UNIT 1

1. BASIC MEASUREMENTS

Methods of Measurement, Measurement System, Classification of instrument system,

Functional Elements of measurement system - Examples - Characteristics of instruments:
Static characteristics - Dynamic characteristic Types of errors - sources of errors - methods
of elimination - Analysis of data - Limiting errors - Relative limiting error- Combination of
Quantities with limiting errors - Statistical treatment of data: Histogram, Mean, Measure of
dispersion from the mean, Range, Deviation, Average deviation, Standard Deviation,
Variance - Calibration and Standards - Process of Calibration.

1.1 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT

Measurement is the assignment of a number to a physical quantity or characteristic of an

object or event, which can be compared with other objects or events.
(i) Direct method of measurement.

In this method the value of a quantity is obtained directly by comparing the unknown with
the standard. Direct methods are common for the measurement of physical quantities such
as length, mass and time. It involves no mathematical calculations to arrive at the results,
for example, measurement of length by a graduated scale. The method is not very accurate
because it depends on human insensitiveness in making judgment.
(ii) Indirect method of measurement.

In this method several parameters (to which the quantity to be measured is linked with) are
measured directly and then the value is determined by mathematical relationship. For
example, measurement of density by measuring mass and geometrical dimensions.

1.2 MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

Measurement system, any of the systems used in the process of associating numbers with
physical quantities and phenomena. Although the concept of weights and measures today
includes such factors as temperature, luminosity, pressure, and electric current, it once
consisted of only four basic measurements: mass (weight), distance or length, area, and

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volume (liquid or grain measure).Basic to the whole idea of weights and measures are the
concepts of uniformity, units, and standards. Uniformity, the essence of any system of
weights and measures, requires accurate, reliable standards of mass and length and agreed-
on units. A unit is the name of a quantity, such as kilogram or pound. A standard is the
physical embodiment of a unit, such as the platinum-iridium cylinder kept by the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Paris as the standard kilogram. Two types
of measurement systems are distinguished historically: an evolutionary system, such as
the British Imperial, which grew more or less haphazardly out of custom, and a planned
system, such as the International System of Units (SI), in universal use by the world’s
scientific community and by most nations.

The International System of Units (French: Système international d'unités, SI) is the modern
form of the metric system, and is the most widely used system of measurement. It comprises
a coherent system of units of measurement built on seven base units. It defines twenty-two
named units, and includes many more unnamed coherent derived units. The system also
establishes a set of twenty

1.3. CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

prefixes to the unit names and unit symbols that may be used when specifying multiples
and fractions of the units.The system was published in 1960 as the result of an initiative
that began in 1948. It is based on the metre-kilogram-second system of units (MKS)
rather than any variant of the centimetre-gram-second system (CGS).

Basic classification of measuring instruments:

1. Mechanical Instruments:- They are very reliable for static and stable
conditions. The disadvantage is they are unable to respond rapidly to
measurement of dynamic and transient conditions.
2. Electrical Instruments:- Electrical methods of indicating the output of
detectors are more rapid than mechanical methods. The electrical system
normally depends upon a mechanical meter movement as indicating device.
3. Electronic Instruments:- These instruments have very fast response. For

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 example a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is capable to follow dynamic and
transient changes of the order of few nano seconds (10-9 sec).

Absolute instruments or Primary Instruments

These instruments gives the magnitude of quantity under measurement in terms of physical
constants of the instrument e.g. Tangent Galvanometer. These instruments do not require
comparison with any other standard instrument. These instruments give the value of the
electrical quantity in terms of absolute quantities of the instruments and their deflections. In this
type of instruments no calibration or comparison with other instruments is necessary. They are
generally not used in laboratories and are seldom used in practice by electricians and engineers.
They are mostly used as means of standard measurements and are maintained in national
laboratories and similar institutions. Examples of absolute instruments are: Tangent
galvanometer, Raleigh current balance, Absolute electrometer
Secondary instruments

These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being measured can only be determined
by the output indicated by the instrument. These instruments are calibrated by comparison with
an absolute instrument or another secondary instrument, which has already been calibrated
against an absolute instrument. Working with absolute instruments for routine work is time
consuming since every time a measurement is made, it takes a lot of time to compute the
magnitude of quantity under measurement. Therefore secondary instruments are most
commonly used.
• They are direct reading instruments. The quantity to be measured by these
instruments can be determined from the deflection of the instruments.
• They are often calibrated by comparing them with either some absolute instruments
or with those which have already been calibrated.
• The deflections obtained with secondary instruments will be meaningless until it
is not calibrated.
• These instruments are used in general for all laboratory purposes.

• Some of the very widely used secondary instruments are: ammeters, voltmeter,
wattmeter, energy meter (watt-hour meter), ampere-hour meters etc.

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Classification of Secondary Instruments:

Classification based on the way they present the results of measurements Deflection type:
Deflection of the instrument provides a basis for determining the quantity under measurement.
The measured quantity produces some physical effect which deflects or produces a
mechanical displacement of the moving system of the instrument.

Null Type: In a null type instrument, a zero or null indication leads to determination of the
magnitude of measured quantity.
Classification based on the various effects of electric current (or voltage) upon which their
operation depend.
They are:

Magnetic effect: Used in ammeters, voltmeters, watt-meters, integrating meters etc.

Heating effect: Used in ammeters and voltmeters.

Chemical effect: Used in dc ampere hour meters.

Electrostatic effect: Used in voltmeters.

Electromagnetic induction effect: Used in ac ammeters, voltmeters, watt meters and

integrating meters.
Generally the magnetic effect and the electromagnetic induction effect are utilized for the
construction of the commercial instruments. Some of the instruments are also named based on
the above effect such as electrostatic voltmeter, induction instruments, etc.
Classification based on the Nature of their Operations

We have the following instruments.

1. Indicating instruments

Indicating instruments indicate, generally the quantity to be measured by means of a pointer which

moves on a scale. Examples are ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter etc.

2. Recording instruments

These instruments record continuously the variation of any electrical quantity with respect to time.
In principle, these are indicating instruments but so arranged that a permanent continuous record

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of the indication is made on a chart or dial. The recording is generally made by a pen on a graph
paper which is rotated on a dice or drum at a uniform speed. The amount of the quantity at any
time (instant) may be read from the traced chart. Any variation in the quantity with time is recorded
by these instruments. Any electrical quantity like current, voltage, power etc., (which may be
measured lay the indicating instruments) may be arranged to be recorded by a suitable recording
mechanism.
3. Integrating instruments:
These instruments record the consumption of the total quantity of electricity, energy etc., during
a particular period of time. That is, these instruments totalize events over a specified period of
time. No indication of the rate or variation or the amount at a particular instant are available
from them. Some widely used integrating instruments are: Ampere- hour meter: kilowatthour
(kWh) meter, kilovolt-ampere-hour (kVARh) meter.
Classification based on the Kind of Current that can be Measurand.

Under this heading, we have:

• Direct current (dc) instruments

• Alternating current (ac) instruments

• Both direct current and alternating current instruments (dc/ac instruments).

Classification based on the method used.

Under this category, we have:

Direct measuring instruments: These instruments converts the energy of the measured quantity
directly into energy that actuates the instrument and the value of the unknown quantity is
measured or displayed or recorded directly. These instruments are most widely used in
engineering practice because they are simple and inexpensive. Also, time involved in the
measurement is shortest. Examples are Ammeter, Voltmeter, Watt meter etc.
Comparison instruments: These instruments measure the unknown quantity by comparison with
a standard. Examples are dc and ac bridges and potentiometers. They are used when a higher
accuracy of measurements is desired.

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1.4 FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
A systematic organization and analysis are more important for measurement systems.
The whole operation system can be described in terms of functional elements. The
functional elements of generalized measurement system are shown in figure 1.

Fig 1: Functional elements of generalized measurement system

Most of the measurement system consists of following functional elements.

1. Primary sensing element

2. Variable conversion element

3. Variable manipulation element

4. Data transmission element

5. Data storage and playback element

6. Data presentation element

1. Primary Sensing Element

The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with primary sensing element
of measurement system. The quantity is first sensed or detected by primary sensor. Then
detected physical quantity signal is converted into an electrical signal by a transducer.

Transducer is defined as a device which converts a physical quantity into an electrical

quantity. Sensor is act as primary element of transducer. In many cases the physical quantity

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is directly converted into an electrical quantity by a transducer. So the first stage of a
measurement system is known as a detector transducer stage.
Example, Pressure transducer with pressure sensor, Temperature sensor etc.,

2. Variable Conversion Element

The output of primary sensing element is electrical signal of any form like a voltage,
a frequency or some other electrical parameter. Sometime this output not suitable for next
level of system. So it is necessary to convert the output some other suitable form while
maintaining the original signal to perform the desired function the system.
For example the output primary sensing element is in analog form of signal and next
stage of system accepts only in digital form of signal. So, we have to convert analog signal
into digital form using an A/D converter. Here A/D converter is act as variable conversion
element.

3. Variable Manipulation Element

The function of variable manipulation element is to manipulate the signal offered but
original nature of signal is maintained in same state. Here manipulation means only change
in the numerical value of signal.
Examples,
1. Voltage amplifier is act as variable manipulation element. Voltage amplifier accepts a
small voltage signal as input and produces the voltage with greater magnitude .Here
numerical value of voltage magnitude is increased.
2. Attenuator acts as variable manipulation element. It accepts a high voltage signal and
produces the voltage or power with lower magnitude. Here numerical value of voltage
magnitude is decreased.
o Linear process manipulation elements: Amplification, attenuation, integration,
differentiation, addition and subtraction etc.,
o Nonlinear process manipulation elements: Modulation, detection, sampling,
filtering, chopping and clipping etc.,
All these elements are performed on the signal to bring it to desired level to be accepted by
the next stage of measurement system. This process of conversion is called signal

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conditioning. The combination of variable conversion and variable manipulation elements
are called as Signal Conditioning Element.
4. Data Transmission Element
The elements of measurement system are actually physically separated; it becomes
necessary to transmit the data from one to another. The element which is performs this
function is called as data transmission element.
Example, Control signals are transmitted from earth station to Space-crafts by a telemetry
system using radio signals. Here telemetry system is act as data transmission element.
The combination of Signal conditioning and transmission element is known as Intermediate
Stage of measurement system.
5. Data storage and playback element
Some applications requires a separate data storage and playback function for easily
rebuild the stored data based on the command. The data storage is made in the form of
pen/ink and digital recording. Examples, magnetic tape recorder/ reproducer, X-Y
recorder, X-t recorder, Optical Disc recording ect.,
6. Data presentation Element
The function of this element in the measurement system is to communicate the
information about the measured physical quantity to human observer or to present it in an
understandable form for monitoring, control and analysis purposes.Visual display devices
are required for monitoring of measured data. These devices may be analog or digital
instruments like ammeter, voltmeter, camera, CRT, printers, analog and digital computers.
Computers are used for control and analysis of measured data of measurement system. This
Final stage of measurement system is known as Terminating stage.
1.41 EXAMPLE OF GENERALIZED MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge:

The simple pressure measurement system using bourdon tube pressure gauge is shown in
figure 2.The detail functional elements of this pressure measurement system is given below.

Primary sensing element and : Pressure Sensed

Variable conversion element : Bourdon Tube

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 Data Transmission element : Mechanical
Linkages Variable manipulation Element : Gearing
arrangement
Data presentation Element : Pointer and Dial

Fig. 2 Bourdon tube pressure gauge

In this measurement system, bourdon tube is act as primary sensing and variable
conversion element. The input pressure is sensed and converted into small displacement by
a bourdon tube. On account of input pressure the closed end of the tube is displaced.
Because of this pressure in converted into small displacement. The closed end of bourdon
tube is connected through mechanical linkage to a gearing arrangement.
The small displacement signal can be amplified by gearing arrangement and
transmitted by mechanical linkages and finally it makes the pointer to rotate on a large
angle of scale. If it is calibrated with known input pressure, gives the measurement of the
pressure signal applied to the bourdon tube in measurand.

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 2. CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

These performance characteristics of an instrument are very important in their selection.

Static Characteristics: Static characteristics of an instrument are considered for
instruments which are used to measure an unvarying process condition.
Performance criteria based upon static relations represent the static Characteristics.
(The static characteristics are the value or performance given after the steady state
condition has reached).
Dynamic Characteristics: Dynamic characteristics of an instrument are considered
for instruments which are used to measure a varying process condition. Performance
criteria based upon dynamic relations represent the dynamic Characteristics.

2.1 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

1) Accuracy
Accuracy is defined as the degree of closeness with which an instrument reading
approaches to the true value of the quantity being measured. It determines the closeness to
true value of instrument reading.Accuracy is represented by percentage of full scale reading
or in terms of inaccuracy or in terms of error value.Example, Accuracy of temperature
measuring instrument might be specified by±3ºC. This accuracy means the temperature
reading might be within + or -3ºC deviation from the true value. Accuracy of an instrument
is specified by ±5% for the range of 0 to 200ºC in the
temperature scale means the reading might be within + or -10ºC of the true reading.
2) Precision
Precision is the degree of repeatability of a series of the measurement. Precision is
measures of the degree of closeness of agreement within a group of measurements are
repeatedly made under the prescribed condition. Precision is used in measurements to
describe the stability or reliability or the reproducibility of results.

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 Table1: Comparison between accuracy and precision

Accuracy Precision
It refers to degree of closeness of the It refers to the degree of agreement among
measured value to the true value group of readings
Accuracy gives the maximum error that is Precision of a measuring system gives
maximum departure of the final result from its its capability to reproduce a certain
true value reading with a given accuracy

3) Bias
Bias is quantitative term describing the difference between the average of measured
readings made on the same instrument and its true value (It is a characteristic of measuring
instruments to give indications of the value of a measured quantity for which the average
value differs from true value).
4) Sensitivity

Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of change in output signal (response) to the change
in input signal (measurand). It is the relationship indicating how much output changes when
input changes.

If the sensitivity is constant then the system is said to be linear system. If the
sensitivity is variable then the system is said to be non linear system.

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 Fig. 3: Definition of sensitivity for (a) Linear and (b) Non linear instrument
When the calibration curve is linear as in figure 3a the sensitivity of the instrument
can be defined as in slope of the calibration curve. In this case sensitivity is constant over
the entire range of instrument. If the curve is not normally straight line or nonlinear
instrument sensitivity varies with the input or varies from on range to another as in figure
3b.
4) Linearity

Linearity is the best characteristics of an instrument or measurement system.

Linearity of the instrument refers to the output is linearly or directly proportional to input
over the entire range of instrument. So the degree of linear (straight line) relationship
between the output to input is called as linearity of an instrument.

Fig.4: Representation of Linearity and Non-Linearity of an Instrument

Nonlinearity: The maximum difference or deviation of output curve from the

Specified idealized straight line as shown in figure 4. Independent nonlinearity may be

defined as

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5) Resolution

Resolution or Discrimination is the smallest change in the input value that is

required to cause an appreciable change in the output. (The smallest increment in input or
input change which can be detected by an instrument is called as resolution or
discrimination)

6) Hysteresis

Hysteresis is Non-coincidence of loading and unloading curves on output. Hysteresis

effect shows up in any physical, chemical or electrical phenomenon. When input
increases, output also increases and calibration curve can be drawn. If input is
decreases from maximum value and output also decreases but does not follow the
same curve, then there is a residual output when input is zero. This phenomenon is
called Hysteresis. The difference between increasing change and decreasing change
of output values is known as hysteresis error as shown in figure 5.(The different
outputs from the same value of quantity being measured are reached by a
continuously increasing change or a continuously decreasing change)

Fig. 5: Hysteresis Error of an instrument

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7) Dead Zone
Dead zone or dead band is defined as the largest change of input quantity for which
there is no output the instrument due the factors such as friction, backlash and hysteresis
within the system. (The region upto which the instrument does not respond for an input
change is called dead zone).Dead time is the time required by an instrument to begin to
respond to change in input quantity.
8) Backlash
The maximum distance through which one part of the instrument is moved without
disturbing the other part is called as backlash. (Backlash may be defined as the maximum
distance or angle through which any part of the instrument can be moved without causing
any motion of next part of the system)

Fig. 6: Threshold because of backlash

Reasons for the presence of backlash in an instrument include allowing for

lubrication, manufacturing errors, deflection under load, and thermal expansion.

9) Drift

Drift is an undesirable change in output over a period of time that is unrelated to

change in input, operating conditions. Drift is occurred in instruments due to internal
temperature variations, ageing effects and high stress ect.
Zero drift is used for the changes that occur in output when there is zero output.

It is expressed as percentage of full range output.

10) Threshold

The minimum value of input which is necessary to activate an instrument to produce

an output is termed its threshold as shown in figure 7. (Threshold is the minimum value of
the input required to cause the pointer to move from zero position).

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 Fig. 7 Threshold effect

11) Input Impedance

The magnitude of the impedance of element connected across the signal source is
called Input Impedance. Figure 8 shows a voltage signal source and input device connected
across it.

Fig. 8 voltage source and input device

The magnitude of the input impedance is given by

Power extracted by the input device from the signal source is

From above two expressions it is clear that a low input impedance device connected across the

voltage signal source draws more current and more power from signal source than high input
impedance device.

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12) Loading Effect
Loading effect is the incapability of the system to faith fully measure, record or
control the input signal in accurate form.
13) Repeatability
Repeatability is defined as the ability of an instrument to give the same output for
repeated applications of same input value under same environmental condition.
14) Reproducibility

Reproducibility is defined as the ability of an instrument to reproduce the same

output for repeated applications of same input value under different environment
condition. In case of perfect reproducibility the instrument satisfies no drift condition.
15) Static Error

The difference between the measured value of quantity and true value (Reference
Value) of quantity is called as Error.
Error = Measured value - True
Value δA= Am - At
δA - error

Am - Measured value of
quantity At - True value of
quantity
16) Static Correction

It is the difference between the true value and the measurement value of the quantity
δC= At – Am = - δA

δC – Static correction

17) Scale Range

It can be defined as the measure of the instrument between the lowest and
highest readings it can measure. A thermometer has a scale from −40°C to 100°C.
Thus the range varies from −40°C to 100°C.

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 18) Scale Span

It can be defined as the range of an instrument from the minimum to maximum scale
value. In the case of a thermometer, its scale goes from −40°C to 100°C. Thus its span is
140°C. As said before accuracy is defined as a percentage of span. It is actually a
deviation from true expressed as a percentage of the span.
2.2 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
The dynamic behaviour of an instrument is determined by applying some standard
form of known and predetermined input to its primary element (sensing element) and then
studies the output. Generally dynamic behaviour is determined by
applying following three types of inputs.
1. Step Input: Step change in which the primary element is subjected to an
instantaneous and finite change in measured variable.
2. Linear Input: Linear change, in which the primary element is, follows a measured
variable, changing linearly with time.
3. Sinusoidal input: Sinusoidal change, in which the primary element follows a
measured variable, the magnitude of which changes in accordance with a sinusoidal
function of constant amplitude.
The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are

(i) Speed of response

(ii) Fidelity

(iii) Lag

(iv) Dynamic error

(i) Speed of Response
It is the rapidity with which an instrument responds to changes in the measured
quantity.
(ii) Fidelity
It is the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in the measured
variable without dynamic error (faithful reproduction or fidelity of an instrument is the
ability of reproducing an input signal faithfully (truly).

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 (iii) Lag
It is the retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to changes in the
measured variable. The measuring lags are two types:

Retardation type: In this case the response of an instrument begins immediately

after a change in measured variable is occurred.

Time delay type: In this case the response of an instrument begins after a dead
time after the application of the input quantity.

(iv) Dynamic Error

Error which is caused by dynamic influences acting on the system such as vibration, roll,
pitch or linear acceleration. This error may have an amplitude and usually a frequency
related to the environmental influences and the parameters of the system itself.
3. CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS
All measurement can be made without perfect accuracy (degree of error must
always be assumed). In reality, no measurement can ever made with 100% accuracy. It is
important to find that actual accuracy and different types of errors can be occurred in
measuring instruments. Errors may arise from different sources and usually classified as
follows, Classification of Error
1. Gross Errors
2. Systematic Errors
a) Instrumental errors
i) Inherent shortcomings of instruments

ii) Misuse of instruments

iii) Loading effects

b) Environmental errors
c) Observational errors

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 3. Random Errors

1. Gross Errors
The main source of Gross errors is human mistakes in reading or using instruments
and in recording and calculating measured quantity. As long as human beings are involved
and they may grossly misread the scale reading, then definitely some gross errors will be
occurred in measured value.
Example, Due to an oversight, Experimenter may read the temperature as 22.7oC
while the actual reading may be 32.7oC He may transpose the reading while recording. For
example, he may read 16.7oC and record 27.6oC as an alternative.
The complete elimination of gross errors is maybe impossible, one should try to
predict and correct them. Some gross errors are easily identified while others may be very
difficult to detect. Gross errors can be avoided by using the following two ways.
Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.
Two, three or even more readings should be taken for the quantity being measured
by using different experimenters and different reading point (different environment
condition of instrument) to avoid re-reading with same error. So it is suitable to take a large
number of readings as a close agreement between readings assures that no gross error has
been occurred in measured values.
2. Systematic Errors

Systematic errors are divided into following three categories.

i. Instrumental Errors

ii. Environmental Errors

iii. Observational Errors

i) Instrumental Errors

These errors are arises due to following three reasons (sources of error).

a) Due to inherent shortcoming of instrument

b) Due to misuse of the instruments, and

c) Due to loading effects of instruments

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 a) Inherent Shortcomings of instruments
These errors are inherent in instruments because of their mechanical structure due
to construction, calibration or operation of the instruments or measuring devices.These
errors may cause the instrument to read too low or too high.Example, if the spring (used
for producing controlling torque) of a permanent magnet instrument has become weak, so
the instrument will always read high.Errors may be caused because of friction, hysteresis
or even gear backlash.

Elimination or reduction methods of these errors,

o The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.

o The procedure of measurement must be carefully planned. Substitution

methods or calibration against standards may be used for the purpose.

o Correction factors should be applied after determining the instrumental

errors.

b) Misuse of Instruments
In some cases the errors are occurred in measurement due to the fault of the operator
than that of the instrument. A good instrument used in an unintelligent way may give wrong
results.
Examples, Misuse of instruments may be failure to do zero adjustment of
instrument, poor initial adjustments, using leads of too high a resistance and ill practices of
instrument beyond the manufacturer’s instruction and specifications ect.
c) Loading Effects
The errors committed by loading effects due to improper use of an instrument for
measurement work. In measurement system, loading effects are identified and corrections
should be made or more suitable instruments can be used.
Example, a well calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading (may be false) voltage
reading when connected across a high resistance circuit. The same voltmeter, when
connected across a low resistance circuit may give a more reliable reading (dependable or

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steady or true value).In this example, voltmeter has a loading effect on the circuit, altering
the actual circuit conditions by measurement process. So errors caused by loading effect of
the meters can be avoided by using them intelligently.
ii) Environmental Error
Environmental error occurs due to external environmental conditions of the
instrument, such as effects of temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibration or external
magnetic or electrostatic fields.
Elimination or reduction methods of these undesirable errors are
Arrangements should be made to keep the conditions as nearly as constant as
possible. Example, temperature can be kept constant by keeping the instrument in
the temperature controlled region.
The device which is used against these environmental effects.

Example, variations in resistance with temperature can be minimized by using

very low resistance temperature co-efficient of resistive material.
Employing techniques which eliminate the effects of these disturbances. For
example, the effect of humidity dust etc., can be entirely eliminated by tightly
sealing the equipment.
The external or electrostatic effects can be eliminated by using magnetic or
electrostatic shield on the instrument.
Applying computed corrections: Efforts are normally made to avoid the use of
application of computed corrections, but where these corrections are needed and are
necessary, they are incorporated for the computations of the results
iii) Observational Errors
There are many sources of observational errors. As an example, the pointer of a
voltmeter rests slightly above the surface of the scale. Thus an error on account of
PARALLAX will be acquired unless the line of vision of the observer is exactly above the
pointer. To minimize parallax errors, highly accurate meters are provided with mirrored
scales as shown in figure 3.1.

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 Fig. 9: Errors due to parallax

When the pointer’s image appears hidden by the pointer, observer’s eye is directly in line
with the pointer. Although a mirrored scale minimizes parallax error,

Fig.10: Arrangements showing scale and pointer in the same plane

The observational errors are also occurs due to involvement of human factors. For example,
there are observational errors in measurements involving timing of an event Different
observer may produce different results, especially when sound and light measurement are
involved. The complete elimination of this error can be achieved by using digital display
of output.
3. Random Errors
These errors are occurred due to unknown causes and are observed when the magnitude
and polarity of a measurement fluctuate in changeable (random) manner.The quantity being
measure is affected by many happenings or disturbances and ambient influence about
which we are unaware are lumped together and called as Random or Residual. The errors

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caused by these disturbances are called Random Errors. Since the errors remain even after
the systematic errors have been taken care, those errors are called as Residual (Random)
Errors.Random errors cannot normally be predicted or corrected, but they can be
minimized by skilled observer and using a well maintained quality instrument.

4.1 SOURCES OF ERRORS

The sources of error, other than the inability of a piece of hardware to provide a
true measurement are listed below,
1) Insufficient knowledge of process parameters and design conditions.

2) Poor design

3) Change in process parameters, irregularities, upsets (disturbances) ect.

4) Poor maintenance

5) Errors caused by people who operate the instrument or equipment.

Certain design limitations.
Errors in Measuring Instruments
No measurement is free from error in reality. An intelligent skill in taking
measurements is the ability to understand results in terms of possible errors. If the
precision of the instrument is sufficient, no matter what its accuracy is, a difference will
always be observed between two measured results. So an understanding and careful
evaluation of the errors is necessary in measuring instruments. The Accuracy of an
instrument is measured in terms of errors.
True value

The true value of quantity being measured is defined as the average of an infinite
number of measured values when the average deviation due to the various contributing
factors tends to zero.In ideal situation is not possible to determine the True value of a
quantity by experimental way. Normally an experimenter would never know that the
quantity being measured by experimental way is the True value of the quantity or not.In
practice the true value would be determined by a “standard method”, that is a method
agreed by experts with sufficient accurate.

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Static Error

Static error is defined as a difference between the measured value and the true value
of the quantity being measured. It is expressed as follows.
δA= Am - At ------------------------ (1)

Where, δA= Error, Am =Measured value of quantity and At= True value of
quantity. δA is also called as absolute static error of quantity A and it is expressed as
follows.
ε0=δA (2)

Where, ε0 = Absolute static error of quantity A under measurement.

The absolute value of δA does not specify exactly the accuracy of measurement

.so the quality of measurement is provided by relative static error.

Relative static error

Relative static error is defined as the ratio between the absolute static errors and
true value of quantity being measured. It is expressed as follows.

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 ε0=δA is small, which means that the difference between measured value and true
values is very small, Am – At = Negligible or small. So Almost
Am = At (that is εr<<<1).

4.2 ERROR CORRECTION OR METHOD OF CORRECTION

It is the difference between the true value and the measured value of
quantity. δC= At – Am ------------------- (5)
Where, δC= Static Error Correction = - δA

* For Detail Error correction (Rectification or Elimination or Reduction) methods of

all categories of errors are discussed in the topic of classification of errors.
5.ANALYSIS OF DATA

Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling

data with the goal of discovering useful information, suggesting conclusions, and
supporting decision-making. Analysis refers to breaking a whole into its separate
components for individual examination. Data analysis is a process for obtaining raw data
and converting it into information useful for decision-making by users.

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STATISTICAL EVALUATION OF MEASUREMENT DATA
Statistical Evaluation of measured data is obtained in two methods of tests as shown
in below.
Multi Sample Test: In multi sample test, repeated measured data have been
acquired by different instruments, different methods of measurement and
different observer.
Single Sample Test: measured data have been acquired by identical conditions
(same
instrument, methods and observer) at different times.
Statistical Evaluation methods will give the most probable true value of measured quantity.
The mathematical background statistical evaluation methods are Arithmetic Mean,
Deviation Average Deviation, Standard Deviation and variance.
Arithmetic Mean
The most probable value of measured reading is the arithmetic mean of the number
of reading taken. The best approximation is made when the number of readings of the same
quantity is very large. Arithmetic mean or average of measured variables X
is calculated by taking the sum of all readings and dividing by the number of reading.

The Average is given by,

Where, X= Arithmetic mean, x1, x2....... xn = Readings or variable or samples and n=

number of readings.
Deviation (Deviation from the Average value)
The Deviation is departure of the observed reading from the arithmetic mean
of the group of reading. Let the deviation of reading x1 be d1 and that of x2 be d2 etc.,
Average Deviation:
Average deviation defined as the average of the modulus (without respect to its sign)
of the individual deviations and is given by,

Where, D= Average Deviation.

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 The average deviation is used to identify precision of the instruments which is used
in making measurements. Highly precise instruments will give a low average deviation
between readings.

Standard Deviation

Standard deviation is used to analysis random errors occurred in measurement. The

standard Deviation of an infinite number of data is defined as the square root of the sum of
individual deviations squared, divided by the number of readings (n).

Variance
The variance is the mean square deviation, which is the same as S.D except Square
root. Variance is Just the squared standard deviation.

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Histogram:
When a number of Multisample observations are taken experimentally there is
a scatter of the data about some central value. For representing this results in the form
of a Histogram. A histogram is also called a frequency distribution curve.
Example: Following table3.1 shows a set of 50 readings of length measurement. The
most probable or central value of length is 100mm represented as shown.
Table 2:Sample Reading
Number of observed
Length (mm) readings
(frequency or occurrence)
99.7 1
99.8 4
99.9 12
100.0 19
100.1 10
100.2 3
100.3 1
Total number of readings =50

Fig. 11: Histogram

This histogram indicates the number of occurrence of particular value. At the
central value of 100mm is occurred 19 times and recorded to the nearest 0.1mm as shown
in figure 3.3. Here bell shape dotted line curve is called as normal or Gaussian curve.

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Measure of Dispersion from the Mean

The property which denotes the extent to which the values are dispersed about the
central value is termed as dispersion. The other name of dispersion is spread or scatter.
Measure of dispersion from central value is an indication of the degree of
consistency (precision) and regularity of the data.Example: Figure 3.4 shows the two sets
of data and curve 1 vary from x1 to x2 and curve 2 vary from x3 to x4. Curve 1 is having
smaller dispersion from central value than the curve 2. Therefore curve 1 is having greater
precision than the curve 2.

Fig. 12: Curves showing different ranges and precision index

Range

The simplest possible measure of dispersion is the range which is the difference
between greatest and least values of measured data.
Example: In figure 3.4, the range of curve1 is (x2 – x1) and range of curve 2 is (x4 - x3).
Limiting Errors (Guarantee Errors or Limits of errors):
In most of the instruments the accuracy is guaranteed to be within a certain
percentage of full scale reading. The manufacturer has to specify the deviations from the
nominal value of a particular quantity. The limits of these deviations from the specified
value are called as Limiting Errors or Guarantee Errors.
The magnitude of Limiting Error=Accuracy x Full scale reading. In general the
actual value of quantity is determined as follows.

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 Actual Value of Quantity = Nominal value ± Limiting Error

Aa = An ± δA

Where, Aa = Actual value of quantity; An = Nominal value of Quantity; ± δA= Limiting

error.
For Example, Nominal magnitude of resister is 1000Ω with a limiting error
±100Ω.
Determine the Actual magnitude of the resistance.

Actual value of quantity Aa =1000±100Ω or Aa ≥ 900Ω and Aa ≤ 1100Ω.

Therefore the manufacturer guarantees that the value of resistance of resistor lies
between 900Ω and 1100Ω.
Relative (Fractional) Limiting Error
The relative limiting error is defined as the ratio of the error to the specified
(nominal) magnitude of the quantity.
Relative Limiting Error εr=

Then limiting values calculated as follows,

We know that Aa = An ± δA = An ± εr An = An (1 ±
εr) Percentage limiting error % εr = εr x100
In limiting errors the nominal value An is taken as the true value or quantity, the
quantity which has the maximum deviation from Aa is taken as the incorrect quantity.

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Probable error
The most probable or best value of a Gaussian distribution is obtained by taking
arithmetic mean of the various values of the variety. A convenient measure of precision is
achieved by the quantity r. It is called Probable Error of P.E. It is expressed as follows,
Probable Error = P. E = r = 0.4769
h
Where r= probable error and h= constant called precision index
Gaussian distribution and Histogram are used to estimate the probable error of any
measurement.

Normal or Gaussian curve of errors

The normal or Gaussian law of errors is the basis for the major part of study of
random errors. The law of probability states the normal occurrence of deviations from
average value of an infinite number of measurements can be expressed by,

Where, x= magnitude deviation from

mean

y=Number of readings at any deviation x (the probability of occurrence of

deviation x) h= A constant called precision index

The Normal or Gaussian probability curve is shown in figure 3.5. In this curve r is the
measure of precision quantity (probable error=r). The points –r and +r are locating the
area bounded by the Gaussian curve.

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 Fig. 13 The Normal or Gaussian probability curve

Precision index x=0 then, y = h/∏. The maximum value of y depends upon h. If y is
larger, then the corresponding curve is having greater precision. Then the probable is
determined using following expression.

Instrument Error Combination

When two or more quantities are measurand, then final result is easily generalised
for many measurand by using the combination of these quantities. In many measurand each
quantity having limiting error, are combined, it is easy to compute the limiting error of
combination. The limiting error can be easily found by considering the relative increment
of the function if the final result is in the form of an algebraic
equation.

1) Sum of two Quantities (Addition)

Let us consider r1 and r2 are measurand quantities and final result is X Therefore, X= r1 + r2
The relative increment of the function is given by,

Expressing the result in terms of relative increment of the component quantities,

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If the limiting errors of quantities are represented by ±δr1 and ±δr2 , then the corresponding
relative limiting error in X is given by,

The above equation shows that the resultant limiting error is equal to the sum of the
products formed by multiplying the individual relative limiting errors by ratio of each term
to the function.
2) Difference of two Quantities (Subtraction)

Let us consider r1 and r2 are measurand quantities and final result

is X Therefore, X= r1 - r2

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Therefore the relative limiting error of product of terms is equal to the smn of relative
limiting errors of terrors.

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Calibration
Calibration is the process of checking the accuracy of instrument by comparing
the instrument reading with a standard or against a similar meter of known accuracy. So
using calibration is used to find the errors and accuracy of the measurement system or an
instrument.
Calibration is an essential process to be undertaken for each instrument and
measuring system regularly. The instruments which are actually used for measurement
work must be calibrated against some reference instruments in which is having higher
accuracy. Reference instruments must be calibrated against instrument of still higher
accuracy or against primary standard or against other standards of known accuracy.
The calibration is better carried out under the predetermined environmental
conditions. All industrial grade instruments can be checked for accuracy in the laboratory

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by using the working standard.Certification of an instrument manufactured by an industry
is undertaken by National Physical Laboratory and other authorizes laboratories where the
secondary standards and working standards are kept.
Process of Calibration
The procedure involved in calibration is called as process of calibration. Calibration
procedure involves the comparison of particular instrument with either
A primary standard,

A secondary standard with higher accuracy than the instrument to be calibrated

An instrument of known accuracy.

Procedure of calibration as follows.

Study the construction of the instrument and identify and list all the possible
inputs.
Choose, as best as one can, which of the inputs will be significant in the
application for which the instrument is to be calibrated.

Standard and secure apparatus that will allow all significant inputs to vary over
the ranges considered necessary.

By holding some input constant, varying others and recording the output, develop
the desired static input-output relations.

Theory and Principles of Calibration Methods

Calibration methods are classified into following two types,

1) Primary or Absolute method of calibration

2) Secondary or Comparison method of calibration
i. Direct comparison method of calibration
ii. Indirect comparison method of calibration

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