OIC751 & TRANSDUCER ENGINEERING

HANDOUT

UNIT-I
SCIENCE OF MEASUREMENTS AND CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

1. Draw the basic blocks of Measurement system.

2. What is meant by Calibration?

Calibration means comparing the reading or measurement of a quantity by an instrument
with that of the standard instrument and makes some adjustment in the instrument if possible.

3. What is standard? What are the different types of Standards?

A physical representation of a unit of measurement is called standard.
Classification: International standard, Primary standard, Secondary standard and Working
standard.

4. Define odds and uncertainty.

• Odds is the number of changes that a particular reading will occur when the error limit is
specified.
• Uncertainty is the range of variation of the indicated value from the true value. It
indicates the probable limits of error which the indicated value may have due to the
influence of disturbing inputs.
5. Mention the advantages of MKS system of units.
• The MKS system of units is a physical system of units that expresses any given
measurement using fundamental units of the metre, kilogram, and/or second (MKS).
• Historically the MKS system of units succeeded the CGS system of units and laid the
blueprint for the International System of Units, which now serves as the international
standard.
6. Distinguish active and passive transducers and give an example of each.

Active Transducer Passive Transducer

The quantity to be measured activates some The output is produced entirely
external power input source, which in turn by the quantity being measured.
produces the output.
Additional external energy input source is Additional external energy input
required. source is not required.
The resolution is high The resolution is less.
Complicated to design Simple to design.

7. Define transducer.
A transducer or pickup is a device that converts any physical quantity into an electrical
quantity for the purpose of measurement.

8. What are the desirable features of a transducer?

• It must be sensitive.
• High degree of accuracy should be assured.
• The transducer should have a good resolution.

9. A voltmeter reads 127.50V where as true value is 127.43 determine the static error and
static correction.
ΔA=Am−At=127.50−127.43=0.07

10. Define arithmetic mean in measurements.

When the number of readings of the same measurement is taken, the most likely value
from the set of measured variable values is the arithmetic mean of the number of
readings taken. The arithmetic mean value can be mathematically obtained as,
𝑋𝑋�=𝑋𝑋1+𝑋𝑋2+𝑋𝑋3+⋯+𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛/𝑛𝑛
Where, 𝑋𝑋�=Arithmetic mean
𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛=nth reading taken
N= Total number of readings.

11. Define Units.

The standard measure of each kind of physical quantity is called a Unit.

12. Define Absolute Unit?

An absolute system of Units is defined as a system in which the various units are all
expressed in terms of a small number of fundamental units.

13. Define primary fundamental Units. Give Example.

The fundamental units in mechanics are measure of length, mass and time. Since length,
mass and time are fundamental to most other physical quantities; they are called the primary
fundamental Units.
 14. Define Derived Units.
Units which can be expressed in terms of fundamental units with the help of physical
equations are called Derived Units.

15. Define Dimensions.

Every Quantity has a Quality wh8ich distinguishes it from all other quantities. This unique
Quality is called Dimension.

16. What are the two systems of CGS units?

i) Electromagnetic Units. ii) Electrostatic Units.

17. Define standards?

A Standard is a physical representation of a Unit of measurement.

18. State the classification of standards.

i.International Standards
ii.Primary Standards
iii. Secondary Standards
iv.Working Standards

19. What is bias in an instrument?

Applying a suitable input to a device to produce response

20. What is need for calibration?

Calibration is required to reduce the deviation from the standard value.

PART B

1. List out the classification of standards and discuss each standard with an example.
• A physical representation of a unit of measurement is called standard.
• The term standard is applied to a piece of equipment having a known measure of
physical quantity.
• For Example, the fundamental unit of mass in the SI unit is Kilogram and defined as
the mass of a cubic decimeter of water at its temperature of maximum density of 4°
C.
• The physical representation of kilogram is the platinum-iridium alloy cylinder which
is preserved at the International Bureau of weights and measures at Sevres, near
Paris.
• Standards are available for fundamental units of measurements and for some of the
derived units.
Classification of Standards:
International standards:
• It is defined on the basis of international agreement.
• They represent the units of measurements which are closest to the possible accuracy
attainable with present technological and scientific methods.
• International standards are checked and evaluated periodically against absolute
measurements in terms of fundamental units.
• The international standards are maintained at the International Bureau of weights
and measures at Sevres near Paris.
• They are not available to the ordinary user of measuring instruments for the purposes
of calibration and comparison.
Primary standards:
• These standards are maintained by National Standard Laboratory in different parts of
the world.
• Primary standards are absolute standards of high accuracy.
• In India, National Physical Laboratory at New Delhi is responsible for maintaining
primary standards for various fundamental units.
• These standards are not available for use outside the national laboratories.
• The main functions of the primary standards are the verification and calibration of
secondary standards.
Secondary standards:
• These standards are the basic reference standards available in different laboratories.
• These standards are maintained by a particular laboratory and are easily accessible to
the measurement engineer.
Working standards:
• These standards are used to check and calibrate general laboratory instruments for
their accuracy and performance.

Fundamental Standards:
• The fundamental quantities of the international measuring system for independent
standards are of four. They are mass, length, time and temperature.
• The International standard for mass is standard Kilogram, which is the mass of the
platinum-iridium cylinder preserved at the International Bureau of weights and
measures.
• The International Standard for length is standard meter, which is represented by the
distance between two lines engraved on the platinum-iridium bar preserved at
International Bureau of weights and measurements.
• The fundamental unit of time, the second has been defined as 1/86,400 of a mean
solar day.
• The solar day is measured as the time interval between the two successive transits of
the sun across a meridian of the earth.
• The current definition of standard second is the interval of time corresponding to
9,192,631,770 cycles of the atomic resonant frequency of cesium 133.
• The international standard for thermodynamic temperature is Kelvin.
• The magnitude of the Kelvin has been fixed by defining the thermodynamic
temperature of triple point of water at exactly 273.16°K.
• The triple point of water is the temperature at which the solid, liquid and vapour
phases of water are in equilibrium.
Luminous Intensity Standards:
• The primary standard of luminous intensity in a full radiator (black body of
Planckian radiator) at the temperature of solidification of Platinum (~2.042°K).
• The 'candela' is then defined as one sixtieth of luminous intensity per square meter of
one full radiator.
• Secondary standards of luminous intensity are special tungsten lamps calibrated
against basic standards.
Electrical Standards:
• The electrical measurements are based on three fundamental quantities such as
voltage, current and impedance.
• The SI units for these quantities are volt, ampere and ohm respectively.
 • International Ampere = 0.99985 Absolute Ampere.
• The voltage developed across a thin film junction which is cooled to nearly absolute
zero and irradiated with microwave energy is given by,

• The impedance in an electrical circuit is due to resistance, inductance and

capacitance.
• The S.I unit for resistance is ohm, which is defined in terms of fundamental units of
mass, length and time.
• The S.I unit for capacitance is farad. The absolute measurement of capacitance can
be carried out using Maxwell dc commutated bridge.
• The S.I unit for inductance is Henry. The inductance standard can be derived from
resistance and capacitance standards.

2. What are the calibration methods? Explain static calibration in detail.

• Calibration means comparing the reading or measurement of a quantity by an
instrument with that of the standard instrument and make some adjustment in the
instrument is possible.
• After having done all the possible adjustment in the instrument, one can get an error
table or graph for the instrument for different input values.
• Calibration of an instrument means a method to ascertain the outputs of that
instrument corresponding to a series of values of a quantity which the instrument is
to measure.
• Calibration is used:
(i) To determine the location at which scale graduation are to be placed.
(ii) To adjust the output to correct zero settings and the maximum value.

Static Calibration:
• All the static performance characteristics are obtained in one form or another by a
process called static calibration.
• In an actual situation, there may be many variables affecting an instrument.
• In static calibration all other variables except the one in focus is varied to get the
error in reading.
• All other variables are constant while carrying out the calibration.
• The input output relations obtained by this way comprise a static calibration valid
under the stated constant condition of all other inputs.
• This procedure may be repeated by varying the other inputs in turn.
• In this way a family of static input-output relations is obtained.
• The static performance characteristics are obtained by one form or another of the
process of static calibration.
  In general, static calibration refers to a situation in which all inputs except one are
kept at some constant values.
 Then the one input under study is varied over some range of constant values, which
causes the outputs to vary over some range of constant values.
 The input-output relations developed in this way comprise a static calibration valid
under the stated constant conditions of all the other inputs.
 This procedure may be repeated, by varying in turn each input considered to be of
interest and thus developing a family of static input-output relations.
Procedure for calibration
1. Examine the construction of the instrument, and identify and list all the possible
inputs.
2. Decide, which of the inputs will be significant in the application for which the
instrument is to be calibrated.
3. Select the apparatus that will allow you to vary all the significant inputs over the
ranges considered necessary. Select standards to measure each input.
4. By holding some inputs constant, varying others and recording the outputs develop
the desired static input-output relations.
3. Explain the different classifications of error in measurement system and explain how
they are corrected?
Errors in measurements
• Gross errors
• Systematic errors
• Random errors
Gross Errors:
• The gross errors mainly occur due to carelessness or lack of experience of human beings.
• These errors also occur due to incorrect adjustments of instruments. These errors cannot
be treated mathematically. These errors are also called personal errors.
Ways to minimize gross errors:
• The complete elimination of gross errors is not possible but one can minimize them by
the following ways:
• Taking great care while taking the reading, recording the reading & calculating the result
• Without depending on only one reading, at least three or more readings must be taken
preferably by different persons.
Systematic errors:
• A constant uniform deviation of the operation of an instrument is known as a
Systematic error
• The Systematic errors are mainly due to the short comings of the instrument & the
characteristics of the material use d in the instrument, such as defective or worn parts,
ageing effects, environmental effects, etc.
Types of Systematic errors:
There are three types of Systematic errors as:
 Instrumental errors
 Environmental errors
 Observational errors
Instrumental errors:
These errors can be mainly due to the following three reasons:
Short comings of instruments:
These are because of the mechanical structure of the instruments. For example friction in
the bearings of various moving parts; irregular spring tensions, reductions in due to
improper handling , hysteresis, gear backlash, stretching of spring, variations in air gap,
etc .,
Ways to minimize this error:
These errors can be avoided by the following methods:
Selecting a proper instrument and planning the proper procedure for the measurement
recognizing the effect of such errors a n d applying t h e proper correction factors
calibrating the instrument carefully against a standard
Misuse of instruments:
A good instrument if used in abnormal way gives misleading results. Poor initial
adjustment, Improper zero setting, using leads of high resistance etc., are the examples of
misusing a good instrument. Such things do not cause the permanent damage to the
instruments but definitely cause the serious errors.
Loading effects:
Loading effects due to improper way of using the instrument cause the serious errors.
The best ex ample of such loading effect error is connecting a w ell calibrated volt meter
across the two points of high resistance circuit. The same volt meter connected in a low
resistance circuit gives accurate reading.
Ways to minimize this error:
Thus, the errors due to the loading effect can be avoided by using an instrument
intelligently and correctly.
Environmental errors:
These errors are due to the conditions external to the measuring instrument. The various
factors resulting these environmental errors are temperature changes, pressure changes,
thermal emf, ageing of equipment and frequency sensitivity of an instrument.
Ways to minimize this error:
 The various methods which can be used to reduce these errors are:
 Using the proper correction factors and using the information supplied by the
manufacturer of the instrument
 Using the arrangement which will keep the surrounding conditions Constant
 Reducing the effect of dust, humidity on the components by hermetically sealing the
components in the instruments
 The effects of external fields can be minimized by using the magnetic or electro static
shields or screens
Observational errors:
These are the errors introduced by the observer.
These are many sources of observational errors such as parallax error while reading a
meter, wrong scale selection, etc.
Ways to minimize this error:
To eliminate such errors one should use the instruments with mirrors, knife edged
pointers, etc.,
 The systematic errors can be subdivided as static and dynamic errors. The static errors
are caused by the limitations of the measuring device while the dynamic errors are
caused by the instrument not responding fast enough to follow the changes in the
variable to be measured.
Random errors:
Some errors still result, though the systematic and instrumental errors are reduced or
atleast accounted for. The causes of such errors are unknown and hence the errors are
called random errors.
Ways to minimize this error:
The only way to reduce these errors is by increasing the number of observations and
using the statistical methods to obtain the best approximation of the reading.

4. Explain statistical method and how the statistical is used for analyzing error?
The experimental data is obtained in two forms of tests.
(i) Multi sample test:
In this test, repeated measurements of a given quantity are done using different test
conditions by employing different observers.
(ii) Single sample test:
A single measurement done under identical conditions excepting for time is known as a
single sample test.
The statistical methods use terms like arithmetic, mean, deviation, median, mode, etc.

Arithmetic Mean and Median

When the number of readings of the same measurement are taken, the most likely
value from the set of measured variable values is the arithmetic mean of the number of
readings taken. The arithmetic mean value can be mathematically obtained as,

Where, Arithmetic mean

nth reading taken
N= Total number of readings.
The approximation with the help of mean value is valid for all data sets if the
measurement errors are distributed equally about the zero-error line. This means the
positive errors are balanced in quantity and magnitude by the negative errors. This mean
is very close to true value, if number of readings is very large.
But when the number of readings is large, calculation of mean value is
complicated. In such a case, a median value is obtained which is a close approximation to
the arithmetic mean value. For a set of n measurements X1, X2, X3, ….. Xn written down
in the ascending order of magnitudes, the median value is given by,

Thus, for a set of eleven measurements X1, X2, X3, ….. X11, the median value is

For the even number of data values, the median value is midway between the
centre two values. For twelve measurements X1, X2, X3, ….. X12 the median value is
 given by
Deviation from Mean
The deviation tells us about the departure of a given reading from the arithmetic
mean of the data set. This is denoted as d and calculated for each reading as,

Where, di = deviation of ith reading

Xi = value of ith reading
= arithmetic mean
This departure of reading from the arithmetic mean may be positive or negative.
Average Deviation
The average deviation is defined as the sum of the absolute values of deviations
divided by the number of readings. This is also called mean deviation.

Standard Deviation
The amount by which the n measurement values are spread about the mean is
expressed by a standard deviation. It is also called root mean square deviation. The
standard deviation is defined as the square root of the sum of the individual deviations
squared, divided by the number of readings. It is denoted as σ.

In practice for small number of readings less than 20, the denominator in equation
is expressed as n-1 rather than n.

Less the value of standard deviation, more accurate is the measurement.

Variance
The variance means mean square deviation, so it is the square of the standard
deviation. It is denoted as V.

5. Discuss various classifications of transducers in detail.

• The transducer changes the physical quantity into an electrical signal. It is an electronic
device which has two main functions, i.e., sensing and transduction.
• It senses the physical quantity and then converts it into mechanical works or electrical
signals.
• The transducer is of many types, and they can be classified by the following criteria.
 By transduction used.
 as a primary and secondary transducer
 as a passive and active transducer
 as analogue and digital transducer
 as the transducer and inverse transducer
1. Classification based on the Principle of Transduction
The transducer is classified by the transduction medium. The transduction medium may
be resistive, inductive or capacitive depends on the conversion process that how input
transducer converts the input signal into resistance, inductance and capacitance
respectively.
2. Primary and Secondary Transducer
Primary Transducer – The transducer consists the mechanical as well as the electrical
devices. The mechanical devices of the transducer change the physical input quantities
into a mechanical signal. This mechanical device is known as the primary transducers.
Secondary Transducer – The secondary transducer converts the mechanical signal into
an electrical signal. The magnitude of the output signal depends on the input mechanical
signal.
3. Passive and Active Transducer
The transducer is classified as the active and passive transducer.
Passive Transducer – The transducer which requires the power from an external supply
source is known as the passive transducer. They are also known as the external power
transducer. The capacitive, resistive and inductive transducers are the example of the
passive transducer.
Active Transducer – The transducer which does not require the external power source is
known as the active transducer. Such type of transducer develops theirs owns voltage or
current, hence known as a self-generating transducer. The output signal is obtained from
the physical input quantity.
4. Analog and Digital Transducer
The transducer can also be classified by their output signals. The output signal of the
transducer may be continuous or discrete.
Analog Transducer – The Analog transducer changes the input quantity into a
continuous function. The strain gauge, L.V.D.T, thermocouple, thermistor are the
examples of the analogue transducer.
Digital Transducer – These transducers convert an input quantity into a digital signal or
in the form of the pulse. The digital signals work on high or low power.
5. Transducer and Inverse Transducer
Transducer – The device which converts the non-electrical quantity into an electric
quantity is known as the transducer.
Inverse Transducer – The transducer which converts the electric quantity into a physical
quantity, such type of transducers is known as the inverse transducer. The transducer has
high electrical input and low non-electrical output.
 UNIT-II
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSDUCERS

1. Define precision and accuracy.

Accuracy is the closeness to true value where as precision is the closeness amongst the
readings. Precision is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly
measured.

2. Give the input output relationship of zero-order transducer.

y(t) = kr(t)
y(t)output
r(t)input
kstatic sensitivity

3. Define Damping ratio.

4. Differentiate static and dynamic characteristics of an instrument.

Static characteristics Dynamic characteristics
The set of criteria defined for the
The set of criteria defined based on
instruments, which are used to
dynamic differential equations.
measure the quantities.
Defined for the instruments which Defined for the instruments which
measure the quantities which do not measure the quantities which vary
vary with time. with time.
Various static characteristics are
Various dynamic characteristics are
accuracy, precision, error, sensitivity,
speed of response, fidelity, lag and
threshold, reproducibility, zero drift,
dynamic error.
stability and linearity.

5. Define hysteresis.
When the input to a transducer which is initially at rest is increased from zero to full scale
and then decreased back to zero, there may be two output values for the same input.
Hysteresis effects can be minimized by taking readings corresponding to ascending and
descending values of the input and then taking their arithmetic average.

6. Define the terms “Precision”.

Precision: It is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurement. i.e., given a
fixed value of a quantity, precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within
group of measurements. The term “precise” means clearly or sharply defined.
7. Define the terms “Resolution”.
Resolution :If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary (non-zero) input
value, it will again be found that output does not change at all until a certain
increment is exceeded. This increment is called Resolution. (or) It is defined as
the smallest measurable input change.

8. Define Static sensitivity.

It is the ratio of the magnitude of the output signal or response to the magnitude of the
input signal or the quantity being measured.

9. How is linearity of a transducer specified?

Linearity is a measure of the maximum deviation of the plotted transducer response
from a specified straight line. Higher the meter resistance better will be the linearity on
other hand linearity can be improved by providing low pot resistance but it will affects
the sensitivity of the measurement

10. State any two dynamic characteristics of transducers.

Speed of response, Measuring lag, Fidelity, Dynamic Error

11. Name the dynamic characteristic

Speed of response, Measuring lag , Fidelity, Dynamic Error

12. Define Speed of response.

It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to changes in the
measured quantity

13. Define Dynamic Error.

It is the difference between the true value of the quantity (under
measurement) changing with time and the value indicated by the measurement system
if no static error is assumed. It is also called Measurement Error

14. Give an example of first order transducer.

Thermal System, Liquid level System, A series RC circuit

15. What are the basic requirements of a transducer?

Linearity, Ruggedness, Repeatability, Convenient instrumentation, High stability and
reliability, Dynamic response, Excellent mechanical characteristics

16. Give an example for a zero order system.

Linear Potentiometer

17. Give an example of first order transducer.

Thermal System, Liquid level System, A series RC circuit

18. Define True value

It may be defined as the average of an infinite number of measured values when the
average deviation due to the various contributing factors tends to zero.
 19. Define Reproducibility
It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be
repeatedly measured. It is specified in terms of scale readings over a given period of time.

20. Define Zero Drift.

If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set, or due to undue
warming up of electronic tube circuits, Zero drift sets in. This can be prevented by Zero
setting.

PART-B

1. Discuss zero order transducer for step input and random input.
The input output relationship of a zero-order transducer is given by

The Laplace transfer function of the order transducer is given by,

Step response of Zero order transducer:

Response of Zero order transducer for random input:

2. Derive the transfer function of the first order transducer and draw the response for
impulse signal.

Impulse Response of first order transducer:

3. Derive the response of first order transducer for step signal and ramp signal.
4. Derive the response of second order transducer for impulse signal and step input.

Impulse response of Second order system Step response of Second order system
5. Discuss all the static characteristics of the transducer to measure the performance of the
transducer for giving meaningful description of quality of measurement.
Static Characteristics:
 All the static performance characteristics are obtained by one form or another
form of a process called calibration.
 The main characteristics are:
Accuracy, Sensitivity, Resolution, Precision, Drift, Static error, Dead Zone, etc.,
Accuracy: It is the measure of closeness with which an instrument measures the true value
of a quantity.
Precision: It is measure of the consistency or repeatability of a series of measurements. A
precise instrument can be very inaccurate.
Sensitivity: It is a measure of the change in reading of an instrument for a given change in
measured quantity
Resolution: It is the smallest change in measured quantity that will produce a deductible
change in the instrument reading.
Error: Error is the deviation from the true value of the measured quantity. Represented as
absolute quantity or as a percentage absolute error is defined as the difference between the
expected value of a quantity and a measured value.
absolute error =Xe-Xm
Xe-expected value
Xm-measured value
Range: Describes the limits of magnitude over which quantity may be measured. Ex-
ammeter reads 0-1mA
Span: Is the algebraic difference between the upper and lower limits of the instrument
range.(ex) -10mA to +mA galvanometer span is 20mA
Dead zone: It is the largest change in input quantity for which there is no change in output.
Threshold: If the input into the instrument is increased very gradually from zero, there will
be some minimum value below which no output change can be detected. This minimum
value defines the threshold of the instrument.
Significant figures: The numerical results of a measurement, only those figures that are
meaningful should be recorded. Since the number of significant figures indicates the
precision of instrument.
6. Discuss mathematical model of transducer with neat sketch.
 A transducer is a measurement system which is physical system and it is defined as
collection of physical object connected together to serve a desired objective.
 It is used to measure, analyze and control electrical, thermal, fluidic and other physical
quantities.
 The ability to analyze and precision of the results is depending on the characteristics of
the system which determine the performance.
 A mathematical model is a mathematical representation of a physical model and is
achieved from the latter by utilizing the physical laws.
 The model based upon idealized assumptions made keeping in view the specific problem
under study and the accuracies desired is called a physical model, after the model of a
system is obtained, the dynamic response of the system is studied for different varying
inputs.
 UNIT-III
VARIABLE RESISTANCE TRANSDUCERS

1. What is the Principle of Stain Gauge?

• If a metal conductor is stretched (or) compressed, its resistance changes on account of
the fact that both length and diameter of conductor change.
• Also there is a change in the values of resistivity of the conductor when it is strained
and this property is called piezo resistive effect.
• Therefore resistance strain gauges are also known as piezo resistive gauges.
• The strain gauges are used for measurement of strain and associated stress in
experimental stress analysis.
2. Define Gauge Factor.
The gauge factor is unit resistance change per unit strain.
3. What are the characteristics of Thermistors?
• Resistance – Temperature Characteristics
 • Voltage – Current Characteristics
• Current – Time Characteristics
4. Define absolute humidity and relative humidity.
Absolute Humidity is the ratio of water vapor present per unit volume
Relative humidity is the ratio of water vapor pressure actually present to water vapor
pressure required for saturation at a given temperature. The ratio is expressed in percent.
5. How to minimize null voltage in LVDT?
By choosing a core material which as less retentivity property
6. What is the basic principle of humidity sensors?
• Humidity sensors work by detecting changes that alter electrical currents or
temperature in the air
7. What is resistance thermometer?
• Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), are
sensors used to measure temperature.
• The RTD wire is a pure material, typically platinum, nickel, or copper.
• The material has an accurate resistance/temperature relationship which is used to
provide an indication of temperature
8. Write some applications of RTD.
• RTD sensor is used in automotive to measure the engine temperature, an oil level
sensor, intake air temperature sensors.
• RTD is used in power electronics, computer, consumer electronics, food handling
and processing, industrial electronics, medical electronics, military, and
aerospace.
9. Briefly explain loading effect of resistive potentiometers.
A transducer used in any measurement normally extracts some energy from the
measuring medium and thereby disturbs the value of the measured quantity. This
property is known as the loading effect of the transducer. It gives a measure of its
disturbance and the measuring quantity. The loading effect is usually expressed in
terms of input impedance and stiffness.

10. What are the system variables that can be transduced by resistance transducer?
System variables like displacement, acceleration, vibration, force, pressure, humidity,
sound level, light intensity, etc can be transduced by resistance transducer.
11. What is linearity? How it is improved in resistance potentiometer.
Linearity is a measure of the maximum deviation of the plotted transducer response from
a specified straight line. Higher the meter resistance better will be the linearity. on other
hand linearity can be improved by providing low pot resistance but it will affects the
sensitivity of the measurement.

12. What is sensitivity? Explain the sensitivity in potentiometer.

Sensitivity is defined as the slope of the static calibration curve or it is defined as the
change in the output for a change in the input.

13. Compare the gauge factors of metal wire semiconductor strain gauges.
Has high gauge factor of about + 130. Which allows for the measurement of very small
strains of the order of 0.001 micro strains? High sensitivity. Very good degree of
Accuracy.

14. What is a load cell?

Load cell is an electromechanical device. It is a primary transducer because it cannot
measure the load applied without a strain gauge. Here strain gauge acts as a secondary
transducer. Strain gauges are made up of homogenous materials like steel alloys.

15. Mention the different types of strain gauges used.

The two types of strain gauges are metallic and semiconductor. Further metallic strain gauges
are divided into bonded and unbonded strain gauges.

16. How force is measured with strain gauge load cell?

Load cells convert weight or force into electrical outputs which are provided by the
strain gauges, these outputs can be connected to various measuring instruments for
indicating, recording and controlling the weight or force.

17. State the principle of the strain gauge.

If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed ,its resistance changes on account of the
fact that both length and diameter of conductor change .Also there is a change in the value
of resistivity of the conductor when it is strained and this property is called Piezo-resistive
effect.

18. What is lead wire compensation in RTD?

The leads from thermometer to the bridge may introduce an error due to change of their
resistance produced by temperature changes. Slight modification of wheat stone bridge,
such as double slide wire bridge, eliminates this problem.

19. Why resistive transducers are called so?

The basic principle is R = l
of /a, where ‘
’is
the wire, ‘l’ is the length of the wire and ‘a’ is the area of cross section of wire. If ‘l’ or
‘a’ varies naturally the resistance is going to vary. As the output is found with the
variation of resistance, it is called as resistive transducer.

20. Mention few applications of thermistors.

Measurement of power at high frequencies
Measurement of thermal conductivity
Measurement of level, flow and pressure of liquids
Measurement of composition of gases
 PART-B

1. Describe the construction of various types of strain gauge and working principle
with neat diagram. Mention their advantages and disadvantages.

• Wire strain gauge

• Foil Strain gauge
• Thin film strain gauge
• Semiconductor strain gauge
Wire Strain Gauges:
a. Unbounded wire strain Gauge
b. Bonded wire strain gauge
Unbounded resistance wire strain gauge
o A wire stretched between two points in an insulating medium such as air.
o The diameter of wire is about 25μm
o The wire is kept under tension and connected to bridge circuit.
o When an external load is applied the resistance changes causing unbalance in the
circuit resulting output voltage proportional to strain is created.
o The displacement of 50μm can be detected

Bonded Resistance wire strain gauge

• A fine wire element about 25μm diameter is looped back and forth on a base which is
usually cemented to the member undergoing stress.
Foil strain gauge
• The class of strain gauge is an extension of the resistance wire strain gauge.The strain is
sensed with the help of metal foil.
• The metals and alloys for the foil and wire are nichrome, constantan, iso-elastic, nickel
and platium.
• Foil gauges have a much greater dissipation capacity then the wire wound gauges, on
account of their large surface area of the same volume.
• Used for high temperature ranges.

Semiconductor strain Gauge

• Consists of a strain material and leads that are placed in a protective box.
• Semiconductor wafers which have a thickness of 0.05mm are used.
• They are boned on suitable insulating substrates such as teflon
• Gold leads are generally used for making contacts.
• Available for both +ve and –ve gauge factors p- and n-types silicon respectively

2. Explain the principle of operation, construction details and applications of Hot-wire

anemometer.

• Hot wire anemometers are hot wire resistance transducers which are used for
measurement of flow rates of fluids.
• In hot wire anemometers resistive wire is used as a basic sensor, which is heated initially
by passing an electric current.
• Hot wire anemometers are commonly used in two different modes
a) Constant current type
b) Constant temperature type
 3. Describe the principle of operation, construction details of resistance thermometers.
List out the different metals used for resistance thermometer construction with their
range of temperature measurement.

• The resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is changed. This

property is utilized for measurement of temperature.
• The variation of resistance R with temperature T can be represented by the following
relationship
R=R0 (1+α1T+ α2T2+……….+ αnTn+………)

The requirements of a conductor material to be used in RTDs are,

Industrial Platinum Resistance Thermometer

 Construction of Resistance Thermometer

4. Illustrate the procedure for measuring humidity using hair hygrometer with neat
sketch.

Humidity
• Humidity is the measure of water vapour present in a gas. It is usually measured as
absolute humidity, relative humidity or dew point temperature.
 Absolute Humidity
• It is the mass of water vapour present per unit volume

W= mv/ma
Relative Humidity
• It is the ratio of water vapour pressure actually present to water vapour pressure required
for saturation at a given temperature. The ratio is expressed in percent. Relative humidity
is always dependent upon temperature.
Φ=Mv/Msat = Pv/Pg

5. Explain the construction, working and signal conditioning circuits of resistance

thermometers with temperature compensation.

• Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), are

sensors used to measure temperature.
• Many RTD elements consist of a length of fine wire wrapped around a ceramic or
glass core but other constructions are also used.
• The RTD wire is a pure material, typically platinum, nickel, or copper.
• The material has an accurate resistance/temperature relationship which is used to
provide an indication of temperature.
• As RTD elements are fragile, they are often housed in protective probes.
 Two – wire configuration

Three wire configuration

6. Explain the operation of piezoresistive sensor and express piezoresistivity in terms of

gauge factor.

• Piezoresistive strain gauges are among the most common types of pressure sensors.
• They use the change in electrical resistance of a material when stretched to measure
the pressure.
• They can be used for absolute, gauge, relative and differential pressure
measurement, in both high- and low-pressure applications.
• Gauge factor of a piezoresistive sensor with (Δρ/ρ)/ε its resistivity (ρ: Ohm × m)
variation in function of its relative lengthening and ν the Poisson's ratio of the
material.
• For PVA, Poisson's ratio is equal to 0.44. For our strain gauge, as PVA is
fundamentally dominant, Poisson's ratio is equal to 0.44.
Material Polarizations with Stress:

Piezo electric material calculated by,

7. Explain the measurement of humidity with the help of humidity sensor.

• Humidity Sensors are very important devices that help in measuring the
environmental humidity.
• Technically, the device used to measure the humidity of the atmosphere is called
Hygrometer.
• There are other types of Humidity Sensors or Hygrometers like Optical Hygrometer,
Oscillating Hygrometer and Gravimetric Hygrometer.

Humidity
• Humidity is the measure of water vapour present in a gas. It is usually measured as
absolute humidity, relative humidity or dew point temperature.

Absolute Humidity
 • It is the mass of water vapour present per unit volume
W= mv/ma
Relative Humidity
• It is the ratio of water vapour pressure actually present to water vapour pressure
required for saturation at a given temperature. The ratio is expressed in percent.
Relative humidity is always dependent upon temperature.
Φ=Mv/Msat = Pv/Pg

8. Explain the principle of operation and construction details of capacitive transducer.

• The working principle of a capacitive transducer is variable capacitance.

• As per its structure, these are having two parallel metal pates which are maintaining
the distance between them.
• In between them, dielectric medium (such as air) can be filled.
• Transducers are categorized into two types such as active transducers and passive
transducers. Active transducers are one kind of transducers which do not require any
kind of power for their operation.
• Whereas passive transducer requires an external power for their operation in the
energy conversion process
• These transducers have come under passive transducers.
• The definition of the capacitive transducer is to measure the displacement (how much
distance it covers), pressure and other several physical quantities, these transducers
are preferred.
• In these transducers, the capacitance between the plates is varied because of the
distance between the plates, overlapping of plates, due to dielectric medium change,
etc.
• The capacitance of the variable capacitor can be measured by this formula.

• Capacitive-transducer-formula

• C indicates the capacitance of the variable capacitance

• εo indicates the permittivity of free space
• εr indicates the relative permittivity
• A indicates the area of the plates
• D indicates the distance between the plates
 UNIT-IV

VARIABLE INDUCTANCE AND VARIABLE CAPACITANCE TRANSDUCERS

1. A strain gauge has a resistance of 120Ω unstrained and gauge factor is -12. What is the
resistance value if the strain is 1%?
∆R = -12x120x0.01=-144.72Ω
2. What is the principle of EI pickup transducer?
The inductive transducers work on the principle that if a conducting plate is placed. Near
a coil carrying alternating current, eddy currents are produced in the on ducting plate. The
conducting plate act as a short circuited secondary winding of a transformer. The eddy
currents flowing in the plate produce a magnetic field of their own which acts against the
magnetic field produced by the coil. This results in reduction of flux and thus the
inductance, of the coil is reduced. The nearer is the plate to the coil, the higher are the
eddy currents and thus higher is, the reduction in the inductance of the coil. Thus
inducatance of the coil alters with variation of distance- between the plate and the coil.
3. What is the purpose of capacitor microphone?
The capacitive microphone is a modified version of the capacitive pressure transducer in
which the vibratory displacement of the membrane due to pressure variation result in
variation of the capacitance.
4. What is then need of demodulator in Variable Reluctance Accelerometer?
To detect motion on both sides of zero, a fairly involved phase-sensitive demodulator
would be required. To eliminate the demodulator the iron core and springs were adjusted
so that core was offset to one side by an amount equal to the spring deflection
corresponding to 4g acceleration.
5. What is the basic principle of inductance potentiometer?
Transducers based on the variation of inductance are another group of importance devices
used in many applications. In these transducers self inductance or the mutual of a couple
of coils is changed when the quantity to be measured is varied.
6. Mention three principles of inductive transducer.

• Inductive transducers works on the principle of change in self-inductance of one

coil, change in mutual inductance of two-coils and eddy current production.
 • The displacement can be measured directly in terms of inductance by changing
any of the above parameters (turns, form factor, permeability).
7. List the advantages and disadvantages of capacitive transducers.

Advantages:
• The sensitivity of capacitive transducer is high.
• The capacitive transducer is useful for small system.
• It has good frequency response.
• It requires small power to operate.
• The loading effect is less due to high input impedance.
Disadvantages:
• The capacitive transducers are temperature sensitive.
• It gives non linear behavior.
• The output impedance depends upon the frequency used.
• The capacitance may get changed by dust particle and moisture which produce
error.

8. Define capacitive microphone.

• Microphone consisting of a capacitor with one plate fixed and the other
forming the diaphragm moved by sound waves

9. Mention any four applications of LVDT.

• The applications of LVDTs mainly include automation, power turbines, aircraft,
hydraulics, nuclear reactors, satellites, and many more.
• These types of transducers contain low physical phenomena and outstanding repetition

10. State the principle of induction potentiometer.

In this POT the primary winding is excited with alternating current, this induces a
voltage into the secondary. The amplitude of this output voltage varies with the mutual
inductance between the two coils.

11. What is principle of reluctance pickup?

The unit consists of a small permanent magnet with a coil wound round it. This
magnetic pick up is placed near a metallic toothed rotor whose speed is to be measured.
As the shaft rotates, the teeth pass in front of the pick-up and produce a change in the
reluctance of the magnetic circuit. The expands are collapses and a voltage is
induced in the coil. The frequency of the pulses depends upon the number of teeth on
the wheel and its speed of rotation.

12. What is null position in LVDT?

The position of the magnetic core determines the flux linkages with each winding.
When the core is placed centrally, equal but opposite EMFs are induced in the
secondary windings and zero output is recorded. This is termed as the balance point or
null position.
13. What is an LVDT?
One of the most useful of the variable inductance transducers is the linear variable
differential transformer. The device has one primary and two secondary windings with
the magnetic core free to move inside the coils.

14. What is the normal linear range of a LVDT?

Thus, upon displacement of the armature the result will be a voltage rise in one secondary
and a decrease in the other. The asymmetry in the core position thus produces a
differential voltage.

15. List the applications of LVDT.

Used to measure the Force , Displacement, Weight , Pressure etc.,

16. What is the principle of liquid level measurement using capacitive transducer?
When the liquid level rises, the liquid replaces the air. So, the overall variation of
dielectric constant changes the capacitance value. By measuring the capacitance value,
the level can be calculated.

17. What is a microphone?

It is a capacitive sensor which used to measure sound intensity.

18. What are the types of microphone?

Carbon microphone, Capacitive microphone, Dynamic microphone, Inductive
microphone Piezoelectric microphone.

19. How the capacitive transducer is use to measure humidity?

Used for measurement of humidity in gases since the dielectric constant of gases
changes with change in humidity

20. Under which principle variable Inductance Transducer works?

i) Change of self Inductance
ii) Change of mutual inductance.
iii) Production of Eddy currents

PART-B

1. What are the types of capacitive transducer? Explain in detail about capacitive
thickness transducer and capacitive displacement transducer.

• A capacitive transducer is a passive transducer that works on the principle of variable

capacitances. It is used to measure physical quantities such as displacement, pressure, etc.
• The capacitance between these two plates can be expressed as
C= εA/d
• Where ϵ is the permittivity of the medium, A is the area of the plates and d is the
distance between two plates.
• The capacitance of the transducer is measured using the bridge circuit. The output
impedance of the transducer is given by
Xc = 1/2πfc
• Where C is the capacitance and f is the frequency of excitation. So a capacitive
transducer can be used to measure the mechanical vibrations.
• Capacitive displacement sensors "are non-contact devices capable of high-resolution
measurement of the position and/or change of position of any conductive target".
• They are also able to measure the thickness or density of non-conductive materials.
• Capacitive displacement sensors are used in a wide variety of applications including
semiconductor processing, assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives,
precision thickness measurements, machine tool metrology and assembly line testing.
• These types of sensors can be found in machining and manufacturing facilities around the
world.

2. Describe in detail about principle of operation, construction details, characteristics and

applications of LVDT.

• An LVDT (linear variable differential transformer is an electromechanical sensor used to

convert mechanical motion or vibrations, specifically rectilinear motion, into a variable
electrical current, voltage or electric signals, and the reverse.
• LVDT Sensor devices are sensitive to electromagnetic interference.
• Reduction of electrical resistance can be improved with shorter connection cables to
eliminate significant errors.
• A linear displacement transducer requires three to four connection wires for power supply
and output signal delivery.
• Physically, the LVDT construction is a hollow metallic cylinder in which a shaft of
smaller diameter moves freely back and forth along the cylinder’s long axis.
• The shaft, or pushrod, ends in a magnetically conductive core which must be within the
cylinder, or coil assembly, when the device is operating.
• In common practice, the pushrod is physically attached to the moveable object whose
position is to be determined (the measurand), while the coil assembly is attached to a
fixed reference point. Movement of the measurand moves the core within the coil
assembly; this motion is measured electrically.
Conversion Principles:
• Electromagnetic
• Magneto electric
• Electrostatic

Types:
• Captive Armatures
• Unguided Armatures
• Force-Extended Armatures

• A linear displacement transducer is essentially a miniature transformer having one

primary winding, two symmetrically wound secondary coils, and an armature core that is
free to move along its linear axis in precision bearing guides.
• A push rod connects the monitored component to the armature core, such that the
displacement of that component moves the core off-center.
• A typical LVDT sensor has three solenoid coils lined end-to-end, surrounding the tube.
• Primary coil is in the center and secondary coils are top and bottom.
• The object of position measurement is attached to the cylindrical ferromatic core, and
slides along the axis of the tube.
• Alternating current drives the primary coil causing voltage induced in the two secondary
coils proportionate to the length of the linking core. Range of frequency is usually from 1
to 10 kHz.
• Movement of the core triggers the linkage from primary to both the secondary coils,
which changes the induced voltages.
• Top and bottom secondary output voltage differential is the movement from calibrated
zero phase. Using a synchronous detector reads a signed output voltage that relates to the
displacement.
• LVDT linear transducers can be up to several inches long, working as an absolute
position sensor which is repeatable and reproducible. Other actions or movements will
not alter measurement accuracy.
• The LVDT is also highly reliable because the sliding core does not touch the inside of the
tube, and allows the sensor to be in a completely sealed environment.
• The LVDT is an ac device which means there is a need for electronics to translate its
output into a useful dc signal.
• There are two hybrid modules that are the foundation for LVDT Signal Processing; an
Oscillator and a Demodulator.

3. Describe the principle of operation, construction and characteristics of variable reluctance

pressure transducers.
• Externally energized transducer, called the variable-reluctance type, is one in which the
magnetic circuit is broken by an air gap.
• The mechanical movement to be measured is used to change this air gap, thus changing
the reluctance, or opposition, to the production of a magnetic field in the circuit.
• The variable reluctance sensor consists of a wire wrapped around a permanent magnet.
• When the ferromagnetic material such as a flywheel tooth passes the sensor the magnetic
field is disrupted.
• Due to this an AC voltage is generated, the amplitude and frequency of which depends on
the speed of the flywheel.
• DVRT (Differential Variable Reluctance Transducer) and LVDT (Linear Variable
Differential Transformer) combined with their signal conditioners convert a linear
displacement into a linear variable electrical output signal.
• The displacement is detected by the movement of a core within the coils inside of the
sensor

4. Explain the operation of capacitor microphone with its frequency response.

• As the name implies, the condenser microphone or capacitor microphone uses a

capacitance that varies in line with the incoming signal to generate the varying output
voltage.
• The name condenser microphone still persists. The microphone was invented in the days
when capacitors were still called condensers.
• As the name implies the condenser or capacitor microphone relies on changes in
capacitance for its operation.
• The actual condenser microphone element consists of a thin membrane in close proximity
to a solid metal plate.
• The membrane acts as the diaphragm and is electrically conductive.
• Older microphones used a thin metal foil but more modern types may use a plastic coated
with gold or aluminum.
• One common type is gold-sputtered Mylar.
• This construction creates a capacitor which may be in the region of 10 to 50pF.
• For the condenser microphone to operate it requires a DC voltage to be applied.
• This can be supplied by the battery shown, but for high end microphones it may also be
supplied along the coaxial line to the microphone – this is known as phantom power.
• The most common voltage this is 48volts.

• This voltage not only provides the voltage needed for the microphone to operate
electrically but also pulls the diaphragm taut.
 • When sound waves hit the microphone, the diaphragm moves backwards and forwards
• This changes the level of capacitance and as a result small voltage changes are seen
across a high load resistor connected across the microphone element.
• As the impedance of the condenser microphone is very high, a buffer amplifier is needed.
• This has the effect of converting the signal so that it has much lower impedance.
• This amplifier is also powered either from the internal battery or from the phantom power
line.

5. Write short notes on the following.

i) Induction Potentiometer
The potentiometer is constituted by a synchro-resolver and two associated circuits, an a.c.
voltage supply circuit of one stator winding incorporating an oscillator whose amplitude
is controlled by the supply voltage and an output circuit connected to the rotor which
incorporates a demodulator stage.
The principle of a potentiometer is that the potential dropped across a segment of a wire
of uniform cross-section carrying a constant current is directly proportional to its length.
The potentiometer is a simple device used to measure the electrical potentials (or
compare the e.m.f of a cell).
ii) Inductive Thickness transducer
Inductive transducers work on the principle of inductance change due to any appreciable
change in the quantity to be measured i.e. measured.

• For example, LVDT, a kind of inductive transducers, measures displacement in

terms of voltage difference between its two secondary voltages.
 • Inductive Transducer is the self-generating type otherwise the passive type
transducer.
• The first type like self-generating uses the principle of fundamental electrical
generator.
• The electric generator principle is when a motion among a conductor as well as
magnetic field induces a voltage within the conductor.
• The motion among the conductor and the field can be supplied by transforms in
the measured.
• An inductive transducer (electromechanical) is an electrical device used to
convert physical motion into modifying within inductance.
• This article discusses what an Inductive Transducer, types of transducer, working
principle, and its applications.

UNIT-V
OTHER TRANSDUCERS

1. What are the ways to do micromachining?

• Bulk micromachining
• Surface micromachining
• LIGA

2. Define piezoelectric effect.

A piezo electric material is one in which an electric potential appears across certain
surfaces of a crystal if the dimensions of the crystal are changed by the application of the
mechanical force.

3. Draw the diagram of basic optical fiber sensor system.

4. What is MEMS?
Microelectromechanical system is a technology of microscopic devices, particularly those
with moving devices.
Advantages of MEMS devices include small size, light weight, low power consumption
and high functionality compared to conventional devices.
 5. Expand SQUID sensors and in what effect it operates.
A ring of superconducting material incorporating two Josephson Junctions is called the
Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID). The SQUID is the most
sensitive magnetic field detector in existence, and can also serve as radiofrequency
detector.

6. State the desirable properties of piezoelectric material.

The desirable properties of piezoelectric material are high stability, high output
sensitivity, high output insensitivity to temperature and humidity and the ability to be
formed into most desirable shape.

7. Give some application of Piezo Electric Transducer

i Used in measurement of Temperature, Pressure, Level and displacement
ii. Used to measure acceleration, Velocity

8. Name few Digital Transducer

i. Tachometer Transducers ii. Incremental Transducers iii Absolute Transducers

9. Give some application of Digital Transducer

i. Used to measure linear displacement
ii. Used to measure Angular displacement

10. What are smart sensors? Give an example.

A smart sensor is a device used for direct computation of the physical magnitude measured
at the sensor level instead of using calibration coefficients at the level of central computer.
Smart sensor essentially composed of transducers, conditioners, an appropriate power
supply, an inner computing capability, a communication interface for digital information and
identification.

11. What does the smart sensor consist?

A smart sensor will be essentially composed of transducers, conditioners, an appropriate
power supply, an inner computing capability, a communication interface for digital
information and identification.

12. List the basic characteristics of a smart sensor.

The basic characteristics of a smart sensor are direct computation of the physical magnitude
measured at the sensor level instead of using calibration coefficients at the level of central
computer. A digital instead of an analog signal Identification of the sensor, not just
transmission to, but communication with the network or the central computer. Integration of
all the additional functions into the transmitter part, thus relieving the central computer of the
corresponding tasks Possibilities of self-diagnosis for proper operation and preparation of
the data for maintenance assistance.

13. List the main advantage of smart sensor

The advantage of the smart sensors would be probably their higher credibility in
measurements.
14. Explain the working principle of fibre-optic transducers.
The fibre optic probe used for transducing displacement into electrical signal consists of a
bundle of several hundred optical fibers, each with a diameter of 10’s of micrometer in
diameter. The fiber extends upto 1 metre in length. In the bundle there are two sets of fibers,
one set for transmitting, another set for receiving. The transmitting group is exposed to a
light source and hence carries light to the tip of the fibre bundle.

15. List the uses of piezoelectric materials

• Quartz is the most stable; however its output is low. On the other hand Rochelle
provides highest output but can be worked over a limited humidity range and has to
protected against moisture the highest temperature is limited to 45c.because of its
stability ,Quartz is used for stabilising electronic oscillators . The crystal is used as
frequency controller.
• Piezo electric is used for dynamic measurements like surface roughness, and in
accelerometers and vibration pickups.
• Barium titanate has the advantage of being shaped to various requirements. It has
higher dielectric constant. Ultrasonic sonic generator elements use barium Titanate.
They are also used in industrial cleaning apparatus and also in underwater detection
system like sonar.

17. Mention two advantages of smart transducers over conventional transducers.

• Not just transmission to, but communication with the network or the central computer.
• Integration of all the additional functions into the transmitter part, thus relieving the central
computer of the corresponding tasks
• Possibilities of self-diagnosis for proper operation and preparation of the data for
maintenance assistance.
18. Name the types of fibre commonly used.
1. Mono mode
2. Multimode
3. Birefringent
4. Coated

19. List the disadvantages of IC sensor.

1. Temp rating is 0<200◦c
2. Power supply required.
3. Slow response
4. Self heating

20. Define optical fibre.

An optical fibre is a hair line thin strand of glass (or) glass like material having 2 (or) more
layers. The refractive indices of the different layer will be reducing from inner core to outer
layer. Because if reducing refractive indices of inter layers any light passed thro’ the inner core
can’t go out of the fiber.
 PART-B

1. Discuss in detail the significance, principle of working and types of smart sensors.

• A sensor node that combines the sensing and the computing abilities which
are connection through the wireless communications. The network of such
sensor nodes provides data as well as performing and controlling various
tasks and functions
• Sensor are used to monitor different parameters related to lighting conditions,
noise levels, humanity, soil makeup, mechanical stress levels, presence or
absence of certain types of objects and other properties.

Applications:
• Flood and water level monitoring system
• Environmental Monitoring system
• Traffic Monitoring and controlling system
• Energy saving in artificial lighting
• Remote system monitoring and equipment fault diagnostics
• Industrial Application

2. Describe the various process involved in Micro Electro Mechanical Systems.

• Microelectromechanical system is a technology of microscopic devices,
particularly those with moving devices.
• It is made of up of components of the range of microscopic range. It became
practical once they could be fabricated using modified semiconductors
• They also work in the nanometer scale as NEMS.
• At first it was based on silicon alone.
• It is made of up of components of the range of microscopic range.
• It became practical once they could be fabricated using modified semiconductors.
 • Analog devices are nowadays built by the help of these mems.
• MEMS is actually a type of transducer.
• Advantages of MEMS devices include small size, light weight, low power
consumption and high functionality compared to conventional devices.
• MEMS technology offers cost reduction due to batch processing techniques
similar to semiconductor Integrated Circuit (IC) manufacturing.
• The market value for the MEMS industry is around $11 billion.
Applications:
• It is used in mechanical domain such as Pressure sensors, Accelerometers,
Gyroscopes and in Optical MEMs such as Micromirrors
• Its main application proved advantageous in the field of bio medical instrumentation.
• In automotive system like Airbags, active suspension.
• Earthquake detection and Gas shutoff and shock and Tilt Sensing.

Advantages:
• Very small size, mass, volume
• Very low power consumption
• Low cost
• Easy to integrate into systems or modify
• Small thermal constant
• Can be highly resistant to vibration, shock and radiation
• Batch fabricated in large arrays.
• Improved thermal expansion tolerance.
3. Explain the operation of digital transducers and its classification in detail.
In modern PC based automation systems, many times it is required to connect
the output of the transducers to the computer. But for this connectivity, the
output of the transducer must be in digital form. But in practice, very few
transducers can provide a digital output. In many applications, the
transducers which provide analog signals are used. Then to connect the
output of such transducers to computers, we must convert the analog signal to
the digital signal using ADC and then only the computer can handle this
digital data.
The available digital transducers are in the form of linear or rotary
displacement transducers. The digital transducers are commonly known as
encoders. They are also called digitiser as they convert continuous analog
signal into binary or decimal data.
Linear Encoder
The principle of the linear encoder is based on the ON or OFF switching of
multiple tracks. Each slot represents a bit either in BCD or binary format. The
format may be natural binary or Gray code. The tracks on sector are either
 opaque or transparent.
Rotary Encoders
These are also called as shaft encoders. This rotary encoder is used for
measurement of the angular position. In rotary encoders, the sensing is
done with large number of gear teeth.

4. Explain in detail the various steps involved in manufacturing of Film Sensors.

 Pro Wave presents a series of mechno electrical sensors and detectors produced by
advanced piezoelectric polymer film technology.
 The polymer film of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVF2) exhibits a conspicuous
piezoelectric effect and also has high compliance comparing with other piezoelectric
crystals or ceramic materials.

• Types of Thin Film Sensor

 High-temperature strain sensor technology – These gauges are functional in
temperatures exceeding 1000 °C, which compares favourably to the 700 °C limit for
conventional sensors.
  Thin film thermocouples – Useful in a range of substrate systems, thin film
thermocouples can be made to be as thin as 10 μm.
 Heat flux sensors – Thermopile-type sensors measure temperature difference using thin
film thermocouples, while RTD-based sensors are based on thin film RTDs.
 Flow sensors – Thin film flow sensors can measure boundary-layer flow much closer to
the surface than conventional sensors; 65 μm away compared to about 250 μm.
 Multi-functional sensors – Some thin film sensors can measure temperature, pressure
and heat flux all at the same time.
• FEATURES:
 High mechno-electrical ecoefficiency in planar, thickness and hydrostatic modes.
 Low mechanical and acoustic impedance.
 High resistance to moisture.
 Plaint, flexible, tough.
• APPLICATION:
 Vibration sensor and motion detectors.
 Low weight accelerometers.
 Pressure or force sensors.
 Keyboards, keypads and touch pads.

5. Write a brief note on fiber optic sensors. Also list out its applications.
• Fiber Optical technology have significantly changed the telecommunications industry.
• The ability of carry gigabits of data at the speed of the light increased the
research potential in optical fiber.
• Simultaneous improvements and cost reductions in optoelectronic components
leads to similar emergence of new product area.
• There are two type of fiber optic
sensor which are 1.Pure
fiber sensor
2.Remote optic sensors

Application of fiber optic sensor:

• Fiber optic sensors are used in several areas. Specifically
• Measurement of physical properties such as strain, displacement, temperature,
pressure and acceleration in structures of any shapes or size
• Monitoring the physical health of structures in real times
• Tunnels: Multipoint extensometers, convergence monitoring, shotcrete
• Prefabricated vaults evaluation and joints monitoring damage detections.
• Buildings and Bridges: concrete monitoring during setting, crack monitoring, prestressing
monitoring, spatial displacement monitoring, concrete steel interaction, and post seismic
damages evaluation.

6. Explain in detail about piezoelectric transducer.

• A piezoelectric material is one in which an electric potential appears across
certain surfaces of a crystal if the dimensions of the crystal are changed by
the application of a mechanical force. This potential is produced by the
displacement of charges.
• The effect is reversible also i.e. if a varying potential is applied to the proper
axis of the crystal, it will change the dimensions of the crystal thereby
deforming it.
• This phenomenon is known as piezoelectric effect.
• The word piezo is a Greek word meaning force or pressure. Elements
exhibiting piezoelectric qualities are called electro-resistive elements.
Materials for piezoelectric transducers
• Common piezoelectric materials include Rochelle salt, ammonium
dihydrogen phosphate (ADP), quartz and ceramics made with barium
Titanite, dipotassium tartrate, potassium dihydrogen phosphate and lithium
sulphate and these used in real applications.
• The piezoelectric effect can be made to respond to mechanical deformations
of the material in many different modes.
• The modes can be classify as,
a. Thickness expansion
b. Transverse expansion
c. Thickness shear
d. Face shear