MATHEMATICAL PROOFS
Axiom: It is a fact that is assumed to be true. It is a statement that is accepted without proof.
Mathematics is based on axioms.
Ex: Things equal to the same thing are equal to each other. i.e. 𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑥 [Euclid]
Theorem: These are statements that are proven from axioms. Once a theorem is obtained, it becomes a
statement that is accepted as truth and which can be used to prove other theorems.
Proof: An argument that has no doubt at all. Every step in a proof depends on the axioms of mathematics that
are used. A proof, therefore, is a logical way of showing or deducing that a given assertion can be established
from previously established truths, axioms or propositions.
End of proof: The symbols 𝑄𝐸𝐷, //, can be used at the end of a proof
Types of Proofs
Proof by exhaustion: Proof by Exhaustion is proving that something is true by showing that it is true
for each and every case that could possibly be considered. This is also known as Proof by Cases
It is only convenient when the number of possible cases are few and when the domain of reference
is a finite set.
Ex: Prove that 𝑷𝒏 : (𝒏 + 𝟏)𝟑 ≥ 𝟑𝒏 for 𝒏 ∈ ℕ, 𝒏 ≤ 𝟒
Solution:
For 𝒏 = 𝟏, (𝟏 + 𝟏)𝟑 = 𝟖 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟑𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝟖 ≥ 𝟑, 𝑷𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒏 = 𝟏
For 𝒏 =, (𝟐 + 𝟏)𝟑 = 𝟐𝟕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟑𝟐 = 𝟗. 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝟐𝟕 ≥ 𝟗, 𝑷𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒏 = 𝟐
For 𝒏 =, (𝟐 + 𝟏)𝟑 = 𝟐𝟕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟑𝟐 = 𝟗. 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝟐𝟕 ≥ 𝟗, 𝑷𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒏 = 𝟐
For 𝒏 =, (𝟑 + 𝟏)𝟑 = 𝟔𝟒 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟑𝟑 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝟔𝟒 ≥ 𝟐𝟕, 𝑷𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒏 = 𝟑
For 𝒏 =, (𝟒 + 𝟏)𝟑 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟑𝟒 = 𝟖𝟏. 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝟏𝟐𝟓 ≥ 𝟖𝟏, 𝑷𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒏 = 𝟒
Thus, 𝑷𝒏 : (𝒏 + 𝟏)𝟑 ≥ 𝟑𝒏 for 𝒏 ∈ ℕ, 𝒏 ≤ 𝟒
Exercise
Prove that ∀𝑥 ∈ ℤ, 𝑥 < 12, 𝑥 + 3 < 15
Direct proof: Direct proof is proving using the values of given attributes to demonstrate the truth of a given
statement. That is, we directly start the proof with what is given in the proposition. This proof is only
meaningful when all attributes are exhausted.
Ex1: Show that if 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0, then 𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3
Solution
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0 ⟹ (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 2) = 0 [by factorization]
⟹ Either 𝑥 − 3 = 0 or 𝑥 − 2 = 0 [by the zeroth law of multiplication]
⟹ Either 𝑥 = 3 or 𝑥 = 2
Hence, if 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0, then 𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3
Ex2: Show that the negative of any even integer is even
Solution
Suppose 𝑛 is an even integer, then by definition it is of the form 𝑛 = 2𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ ℤ
⟹ −𝑛 = −(2𝑘) = 2(−𝑘)
By definition of even numbers, 2(−𝑘), 𝑘 ∈ ℤ is even.
⟹ −𝑛 is even.
Therefore, the negative of any even integer is even
Exercise
Prove that the sum of any two even integers is an even integer.
Indirect proof: Indirect proof attempt to prove that the contrapositive of a statement is true. Instead of
proving 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞, we prove its equivalence ~𝑞 ⟶ ~𝑝. 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 ≡ ~𝑞 ⟶ ~𝑝
NB!!! A statement and its contrapositive are either both true or both false
This approach is mostly used when direct proof fails or becomes difficult.
Ex Prove that ∀𝒏 ∈ ℕ, 𝐢𝐟 𝒏𝟐 is even, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒏 𝐢𝐬 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧
Solution:
𝒑: 𝒏𝟐 𝐢𝐬 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧 𝒒: 𝒏 𝐢𝐬 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧
~𝑝: 𝒏𝟐 𝐢𝐬 𝐨𝐝𝐝 ~𝒒: 𝒏 𝐢𝐬 𝐨𝐝𝐝
~𝑞 ⟶ ~𝑝: ∀𝒏 ∈ ℕ, 𝐢𝐟 𝒏 is odd, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒏𝟐 𝐢𝐬 𝐨𝐝𝐝
if 𝑛 is odd, then 𝑛 is of the form (2𝑘 + 1) i. e. 𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1
⟹ 𝑛2 = (2𝑘 + 1)2 = 4𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 + 1
= 2(2𝑘 2 + 2𝑘) + 1, which is odd [ since 2(2𝑘 2 + 2𝑘) is even and even +1=odd]
⟹ whenever 𝑛 is odd , 𝑛2 is odd i.e. ∀𝒏 ∈ ℕ, 𝐢𝐟 𝒏 is odd, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒏𝟐 𝐢𝐬 𝐨𝐝𝐝
Thus the contrapositive is true and hence the initial statement that ∀𝒏 ∈ ℕ, 𝐢𝐟 𝒏𝟐 is even, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒏 𝐢𝐬 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧
Exercise
Suppose 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are real numbers with 𝑚 ≠ 0 and 𝑓 is a linear function defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, prove
that 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦, then 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(𝑦)
Proof by counter example (Disproof by counter example): Disproof by counter example simply demonstrates
the falsity of an assertion by using an element from the domain of the assertion. The disproof of 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 is
merely ~(𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞)
Ex: Disprove by counterexample that for any 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ ℤ , 𝐢𝐟 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒃𝟐 , 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝒂 = 𝒃
Solution
We need to show that there exists 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒃𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂 ≠ 𝒃 . Take for example 𝑎 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = −4.
(4)2 = 16, (−4)2 = 16 ⟹ (4)2 = (−4)2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4 ≠ −4. So we have found an example where 𝒂𝟐 =
𝒃𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂 ≠ 𝒃 and thus disproving the statement.
Exercise
𝟏
Find any values for 𝒑 and 𝒒 for which the following statement isn’t true: √𝒑𝒒 ≤ (𝒑 + 𝒒)
𝟐
Use a counter example to disprove that
1 if 𝑛 is prime , then 2𝑛 − 1 is prime
𝒏
2 ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟏 is a prime
Proof by Deduction: Proof by deduction seeks prove that something is true by showing that it must be true for
all cases that could possibly be considered. This may require the use of algebraic symbols to represent certain
numbers. For this reason, the following are very useful to know when trying to prove by deduction: If 𝑛
represents an integer, then 2𝑛 represents and even integer, 2𝑛 + 1 represents an odd integer, etc.
Ex1: Prove that the difference between the squares of any two consecutive integers is equal to the sum of
those integers.
Solution
Let 𝑛 and 𝑛 + 1 two consecutive integers.
The squares: 𝑛2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑛 + 1)2 = 𝑛2 + 2𝑛 + 1
Difference of the squares: 𝑛2 + 2𝑛 + 1 − (𝑛2 ) = 2𝑛 + 1
Sum of the two integers: 𝑛 + (𝑛 + 1) = 2𝑛 + 1
Hence the difference between the squares of any two consecutive integers is equal to the sum of those
integers.
Exercise
Prove that
1 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 9 is always positive
𝟏
2 For all positive values of 𝒑 and 𝒒, √𝒑𝒒 ≤ (𝒑 + 𝒒)
𝟐
Proof by Contradiction (Reductio Ad Absurdum): Reductio Ad Absurdum begins with a premise(assumption)
that the given statement(proposition) is false, then uses rules of logic to arrive at conclusions contradicting the
initial assumptions, hence inferring that the premise is wrong and the given statement is true.
Ex1: Prove that √𝟑 is irrational
Solution
Premise: Let √𝟑 be rational
𝑚
⟹ ∃𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ , where m and n have no common factor except 1 (𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚):
𝑛
𝑚
√𝟑 =
𝑛
⟹ 𝑚2 = 3𝑛2 ⟹ 𝑚2 is a 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 3. This means m is also a 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 3.
Let 𝑚 = 3𝛼
⟹ (3𝛼)2 = 3𝑛2 ⟹ 3𝑛2 = 9𝛼 2
⟹ 𝑛2 = 3𝛼 2 ⟹ 𝑛2 is a 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 3. This means n is also a 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 3.
Let 𝑛 = 3𝛽
𝑚
⟹ √𝟑 = =
𝑛
3𝛼
𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝒎 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝒏 𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐦𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝟑, 𝐰𝐡𝐢𝐜𝐡 𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐦𝐢𝐬𝐞.
3𝛽
⟹ √𝟑 is not rational, hence √𝟑 is irrational.
Ex2: Prove that for all integers 𝑛, if 𝑛3 + 5 is odd then 𝑛 is even
Solution
Premise: ∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ, if 𝑛3 + 5 is odd, then 𝑛 is odd
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ exist such that 𝑛3 + 5 = 2𝑎 + 1 and 𝑛 = 2𝑏 + 1
Then 𝑛3 + 5 = 2𝑎 + 1 ⟹ (2𝑏 + 1)3 = 2𝑎 + 1
⟹ 8𝑏 3 + 12𝑏 2 + 6𝑏 + 6 = 2𝑎 + 1
5
⟹ 𝑎 − 3𝑏 − 6𝑏 2 − 4𝑏 3 =
2
5
But 𝑎 − 3𝑏 − 6𝑏 2 − 4𝑏 3 is an integer which makes it impossible for 𝑎 − 3𝑏 − 6𝑏 2 − 4𝑏 3 =
2
Therefore the premise ∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ, if 𝑛3 + 5 is odd, then 𝑛 is odd is false, so n must be even.
Exercise
1 Prove that ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ, 18a + 6b ≠ 1
2 Prove that √𝟐 is irrational
Proof by Induction: Proof by induction seeks to show that for a statement 𝑷𝒏 , 𝒏 ∈ ℤ+ , if 𝑃1 is true and the
truth of 𝑃𝑘 implies the truth of 𝑃𝑘+1 , then 𝑃𝑛 is true ∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ . To prove an assertion, it suffices to
* Prove that the assertion is true for 𝑃1 , when 𝑛 = 1
* Assume the assertion is true for 𝑃𝑘 , when 𝑛 = 𝑘
* Prove that the assertion is true for 𝑃𝑘+1 , when 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
Then conclude that since 𝑃𝑛 is true for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 𝑘 and 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, it is true ∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ+
Ex1: Show that for all positive integers 𝑛, 𝑈𝑛 = 9𝑛 + 7 is divisible by 8
Solution
Let 𝑈𝑛 : 9𝑛 + 7 = 8𝑚[ i.e. substituting values of 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ in 9𝑛 + 7 will always result to a multiple of 8 ]
𝑈1 : 91 + 7 = 16 = 8(12), which is divisible by 8. ⟹ 𝑈𝑛 is true for 𝑛 = 1
Assume 𝑈𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑘
⟹ 𝑈𝑘 : 9𝑘 + 7 = 8𝑚[ You can make 9𝑘 the subject here i.e. 9𝑘 = 8𝑚 − 7. This will be handy in the next step]
Prove for 𝑈𝑘+1 ⟹ 𝑈𝑘+1 : 9𝑘+1 + 7 = 9(9𝑘 ) + 7 = 9(8𝑚 − 7) + 7
= 72𝑚 − 56
= 8(9𝑚 − 7) which is divisible by 8 ⟹ 𝑈𝑘+1 is true
𝑈𝑛 is true for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 𝑘 and 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 ⟹ 𝑈𝑛 is true ∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ+
𝑛
Ex2:Prove that 𝑃𝑛 : ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟 = (𝑛 + 1), ∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ+
2
Solution
1
1
𝑃1 : ∑ 𝑟 = 1, (1 + 1) = 1 ⟹ 𝑃𝑛 is true for 𝑛 = 1
2
𝑟=1
𝑘
𝑘
⟹ 𝑃𝑘 : ∑ 𝑟 = (𝑘 + 1)
2
𝑟=1
𝑘+1 𝑘 𝑘+1
⟹ 𝑃𝑘+1 : ∑ 𝑟 = ∑ 𝑟 + ∑ 𝑟
𝑟=1 𝑟=1 𝑟=𝑘+1
𝑘
= (𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘 + 1)
2
𝑘
= (𝑘 + 1)( + 1)
2
𝑘+1
= [(𝑘 + 1) + 1]
2
⟹ 𝑃𝑘+1 is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
𝑃𝑛 is true for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 𝑘 and 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 ⟹ 𝑃𝑛 is true ∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ+
Exercise
Prove that
1 For all 𝑛 > 1 , 8𝑛 − 3𝑛 is divisible by 5
2 ∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ, 𝑛2 + 𝑛 is even
3 𝑃𝑛 : ∑𝑛𝑟=1 3𝑟 2 + 𝑟 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)2 , ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ
