Chapter 1:

Introduction to Instrumentation and Measurements

PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT (BEKG 1233))

PART 1

Lecturer: Noor Azwan Bin Shairi

Faculty: Fakulti Kej. Elektronik dan Kej. Komputer
Learning Outcomes (chapter 1)

Able to define various measurement and instrument principles, application,

terms and standards.

Able to define and explain the following types of errors that occur in
measurements: gross, systematic, random.

Able to use basic statistical methods for analyzing measurement errors,

accuracy, precision and limiting error.

Able to describe types of noise occur in measurement, effects and reduction

techniques.
Topics covered in this slides:

1. Introduction

2. International System of Units (SI) and

Dimensions

3. Standard of Measurement

4. Standard of Electrical Measurement

1. Introduction

Instrument is a device or mechanism used to determine

the value or magnitude of a quantity under observation.

Electronic instrument is based on electrical or electronic

principles for its measurement functions. E.g. Multi-meter,
Fluke meter and Function Generator.

Instrumentation system is a physical system, which is collection of physical

objects connected in such a way to give the desired output response. May be
defined as an assembly of various instruments and other components
interconnected to measure, analyze and control the electrical, thermal, hydraulic
and other non-electrical physical quantities.
1. Introduction ( Cont..)

An instrument may serve three basic functions:

Indicating-Indication of the value parameter under

observation. (e.g. Oscilloscope, Instrument with a
scale and moveable pointer or maybe digital
instrument)

Recording- To provide a permanent graphic record

of variation in value of the parameter under
observation with respect to time. (e.g. Strip chart
recorders )

Controlling- To provide control of the system

being monitored. (e.g. An automatic control system)
1. Introduction (Cont...)

Measurement is the process of determining the amount, degree or capacity by

comparison with the accepted standards of the system units being used.

The physical embodiment of the unit of measurement as well as that of its

submultiple or multiple value is called a Standard.

The device used for comparing the unknown quantity with the unit of
measurement or a standard quantity is called A Measuring Instrument.
1. Introduction (Cont...)

Indirect measurement methods

the unknown quantity is determined by measuring other functionally related

quantities and calculating the desired quantity rather than measuring it directly
with an instrument

Used of formula
eg:- resistance of a conductor may be determined by measuring voltage across
the conductor, V and current flowing through the conductor, I and calculating by
Ohm’s law :
V

I R
1. Introduction (Cont...)

Direct measurement methods

Deflection methods

the value of unknown quantity is determined by means of measuring

instrument having a scale graduated to the quantity under measurement
directly such as measurement of current with an ammeter.

Comparison methods

the unknown quantity is determined by direct comparison with a standard of

the given quantity such as measurement of EMF by comparison with the
EMF of a standard cell.

Include null method.
1. Introduction (Cont...)

Null measurement method: measuring current and voltage more

accurately by balancing the circuit so that no current flows
through the measurement device (using potentiometer and
Wheatstone bridge).

Standard measurements of voltage and current alter circuits,

introducing numerical uncertainties. Voltmeters draw some
extra current, whereas ammeters reduce current flow. Null
measurements balance voltages, so there is no current flowing
through the measuring device and the circuit is unaltered.

Null measurements are generally more accurate but more

complex than standard voltmeters and ammeters. Their
precision is still limited.
2. SI Units (International System of Units)

Nature of units

In engineering quantities of different kinds are involved including physical,

chemical, mechanical, thermal, electrical, physiological and etc.

In order to record or to compare magnitude of quantities, some one magnitude

of each kind must be taken as basis or unit.

Each unit either must be represented by a physical standard of some kind,

natural or artificial or must be derived from a combination of other units
represented by such standards.
2. SI Units

Fundamental quantities of the SI system

SI stands for “System International d’ Unites” in French. This abbreviation is

now adopted by the International Standardizing Organization as the abbreviated
name of this new system of units in all languages.

The SI system is a comprehensive, logical and coherent system, designed for

use in all branches of science, engineering and technology.

SI system consist of more than 28 units :- 7 base units, 2 addition units and
more than 19 derived units.

More info -> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_System_of_Units

2. SI Units
2. Dimensions

A derived unit is recognized by the dimensions and can be defined as the

complete algebraic formula for the derive unit.

Dimension equation help:

 In conversion from on system of units to another one

 In derivation of equations for physical quantities

 In checking the accuracy of an equation

For convenience, some derived units have been given new names such as the
derived unit of force in the SI system is called Newton (N) instead of
dimensionally correct name kg-m/s2.
2. Dimensions

Example:
Find the dimension of derived units below:
3. Standards of Measurements

A standard of measurement is a physical representation of a unit of measurement.

A unit is realized by reference to an arbitrary material or to natural phenomenon
including physical and atomic constant.

A standard is a known accurate measure of physical quantity.

Standards are used to determine the values of other physical quantities by the
comparison method.

Four categories of standard:

1. International Standard
2. Primary Standard
3. Secondary Standard
4. Working Standard
3. Standards of Measurements
Categories of Standards
1. International Standards

Defined by international agreement and they represent certain units of measurement to
the closest possible accuracy that production and measurement technology allow. These
standards are periodically evaluated and checked by absolute measurements in terms of
fundamental units. These standards are maintained at the International Bureau of
Weight and Measures in Paris.
2. Primary Standards

Main function of primary standards is the verification and calibration of secondary
standards. These standards are maintained at national standards laboratories in different
countries. These are calibrated independently by absolute measurements at each of the
national laboratories. The results of such measurements are compared against each other,
leading to a world average figure for the primary standards. Primary standard are not
available for used outside the national laboratories.

For example in Malaysia, this function is carried out by SIRIM.
3. Standards of Measurements

Categories of Standards
3. Secondary Standards

These standards are the basic reference standards used by
measurement and calibration laboratories in the industry to which
they belong. Each laboratory periodically sends its secondary
standards to the primary standards in national standard laboratories.
After calibrate the secondary standards are returned to the industrial
laboratory with certification of measuring accuracy in term of a
primary standard.
4. Working Standards

The principle tools of a measurements laboratory. They are used to
1. check and calibrate the instruments use in the laboratory or
2. make comparison measurements in industrial application.

For example, manufacturers of electronic components such as
capacitors, resistors and many more use a standard called a working
standard for checking the component values being manufactured.
3. Standards of Measurements
Categories of Standards
e.g.
International
Summary Bureau of Weights
and Measures
(BIPM)

e.g. SIRIM

e.g. Industry

e.g. Users
4. Standard of Electrical Measurements

SI Electrical Units can be divided into five (5) :-

Current Standard

Voltage Standard

Resistance Standard

Inductance Standard

Capacitance Standard
4. Standard of Electrical Measurements

Current Standard

Electric current (I) is known as a flow of charge carriers. Therefore, current

could be defined as the quantity of electricity (Q) that passes a given point in a
conductor during a time of 1 second.

Coulomb (C) is refer to unit of electrical charge or quantity of electricity. It was

the fundamental electrical unit from all other units were derived.(1 coulomb ~
6.24 x 1018 electrons)

Since, to measure current accurately is much easier than to measure charge, the
unit of current is now become the fundamental electrical unit in the SI system.
4. Standard of Electrical Measurements

Unit of electric current ~ ampere (A)

The Ampere is defined as constant current when flowing in each of two infinitely
long parallel conductors 1 meter apart, exerts a force of 2 x 10-7 Newton per
meter of length on each conductor.

While, the coulomb is defined as the charge which passes a given point in a
conductor each second, when a current of 1 ampere flows.

Hence, the coulomb could be termed an ampere-second, or the ampere can be

describe as a coulomb per second
4. Standard of Electrical Measurements

•Voltage Standard

The volt (V) is defined as the potential difference between two points on a
conductor carrying a constant current of 1 ampere when the power dissipated
between these points is 1 watt. Volt (V) is the unit of electromotive force (emf)
and potential difference.

(1 Watt = 1 Joule/s)
Volt = Watt / Ampere
Watt = J/S = Power
Joule = N/m = Work / Energy
Newton = kg.m/s2
4. Standard of Electrical Measurements
•Voltage Standard

1 joule of work is consider done when 6.24 x 1018 electrons (1 coulomb) are move
through a potential difference of 1 V.

One electron carries a charge of 1/(6.24 x 1018 ) coulomb. When only 1 electron
moved through 1V, the energy involved known as electron volt (eV).

eV is used in the case of very small energy level associated with electrons in
orbit around the nucleus of an atom.
4. Standard of Electrical Measurements
•Resistance Standard

The ohm (Ω) is the unit of resistance. Ohm is defined as the resistance which
permits a current flow of 1 ampere when a potential difference of 1 volt is
applied to the resistance.

Resistance (R) = Voltage (V) / Current (I)

•Inductance Standard

The henry (H) is the unit of inductance. The inductance of a circuit is 1 henry,
when an emf of 1 volt is induced by the current changing at the rate of 1 A/s.

The weber (Wb) is the unit of magnetic flux. Weber defined as the magnetic
flux which, linking a single-turn coil, produces an emf of 1 V when the flux is
reduced to zero at a constant rate in 1s.
4. Standard of Electrical Measurements
•Inductance Standard

While Tesla (T) is the unit of magnetic flux density. Tesla is the flux density in
a magnetic field when 1 weber of flux occurs in a plane of 1 square meter. Tesla
~ 1 Wb/m2.
Therefore,

1 H = 1 Wb / 1 A
1 Wb = 1V x 1 s

Hence, Inductance , L = (4π2 x 10-7N2r2) / l

Where :
N is no. of wire turn
r is solenoid radius in meter
l is length of solenoid in meter
4. Standard of Electrical Measurements