Engg Materials

Introduction to engineering materials

Materials

Metals Polymers Ceramics Composites

Non Carbides, Reinforced

Ferrous Thermoplastics Thermosets Elastomers
Ferrous Nitrides, Plastics -
Graphites, Laminates,
Aluminium, Diamond, Metal Matrix,
Nylon, ABS, Phenolic, Rubber,
Steel, Copper, Glasses Ceramix Matrix
Polyethylene, Polyamide, Polyurethane
Stainless Titanium, Polycarbonate, Epoxies, , Silicone
steel, DIe & Tungsten PVC Polyester
tool steel,
cast iron

Metals :
 Metals are hard, lustrous, malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat
and electricity.
 Eg – Gold, Silver, Aluminium & alloys such as steel etc.
 There are mainly two categories that comes under metals. They are :-

1) Ferrous Metals :- That contain iron

Eg – Steel, stainless steel, cast iron, tool steel
2) Non – Ferrous Metals :- That does not contain iron
Eg- Aluminium, Copper, Titanium, Tungsten

 Properties of metals:
 a) Malleable
b) Sonorous
c) Ductile
d) Good conductors of heat and electricity
e) High tensile strength
f) High melting and boiling points
g) Solid at room temperature – (Exception – Mercury)
h) High density
i) React with oxides to form basic oxides

 Applications of Metals: used in jewellery, electrical cables, cooking

utensils, bridges, and bells.

Polymers:
 A compound consisting of long chain molecules, each molecule made up
of repeating units connected together.
 There may be thousands of units in a single polymer molecule
 There are mainly two types of Polymers. They are:

1) Natural Polymers:- Amber, wool, silk and natural rubber have been used
for centuries.
2) Synthetic Polymers:- Synthetic rubber, phenol formaldehyde resin
(Bakelite), neoprene, nylon, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene,
polyethylene, silicone.

 Further, polymers can be classified as:

1) Thermoplastics
2) Thermosetting polymers
3) Elastomers
[Where all the above are rubbers]
  Properties of Polymers:
a) Long-chain structures
b) All Polymers have Carbon in common
c) They are non-crystalline at room temperatures
d) Light weight
e) Poor conductors of heat and electricity
f) They are resistant to chemical attack and decay

 Application of Polymers: Packaging Electronics, Automobiles,

Construction
Difference b/w Thermosetting Plastics and Thermoplastics:
Thermosetting Plastics Thermoplastics
1 3-D network of 10 covalent bonds Linear polymers without
with cross linking b/w chains crosslinking and branching
2 Upon heating they retain their Upon heating secondary bonds
strength and prolonged heating between individual chains break,
causes the roasting of polymers and and the polymers become soft on
ultimately depolymerization cooling hard and rigid because
secondary bonds re-establish
themselves
3 Harder, stronger, and more brittle Strong and less brittle
4 It is difficult to fill an intricate mold They can fill complicated molds
with such plastics very easily
5 Cannot be recycled Can be recycled
6 Eg: polyesters, silicones, bakelite etc Eg: PVC, Nylons, polyethylene
7 Applications: manufacture of Applications: Plastic Walls, Floor
telephones, electrical outlets, tiles, reflectors, plastic lenses etc
appliance handles etc

Elastomers:
 The polymers that are capable of elastic deformation when subjected to
relatively low stresses.
 Some can extend to a larger extent and still regain its shape.
 They can further be classified into two categories:

1) Natural Rubber – derived from biological plants

2) Synthetic Rubber – produced from polymerization
  Properties of Elastomers:
a) Consist of long-chained molecules that are cross-linked.
b) They owe their impressive elastic properties to two features:
1. Molecules are tightly linked when unstretched.
2. Degree of cross-linking is substantially less than Thermoset

Ceramics:
 Ceramic materials are inorganic, non-metallic materials made up from
metal and non-metal compounds. The action of heat and subsequent cooling
forms them.
 They are of two types namely, Crystalline and Non - Crystalline glass.
 Properties of Ceramics:
a) Hard
b) Brittle
c) Refractory
d) Insulating
e) Oxidation resistant
f) Non-magnetic
g) Prone to thermal shock
h) Chemically stable

 Applications of Ceramics:
a) Aerospace: Shuttle tiles
b) Medical: Bone implants
c) Automotives: Catalytic converters
d) Consumer uses: glassware, windows

Composites:
 They are a combination of two or more materials with different properties.
 There are mainly three types of composites. They are:

1) Fiber-reinforced: Carbon fiber, Glass fiber

2) Metal-Matrix: Aluminium with cement re-inforcement
3) Laminates: Layered materials for strength
Classification of composites:

Composites

Particle Fiber
Structural
reinforced reinforced

Large Dispersion Sandwich

Discontinuous Continuous Laminates
Particle Strengthened Panels

Randomly
Aligned
oriented

 Properties of composites
a) High strength-to-weight ratio
b) Chemical and weathering resistance
c) Durable
d) Translucent

 Applications of composites
a) Aerospace: Carbon composite is a key material in today’s launch vehicles
for the re-entry phase of spacecraft
b) Glass industry
c) Building Construction
d) Road construction
e) Steel industry
f) Restoration and rehabilitation
FRP CMC MMC
Pipes Concrete which contains Boron fiber reinforced
steel rods in a matrix of aluminium alloyed
cement, sand and matrix composites are
crushed stones is used as structural
extensively used in members in space
construction sites shuttles
Industrial Floorings Al2O3 reinforced
aluminium matrix finds
applications in producing
sporting equipments and
automobile engine parts
Automotive bodies
Aircraft structural
components
Sports and recreational
components
Pressure vessels
Military aircraft
components
Helicopter rotor blades
Tennis rackets
Circuit boards
Rocket cone noses

Material Properties:
1. Physical Properties: Density, melting point, Colour, Solubility
 A property that can easily be observed.
 Can be reversible or irreversible.

2. Chemical Properties: Corrosion resistance, Combustibility, Reactivity

 The ability to produce a change in the identity of a matter.
 Chemical changes occur when a substance reacts and forms one or more
new substances.

3. Mechanical Properties: Hardness, Ductility, Malleability, Toughness,

Modulus of elasticity, Yield strength
[Stress-strain curve]
4. Thermal Properties: Heat Capacity, Thermal Expansion, Conductivity
 The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the
temperature by one degree Celsius. The relationship between heat and
temperature change is usually expressed in the form shown below where C
is the specific heat.
a
c=
m × ΔT

5. Electrical Properties: Ohms law, Resistivity, Conductivity, Dielectric

Strength, Conductors, Insulators, Semiconductors

6. Optical Properties: Transparency, Reflection, Refraction

IC ENGINES
 Mechanical Drives
Combustion Engines:
 It converts heat energy from fuel combustion to mechanical work into
mechanical work.
 There are two types of combustion engines. They are:

1) External Combustion Engine: Fuel burns outside the cylinder (E.g. Steam
Engines)
2) Internal Combustion Engines: Fuel burns inside the cylinder (E.g. Petroland
diesel engines)

 Advantages of IC Engines over EC Engines

a) Higher efficiency
b) Compact and lightweight
c) East to start
d) Lower cost
e) Simplicity

 Classification of IC Engines
1) The nature of thermodynamic cycle
o Otto cycle engine
o Dual cycle engine
o Diesel cycle engine
2) Type of fuel used
o Petrol engine
o Diesel engine
o Gas engine
o Bi-Fuel engine
3) No. Of strokes
o Two strokes
o Four strokes
4) The type of ignition
o Spark ignition
o Compression ignition
 5) Number of cylinder
o Single cylinder engine
o Multiple cylinder engine
6) Position of cylinder
o Horizontal engine
o Vertical engine
o Radial engine
o In line engine
7) Method of cooling
o Air cooled engine
o Water-cooled engine

IC Engine Parts
1. Valves :
a) Exhaust Valve – It is used to exhaust gases from the combustion
chamber
b) Inlet Valve – It is used to let the air-fuel mixture into the combustion
chamber

2. Cam & Camshaft – Its main function is to open and close the valves at the
appropriate time. The cam is operated by means of gear arrangement driven
by the flywheel. The cam converts the rotary motion into linear motion that
operates the rocker arm. The motion of the rocker arm operates the valves.

3. Spark Plug – Spark plug is used to ignite the air-fuel mixture. Electrical
energy is transmitted through the spark plug to create spark. Thiis electrical
spark ignites the gasoline.

4. Piston—It compresses the charge and transmits the gas force to the
connecting rod during a power stroke. So, it is a movable part fitted into a
cylinder that can transmit and receive power. Usually, it is made of
aluminium alloy, which has good heat-conducting properties.

5. Piston Ring – It maintains a gas tight seal b/w the cylinder and the piston
It also helps in conducting heat from the piston to cylinder. They are made
of cast iron and are fitted/inserted into the circumferential grooves provided
at the tip end of the piston.
 6. Connecting Rod – It connects the the piston and the crankshaft. The
piston is connected to the connecting rod via gudgeon pin. It converts
the reciprocating motion into rotary motion.

7. Crankshaft – Crank is a lever that is connected to the end of the rod

by a join. The other end of the crank is connected to a shaft known as
crankshaft which transfers power. It is made of carbon steel

8. Cylinder head – The top of the cylinder is covered by cylinder head

over which inlet valve, exhaust valve, spark plug or injectors are
mounted.

9. Flywheel – It is a big wheel on the crankshaft forming intial mass,

whose function is to maintain its speed constant. It is done by storing
excess rotational energy during power stroke, which is returned
during other stroke. It is made of cast iron.

Four Stroke Engines:

1. Suction Stroke – Air-fuel enters; inlet valve opens
 Due to the movement of the piston, volume in the cylinder increases and so
pressure decreases.
 This creates a pressure difference b/w atmosphere and inside cylinder so
that the air-fuel mixture enters the cylinder.
 During suction stroke crankshaft performs a half rotation i.e 1800.
 At the end the cylinder Is now filled with the air-fuel mixture and the inlet
valve is closed.

2. Compression Stroke – Air-fuel compressed; both valves closed

 Piston moves in upward direction
 Inlet and exhaust valves remain closed.
 It starts when piston moves from bottom dead centre (BDC) to top
dead centre (TDC)
 Mixture of air and fuel is compressed so that pressure and temperature
increases.
 At the end of the stroke, the mixture is ignited by spark plug. The
combustion of mixture produces hot gases which will increase the
pressure at constant volume
 3. Power Stroke – Combustion forces piston down
 Piston moves down
 Both inlet and exhaust valves are closed
 It starts when piston moves from TDC to BDC
 The high temp and high pressure hot gases exert pressure force on the
piston. Thus work is done hence it is called the power stroke.
 At the end of the stroke the exhaust valves open.

4. Exhaust Stroke – Burnt gases are expelled

 Exhaust valve remains open and inlet valve remains closed.
 It starts when the piston moves from BDC to TDC
 It moves the exhaust gases out of the cylinder at constant pressure.
 At the end of the stroke, again inlet valve opens and a new cycle
starts.

Difference b/w Two Stroke and Four Stroke Engines:

TWO STROKE FOUR STROKE
1 Cycle is completed in two strokes of Cycle is completed in four strokes
piston of piston
2 1 revolution of crankshaft 2 revolutions of crankshaft
3 Power is developed in every Power is developed in every
revolution of crankshaft alternate revolution of crankshaft
4 Light flywheel is required Heavy flywheel is required
5 Light weight and compact hence less Heavy and large so more space is
space is occupied occupied
6 Number of power strokes = N Number of power strokes = N/2
7 Lower thermal efficiency Higher thermal efficiency
8 Lubricating oil is mixed with the It has a separate lubrication
fuel and then admitted into the system
engine
9 Crankshaft rotates in both directions Crankshaft only rotates in one
direction
10 Construction is simple Construction is complicated
11 E.g. used in cars and motorcycles E.g. used in buses and trucks
Difference b/w Petrol and Diesel Engines:
PETROL DIESEL
1 It works on Otto Cycle It works on Diesel Cycle
2 Fuel is pre mixed in carburettor Direct injection of fuel mixing
takes place
3 Lower thermal efficiency and more Higher thermal efficiency and less
fuel consumption fuel consumption
4 Compression ratio is 7:1 to 12:1 Compression ratio is 16:1 to 20:1
5 Lower initial cost, higher Higher initial cost, lower
maintenance cost maintenance cost
6 Light weight and occupies less space Heavy and occupies more space
7 Used in cars, motorcycles Used in trucks, buses
Important Questions
UNIT – 3: STEAM AND ITS PROPERTIES
1. Write differences b/w impulse turbine and hydraulic turbine
Ans. Following are the difference b/w impulse and hydraulic turbine
IMPULSE HYDRAULIC
1 Converts KE of water jet to Converts both pressure and KE of
mechanical energy water into mechanical energy
2 Only KE is used for rotation Both KE and pressure energy
contributes to rotation
3 Water strikes the turbine in the Water flows continuously over the
form of high-speed jet blades with gradual pressure
reduction
4 Works on impulse action Works on reaction principle
(Newtons II Law) (Newtons III Law)
5 Eg. Pelton Wheel E.g. Francis & Kaplan turbine
6 Requires a high head (100-2000m) Works on low to medium head
and low discharge. (below 200m) with high discharge.
7 Less efficiency High efficiency
8 Simple construction; open to Enclosed in a casing to prevent
atmosphere pressure loss
9 Used in high altitude hydroelectric Used in medium to low head hydro
plants power stations

2. Define steam and explain its formation at constant pressure.

Ans.
Steam: It is a vapour of water and is generated by supplying heat to water and it
is most widely used in heat transportation field.
 It is a pure substance & has thermal capacity.
 It is used for heating and working substances in steam engines and steam
turbines.
Formation of steam at constant pressure:
 Water in a cylinder with movable piston is heated at constant pressure.
 Initially the temperature of water increases (sensible heat) until it reaches
boiling point (saturation)
 There is an increase in volume as shown in fig (iii)
 At saturation temperature, further heat causes a phase change from water to
steam.
 Wet steam – Mixture of water and steam fig (iii) [BC – from graph]
 Dry saturated steam – All water has vapourised, no water droplets remain
then the steam so obtained is called dry saturated steam [C – from graph]
 Super heated steam – if the dry saturated steam is further heated then the
steam so obtained is called super heated steam and it behaves like a perfect
gas. [CD – from graph]

3. Differentiate between wet steam, dry steam, and superheated steam.

Ans.
WET DRY SUPER HEATED
1 It is a mixture of It is a steam that It is a steam heated
water droplets and contains no water beyond saturation
steam droplets at saturation temperature
temperature
2 Due to the presence It looks invisible as It is transparent and it
of water droplets it there are no water behaves like a gas
looks cloudy/misty particles
3 Its temperature is Its temperature is equal Its temperature is higher
equal to that of to that of saturation than saturation
saturation temperature temperature
temperature
4 Dryness fraction : Dryness fraction : Dryness fraction :
0<x<1 X=1 X>1
5 It is used where Commonly used in Used in power
latent heat transfer steam engines, turbines generation and high-
is needed like and industrial heating efficiency applications
heating applications
6 Less efficient More efficient than wet Most efficient for power
steam but still has generation due to high
limitations thermal energy

UNIT – 4 IC ENGINES
4. Explain the working of a four-stroke petrol engine with a neat diagram
Ans.
Four Stroke Engines:
1) Suction Stroke – Air-fuel enters; inlet valve opens
 Due to the movement of the piston, volume in the cylinder increases and so
pressure decreases.
 This creates a pressure difference b/w atmosphere and inside cylinder so
that the air-fuel mixture enters the cylinder.
 During suction stroke crankshaft performs a half rotation i.e 1800.
 At the end the cylinder Is now filled with the air-fuel mixture and the inlet
valve is closed.
 2) Compression Stroke – Air-fuel compressed; both valves closed
 Piston moves in upward direction
 Inlet and exhaust valves remain closed.
 It starts when piston moves from bottom dead centre (BDC) to top
dead centre (TDC)
 Mixture of air and fuel is compressed so that pressure and temperature
increases.
 At the end of the stroke, the mixture is ignited by spark plug. The
combustion of mixture produces hot gases which will increase the
pressure at constant volume
3) Power Stroke – Combustion forces piston down
 Piston moves down
 Both inlet and exhaust valves are closed
 It starts when piston moves from TDC to BDC
 The high temp and high pressure hot gases exert pressure force on the
piston. Thus work is done hence it is called the power stroke.
 At the end of the stroke the exhaust valves open.

4) Exhaust Stroke – Burnt gases are expelled

 Exhaust valve remains open and inlet valve remains closed.
 It starts when the piston moves from BDC to TDC
 It moves the exhaust gases out of the cylinder at constant pressure.
 At the end of the stroke, again inlet valve opens and a new cycle
starts.

5. With a neat sketch, explain Series - parallel type of hybrid electric

vehicle.
Ans.
Series Parallel Hybrid Vehicle: it combines both series and parallel powertrain
architectures, offering flexibility in power distribution. It is also known as a
power-split hybrid.
Working Principle:
In a series – parallel HEV, power can flow in many ways
1) Electric Mode (Series Mode)
 The internal combustion engine charges the battery.
 The electric motor drives the wheels, making the vehicle operate like
a series hybrid.
2) Engine Mode (Parallel Mode)
 Both the engine and electric motor supply power to the wheels.
 The vehicle operates as a parallel hybrid, using both energy sources
sufficiently.
3) Combined mode (Power split mode)
 The vehicle automatically adjusts power distribution based on driving
conditions.
 The battery, motor, and engine work together for optimal fuel
efficiency and performance.
Key Components:
a) Internal Combustion Engine – generates power for the wheels or charges
the battery
b) Electric motor/generator – assists in propulsion and regenerates power
during braking
c) Battery pack – stores electrical energy for motor driven operation
d) Power split device (Planetary Gear System) – determines whether the
vehicle operates in series, parallel or combined mode.
e) Transmission system – transfers power from engine/motor to the wheels.
Advantages:
1) Better fuel efficiency – uses electric power at low speeds, reducing fuel
consumption.
2) Regenerative braking – converts braking energy into stored electrical
energy.
3) Flexible driving modes – Optimized for both city and highway driving.
Disadvantages:
 1) Less power
2) Expensive to purchase
3) Poor handling
4) High maintenance cost
5) High voltage batteries

UNIT – 1: ENGG MATERIALS

6. What are engineering materials? Classify them with examples.
Ans. Engineering materials are substances used in the construction of machines,
devices and structures. They are classified as:
Metals :
 Metals are hard, lustrous, malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat
and electricity.
 Eg – Gold, Silver, Aluminium & alloys such as steel etc.
 There are mainly two categories that comes under metals. They are :-

3) Ferrous Metals :- That contain iron

Eg – Steel, stainless steel, cast iron, tool steel
4) Non – Ferrous Metals :- That does not contain iron
Eg- Aluminium, Copper, Titanium, Tungsten
 Properties of metals:
1. Malleable
2. Sonorous
3. Ductile
4. Good conductors of heat and electricity
5. High tensile strength
6. High melting and boiling points
7. Solid at room temperature – (Exception – Mercury)
8. High density
9. React with oxides to form basic oxides
  Applications of Metals: used in jewellery, electrical cables, cooking
utensils, bridges, and bells.

Polymers:
 A compound consisting of long chain molecules, each molecule made up
of repeating units connected together.
 There may be thousands of units in a single polymer molecule
 There are mainly two types of Polymers. They are:

3) Natural Polymers:- Amber, wool, silk and natural rubber have been used
for centuries.
4) Synthetic Polymers:- Synthetic rubber, phenol formaldehyde resin
(Bakelite), neoprene, nylon, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene,
polyethylene, silicone.

 Further, polymers can be classified as:

a) Thermoplastics
b) Thermosetting polymers
c) Elastomers
[Where all the above are rubbers]
 Properties of Polymers:
1. Long-chain structures
2. All Polymers have Carbon in common
3. They are non-crystalline at room temperatures
4. Light weight
5. Poor conductors of heat and electricity
6. They are resistant to chemical attack and decay

 Application of Polymers: Packaging Electronics, Automobiles,

Construction
Elastomers:
 The polymers that are capable of elastic deformation when subjected to
relatively low stresses.
 Some can extend to a larger extent and still regain its shape.
  They can further be classified into two categories:

3) Natural Rubber – derived from biological plants

4) Synthetic Rubber – produced from polymerization

 Properties of Elastomers:
1. Consist of long-chained molecules that are cross-linked.
2. They owe their impressive elastic properties to two features:
3. Molecules are tightly linked when unstretched.
4. Degree of cross-linking is substantially less than Thermoset

Ceramics:
 Ceramic materials are inorganic, non-metallic materials made up from
metal and non-metal compounds. The action of heat and subsequent cooling
forms them.
 They are of two types namely, Crystalline and Non - Crystalline glass.
 Properties of Ceramics:
1. Hard
2. Brittle
3. Refractory
4. Insulating
5. Oxidation resistant
6. Non-magnetic
7. Prone to thermal shock
8. Chemically stable

 Applications of Ceramics:
a) Aerospace: Shuttle tiles
b) Medical: Bone implants
c) Automotives: Catalytic converters
d) Consumer uses: glassware, windows

Composites:
 They are a combination of two or more materials with different properties.
 There are mainly three types of composites. They are:
 1) Fiber-reinforced: Carbon fiber, Glass fiber
2) Metal-Matrix: Aluminium with cement re-inforcement
3) Laminates: Layered materials for strength

7. Explain the physical, mechanical, thermal, electrical, and chemical

properties of materials.

Ans.

Material Properties:
A) Physical Properties: Density, melting point, Colour, Solubility
 A property that can easily be observed.
 Can be reversible or irreversible.

B) Chemical Properties: Corrosion resistance, Combustibility, Reactivity

 The ability to produce a change in the identity of a matter.
 Chemical changes occur when a substance reacts and forms one or more
new substances.

C) Mechanical Properties: Hardness, Ductility, Malleability, Toughness,

Modulus of elasticity, Yield strength
[Stress-strain curve]

D) Thermal Properties: Heat Capacity, Thermal Expansion, Conductivity

 The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the
temperature by one degree Celsius. The relationship between heat and
temperature change is usually expressed in the form shown below where C
is the specific heat.
a
c=
m × ΔT

E) Electrical Properties: Ohms law, Resistivity, Conductivity, Dielectric

Strength, Conductors, Insulators, Semiconductors

F) Optical Properties: Transparency, Reflection, Refraction

UNIT – 5: MECHATRONICS AND ROBOTICS
 8. Define Mechatronics and explain its evolution.

Ans.
Definition of Mechatronics:
 The term "Mechatronics" was coined in 1969 by a senior engineer at
Yaskawa Electric Company (Japan). It refers to the synergistic integration
of mechanical engineering, electronics, and intelligent computer control in
the design and manufacturing of products and processes.

 Mechatronics is a multidisciplinary field that integrates mechanical

systems, electrical systems, computer systems, and control engineering to
design and create intelligent systems.
Evolution of Mechatronics
1. Traditional Mechanical Systems (Pre-1960s)
 Machines were purely mechanical with simple electrical components.
 Control relied on mechanical linkages, gears, cams, and
hydraulic/pneumatic actuators.
 Example: Early industrial machines.

2. Introduction of Electronics (1960s-1970s)

 Introduction of basic electrical and electronic components in mechanical
systems.
 Use of relays, switches, simple motors, and analog circuits for automation.
 Example: Early automatic washing machines, basic conveyor belt systems.

3. Microprocessor & PLC Integration (1980s-1990s)

 Development of microprocessors and programmable logic controllers
(PLC).
 Machines became more automated with electronic sensors and actuators.
 Example: Engine Management Systems (EMS), CNC machines.

4. Smart Mechatronics (2000s-Present)

 Integration of artificial intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IoT), and
machine learning.
 Use of MEMS sensors, robotics, and real-time data processing.
 Example: Autonomous vehicles, industrial robots, smart medical devices.