Transition Elements

A transition element is a d-block element that forms one or more stable ions with an incomplete d
subshell.
Eg Copper is considered as a transition metal. It makes Cu1+ and Cu2+ ions. Cu2+ has unpaired d
electrons.

 The electronic configuration of copper changes as

3d10, 4s1 from 3d9, 4s2 due to the stability.
 When it makes Cu 2+ ion it has 9 electrons in 3d
Sub shell. So it has one unpaired electron.

Sc and Zn are not considered as transition elements.

Scandium forms only one ion (Sc3+) and this has no electrons in its 3d subshell – the electronic
configuration of Sc3+ is [Ar] 3d0 4s0.
Zinc forms only one ion (Zn2+) and this has a complete 3d subshell – the electronic configuration of
Zn2+ is [Ar]3d10 4s0.

Electronic Configurations
The table below shows the electronic configurations of the atoms in the first row of the transition
elements.
In atoms of the transition elements, the 4s subshell is normally filled and the rest of the electrons
occupy orbitals in the 3d subshell. However, chromium and copper atoms are the exceptions as
shown above.

 The transition elements are all metals. In common with all metals, their atoms tend to
lose electrons so they form positively charged ions.
 They have variable oxidation numbers so transition metal can form more than one ion.
For example, the common ions of copper are Cu+ and Cu2+. We say that the transition
metals have variable oxidation states.
 The resulting ions are often different colour. So they form coloured compounds.

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Table below shows the most common oxidation states of the first row of the transition
elements.

When transition elements are named the oxidation number of each element can be written
in roman numbers. e.g. manganese(IV) oxide, cobalt(II) chloride.

Physical Properties of transition metals

 they have high melting points
 they have high densities
 they are hard and rigid, and so are useful as construction materials
 they are good conductors of electricity and heat.

Shapes of d orbitals
4 d orbitals are having 4 lobes and one d orbital is bilobed. 3 of these orbitals are arranged
inbetween the axes. They are dxy, dxz and dyz. Two of the orbitals are arranged along the
axes. They are dx2-y2 and dz2.

dxy dz2 dx2-y2 dxz dyz

Ligands and Complexes

Transition metal ions can form complex ions with another molecules or ions known as
ligands.
A ligand has a lone pair of electrons and it can form dative co-valent bonds with a transition
metal ion.
The number of dative covalent bonds formed is known as the co-ordination number of the
complex. The shape of the complex depends on the co-ordination number of the complex.

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Octahedral Square planar Tetrahedral Linear

These ligands are called monodentate ligands. It is because they make only one dative
covalent bond with the central metal ion.

Bidentate ligands can make 2 dative covalent bonds with the central metal ion.

This can be shown as

Polydentate ligands can make many dative covalent bonds with the central metal ion.

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 Naming Complexes
Complexes are named based on ligands. Name of the each ligand is shown below in the
table.

Eg Six water molecules says it is hexa aqua

Oxidation number of Iron is +2

Chloride ligand has a negative charge so

the compound is named by adding suffix
ate
There are 4 chloride ligands, so it is tetra
Chloro, oxidation no: of iron +3

Oxidation number of copper is +2

Forming Coloured Compounds

Transition metals form coloured compounds. For an example copper forms a blue colour
solution whereas zinc form a colourless solution. The reason for forming a colourless
solution can be explained by considering the electronic configuration of ions each element.

Except scandium and zinc other transition metal ions form a coloured compounds.
This can be explained based on their electronic configuration. When octahedral complexes
are formed ligands approach along the axes. Since ligands have lone pair of electrons they

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experience a repulsion when they reach towards the complex. As they reach along the axes
in octahedral complexes the electrons which are located along the axes experience a greater
repulsion compared to the orbitals arranged in between the axes. Therefore 2 orbitals
experience a greater repulsion and they get somewhat higher energy compared to the rest
of the 3 orbitals. So all five d orbitals split in to two different energy levels as shown below.

Since axial orbitals experience a greater repulsion they gain a higher energy and other 3
orbitals gain lower energy.
When light is put on these compounds the electrons in the lower energy level jump up to
the higher energy level. This is called promotion or excitation.

When electrons absorb energy that energy is directly proportional to the frequencies and
inversely proportional to the wavelength of the light. (When the energy gap is bigger higher
frequencies or lower wavelengths are absorbed) When they absorb a particular frequency
the complementary colour is emitted.
Eg Copper absorbs the frequenct of red/orrange colour so the solution appears in blue
colour.

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The energy gap depends on the type of the ligands attach. Different ligands absorb different
frequencies, therefore complexes show different colour when different ligands are attached.
Eg when copper has water molecules in its complex it has blue colour, when excess
ammonia is added it appears dark blue. Because the energy gap for ammonia is different
compared to the energy gap of water.

Past paper Questions

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 J2023