inflating 1.​ Balloon may be puncture

2.​ Air is present in bottle which
resist the balloon to inflate

Case 2:- Balloon is inflating after making hole in bottle

Balloon is inflating 1.​ Air is escaping from the hole.

2.​ Now balloon is inflating because
when we inflate the Balloon
,from this pressure air inside the
bottle escape from hole it
means air was present in bottle
3.​ Air occupies space

By the help of observation and inference we lead the experiment and reach the
conclusions.
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​ ​ Fig 3.1​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Fig 3.2

NAME :- RJ

School:- qpr

Class 8

Chapter name- Chemical effects of electric current

Activity 4:-

Name of activity:- Conductivity of liquids

Material Required:- connecting wires, Battery, Bulb, some solutions (oil, milk,
lemon juice, soap solution, vinegar, distilled water, salt solution)

Concept :- conductivity of liquids

Activity Description

In this activity, the teacher will show some liquids to students and ask students
to predict which liquids they think will conduct electricity and the teacher will
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encourage them to think about properties of each liquid. Now the teacher will set
up the circuit and fill separate plastic cups with different liquids and conduct the
experiment and simultaneously students will write which liquid is conducting
electricity.

S. No. Name of liquid Observation (from Inference (from

students) students)

1. Distilled water Dim glow in bulb Pure water maybe

2. Oil Bulb doesn’t glow Doesn’t have

water

3. milk Bulb glow dim Have water in it

but not so much

4. Lemon juice Bulb glows It’s acid, so ions

present

5. vinegar Bulb Glows Also acid

6. Salt solution Bulb Glows It’s a salt

compound, ions
will break down in
Na+ and Cl-.

Fig 4.1 ( Electric circuit used in class)

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From this activity, students were able to do hands-on observations and also give
the reasons for the bulb (glowing, not glowing, dim glow).

Reference

●​ UNIT-1:- Science: Perspective and Nature,pg 8-12, BES-141, pedagogy of science,

Indira Gandhi National Open University, IGNOU, Delhi
●​ Science, Textbook for Class 6, NCERT
●​ Science, Textbook for Class 7, NCERT
●​ Science, Textbook for Class 8, NCERT
●​ https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-observation-and-vs-infe
rence/