UNIT - I

MODULE – I

General Concept of Measurements System:

Measurement is a Comparison of a given unknown Quantity with one of its
predetermined standard values adopted as a unit
Measurement provides as with means of describing various phenomena in quantitative
terms
There are two important requirement of the measurement.
I. The standard used of comparison must be accurate and internationally
accepted
II. The apparatus are instruments and the process used for comparison must be
provable

Measurement Comparison Process Result

Standard
Fundamental Measuring Process
Measuring the unknown quantity comfort with available standard quantity such as length,
mars and time
Need For Measurement:
To determine the true dimension of part to increase our knowledge and understanding
of the world
To ensure public health and human safety
To Convert physical parameter into meaningful number
To text whether the element that constitute the system function as per the design
To evaluate the performance of the system
To study the basic laws of nature
To check the limitation bearing practical situation
Units and Standards :
Units:
The specify and perform calculation with physical quantities the physical quantities
must be defined both in kind and magnitude
 The standard measuring of each kind of physical quantity is the unit.
there are different System of units like MKS and CGS but for uniformity of unit all
over world SI unit as been developed.
SI Unit International System of Unit
the SI unit system based on meter Kilogram (Kg) Signal (S) Ampere (A) degree Kelvin and
candela (Cd)
SI units are divided into three categories
Fundamental units
Supplementary units
Derived units
Fundamental units:
fundamental units are independently choose and not dependent on any other units it is also
called as base units
S. No Quantity Unit Unit Symbol
1 Length meter M
2 Mass Kilogram Kg
3 Time Second S
4 temperature Kelvin K
5 Electric Current Ampere A
6 Luminous Intensity Candela Cd
7 Matter Mole Mol
Supplementary Units:
There are two supplementary units added to the SI unit system in addition to
fundamental units

S. No Quantity Unit Unit Symbol

1 Plane angle Radian rad
2 Solid angle Steradian sr
Derived Units:
The derived units are expressed in terms of fundamental and supplementary units by
defining equation
 a) Mechanical units - units for force, pressure, stress, weight, torque acceleration,
velocity and density
b) Electrical and magnetic units - units for power energy, electrical resistance,
electric field strength, electric capacity, magnetic flux density
c) Thermal units - units for specific heat capacity, latent heat, sensible heat.

S. No Quantity Unit Unit Symbol

1 Area m2 A
2 Volume m3 V
3 Density kg/m3 P
4 Velocity m/s V
5 Angular Velocity rad/s W
6 Acceleration m/s2 a
7 Angular Acceleration rad/s2 α
8 Force N F
9 Pressure N/m2 P
10 Work Energy Joule W

Standards:
Standard is the physical representation of unit of measurement A known accurate
quantity is termed as standard the standards are used to determine the values of physical
quantities by comparison method.
Standards Classified as
International standards
Primary standards
Secondary standards
Working standards
International standards:
International standard sir Defined by international agreement there are periodically
evaluate and checked by absolute measurement in the time of fundamental units of Physics.
This International standard sir available to ordinary use like measurement and
calibrations
Primary Standards:
 The main function of primary standard is celebrations and verification of secondary
standard.
Primary standards are not available for the use outside laboratory it maintained in the
national standard laboratories in India it is in National Physical Laboratory at New Delhi.
Secondary Standards:
secondary standards are basic reference standards used to buy a measurement and
collaboration inclusive.
the standards are maintain by the particular industry to which belong each industry as
own secondary standards.
Working Standards:
working standards are main tools of measuring Laboratories the standards are used to
check and calibrate laboratory instrument for accuracy and performance.
For example manufacturing mechanical component like shaft, gears, billets, etc.
Definition of Metrology:
Meteorology is the science of measurement it established a common understanding of
units in linking human activities.
Metrology is the scientific study of measurement including both theoretical and
experimental measurement in any field of science and technology in engineering Metrology
is used to ensure the quality and accuracy of manufacture parts it involves the use of tools
and statical method of measure length, angles with the depth diameter and straightness.
Metrology is important in manufacturing because it helps to ensure that parts of the
correct size for their indented application it also helps to ensure that the machinery used in
production is properly calibrated to maintain the accuracy and precision of parts.
Metrology has three Subfields
Scientific Metrology:
involves the development of new measurement methods and Standards and
transferring those standards to uses.
Applied Metrology:
involves developing measurement science for manufacturing and other process
including ensuring the suitability of measurement instruments and their calibration.
Legal Metrology
involves ensuring that measurement and measuring instruments meet regulatory
recruitments for the protection of consumers and fair trade.
The word “Metrology” comes from the Greek words Metro, which means
measurements and logy which means science.
Measuring Instruments:
 large number and variety of variables are involved in measurements in practice this
variable may be constant with time or time varying.
For example:
Measurement of weight is constant measurement.
Pressure inside the IC engine is the time Varying measurement.
Output of time Varying variable cannot be read on the scale or pointer or on a digital
display devices.
These instruments classified based on their mode operation manner of energy
conversion under secure of output signal.
1. Deflection and null time instruments.
2. Analog and digital instruments.
3. Active and passive instruments.
4. Automatic and manual operated instruments.
5. Absolute and secondary instruments.
6. Contacting and non contacting instruments.
7. Intelligent instruments.
Sensitivity:
Sensitivity may be defined as the rate of displacement of the indicating device of an
instrument with respect to measured quantity.

Sensitivity of an instrument is the ratio of the scale spacing to scale division.

Sensitivity of an instrument is defined as ratio of the magnitude of the output signal to

the magnitude of the input signal. It denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to
which the instrument responds.

Static sensitivity is defined as the slope of the calibration curve.

Sensitivity = Infinitesimal change of output signal

Infinitesimal change of input signal

Δq 0 θ0
= =
Δ qi θ1

Sensitivity has no unique unit some of units are millimetre per micro ampere,
millimetre per ohm, watts per ohm.
Range of Accuracy:

Accuracy may be defined as the ability the instrument to respond to the true value of
measured variable under the reference conditions.

It refers to how closely the measured agree with the true value. Accuracy as
percentage of full scale reading

Percentage of Measured Value - True Value

full scale reading =
Maximum scale value

This type of measuring accuracy is applicable in of instrument having uniform scale

accuracy as percentage as true value.

this is the best way of specifying accuracy test to be suspense in terms of True Value
quantity being measured.

Accuracy as percentage of scale 5 pan

Percentage of scale span = 9max -9min

9 Max - Maximum point for which the scale to be calibrated

9 Min - Minimum reading on scale

Accuracy can be specified as Span.

For example if an instrument have range from 150 units and accuracy as ± 0.1 % of
this pan

Accuracy Versus Precision:

Accuracy is the degree to which the measured value of quality characteristics agrees
with the true value.

Accuracy says how measured value is closed to True Value.

The difference between measured value and true value is called error.

Precision:
 The terms of accuracy and Precision interconnects with the performance of
instrument. Precision is the repeatability of the measuring process.

It refers to them groups of measurement for the same characteristics taken under
identical conditions.

Precision is defined as degree of exactness for which an instrument is designed or

intended to perform. It refers to repeatability or consistency of measurement under the
identical condition.

Repeatability:
Repeatability is the closeness of agreement along a number of consecutive
measurements of the output for value of input under same operating conditions if maybe
specified in items of units for given period of time.
Repeatability closely related or proportional precision.
Any measurement process effected using a given instrument and method of
measurement is subject to a large number of sources of variation like environmental changes,
variability in operator performance and in instrument parameters. The repeatability is
characterized by the dispersion of indications when the same quantity is repeatedly measured.
The dispersion is described by two limiting values as by yhe standard deviation.
The conditions under which repeatability is tested have to be specified.
Readability :
The conditions with which the scale of the analog instrument can be read
Readability refers to the case with which the reading of a measuring instrument can
be read. It is susceptibility of a measuring device to have its indications converted meaningful
number.
For a analog device fine and widely spaced graduation lines ordinary improve the
readability.
Closeness of agreement among the repeated measurements of the output for same
value of input under the same operating conditions over a period of times is called
reproducibility
 Reproducibility is the consistency of pattern variation in measurement i. e closeness
of the agreement between the results of measurements of the same quantity when individual
measurands are carried out.
By different observes
By different methods
By different instruments
Under the conditions, locations, times.

Static and Dynamic Response in Measurement :

Dynamic responses of instruments:
The behavior of an instruments under such time varying input – output conditions is
called dynamic response.
The instruments need to measure condition varying with time. The parameter are to be
measured with time varying.
The analysis of such dynamic response is called dynamic analysis of measuring
system
Dynamic Quantities are two types.
Study State
 The number of parameter required to define the dynamic of any instrument is decides
by the group to which that system belongs. then the system can be classified into
Zero – order system
First – order system
Second – order system
Higher – order system
Types of input :
The parameters which determines the behavior of any system is known as function
type.
1. Step input - The value of input constant throughout
2. Ramp input – The input value linearly vary with time
3. Impulse input – Signal value has zero value every At t=0 where the magnitude
is high
4. Sinusoidal input – Sinusoidal is a unique signal and output signal also
sinusoidal. But the output signal differs in amplitude and phase compared to
input signal
Static Response :
The static response the static characterized of an instrument are considered for
instrument which are used to measure on unvarying process conditions.
All static performance characteristics are obtained by one form or another of process
called calibration.
Static response – The instruments is required to measure a condition not varying with
time
The Static Response Related to,
Accuracy
Precision
Resolution
Sensitivity
Threshold
Drift
Error
Repeatability
Reproducibility
Backlash
 True value
Linearity and Stability
Range or span, Tolerance
Uncertainty and its Importance :
The word uncertainly cost a doubt about the exactness of the measurement result. It is
an expression of the fact that for a given result of measurement is not value but infinite
number of values dispersed about the result with varying degree of credibility
Therefore the uncertainly is the parameter associated with measurements that
characteristics the dispersed of the values that could reasonably be attributed to
measurements.
True value = Estimated value ± uncertainty
Importance of uncertainty :
Quality and cost are directly associated or impacted by measuring uncertainty
Without awareness or consideration of the impact measurement uncertainty has no
quality, the greater the probability of increased operating cost and failure rates.
Measurement uncertainty is a critical to assessment and decision making if
measurement results are not accurate, the decision risk increase.
Uncertainty is a quantitative indication of quality of the result. It gives an answer to
the question how does the result represent the value of quality being measured.
Errors:
At a later possible to mature the time value of a dimension. Here is always some error.

The error a difference between the measured value and the true value of measured
dimension.

Error in measurement = Measured value - True Value

The error in measurement can be expressed in term of:

1. Absolute error:
2. Relative error:

Absolute error
True absolute error:

It is algebraic difference between the result of measurement and the conventional true
value of the quantity measurand.

True Absolute error = Measured value - Conventional true value

Apparent absolute error:

 It is a series of measurement made then the algebraic different between the results of
measured and the arithmetical mean is known as apparent absolute error

Relative error:

It is the Quotient of the absolute error and the value of Comparison use of calculation of
that absolute error.

This value of Comparison may be the true value the conventional true value or the
arithmetic mean for series.

The error depends on

Calibration standard
Workpiece
Instrument
Person
Environment etc.

Types of errors:
1. Systematic error
2. Random error
3. Environmental error

Systematic Error:

These error include calibration errors errors due to variation in the atmospheric
condition Variation in contact pressure,

If properly analyzed, these errors can determined and reduced or even eliminated
hence also called Controllable errors.

All other systematic errors can be controlled in magnitude and some sense except
personal errors. These error result from irregular- procedure that consistent in action.

Random error:
These errors caused due to variation in position of setting standard and work piece
errors due to displacement of level joints of instruments due to backlash and friction, These
errors are

Specific cause, magnitude, and sense of these errors cannot be determine from the
knowledge of measuring system or condition of measurement.
These errors are non-consistent and have then named non-random errors.

Comparison between systematic errors and random errors.

 Systematic errors Random error
It. can be controlled by It cannot be determined from
magnitude and sense the knowledge of measuring system

Reputative in nature properly analysed and It is not consistent

can be determined and reduced
Cannot be eliminated
These errors are due to improper conditions
Random errors are intresed in measuring
Misalignment due to atmospheric conditions System

due to displacement of Joints and due to

friction

Correction:
It is the amount which should be algebraically added to the indicated value to obtain
the actual value of the size being measured. The correction is numerically equal to the error
opposite in sign.

Correction factor:

If a numerical value is multiplied uncorrected results to compensate for an assumed

systematic error.
It is known as correction factor.

Calibration:
It is the process of determining and adjusting in instruments accuracy to make sure its
accuracy is within the manufacturing specification.
If the user does not make sure of their instrumentation hardware components are
calibrated, the user can potentially take falls data
In the manufacturing environment, improperly calibrated measurement system can
pass the part that yield.
Calibrated offers an guarantee to the instrument that operating with required accuracy
under the standard environmental conditions.it also gives the confidence of using calibrated
instruments for the users.
The calibration process involves the various steps like visual inspection for various
defects installation according to the specification of adjustments.

Introduction to dimensional and geometric tolerance :

In the early days of mechanical engineering the majority of the components were
actually makes together, their dimensions being adjusted until the required type of fit
obtained.
The modern mechanical production engineering is based on the limits and fits
Defined as an allowance for a specific Variation in the size and geometry of part. It
may be defined as the allowable range of variation from the design intent in a dimension.
Tolerance is the assignment of upper and lower limits to basic dimensions to account this
validity.
 Basic size

50 ± 0.01 ¿ ¿] Tolerance

Terms used in Dimensional and Geometric Tolerance:

1. Shaft - It refers to diameter of shaft and also to any external dimension on a

component.

50 ± 0.1

50 ± 0.01

Shaft System
Hole - It refers diameter of circular hole and any internal dimension on a component.

25 ± 0.1
25 ± 0.01
 Hole system

Basic Size:
Basic of Nominal Size is the Standard size of part and It is same both for hole and
shaft

i. e Dimensional of drawing

Actual Size:
Actual size is the dimensions in which it is measured on actual part
i. e) manufactured Component dimension

Limits of Size:
Limits of size are the maximum and minimum permissible Sizes of the part.

Maximum Size:
Maximum size is maximum permissible size of part

Minimum Size:
Minimum size is minimum permissible size of part

Tolerance
Difference between minimum and maximum limits.
Deviation
The algebraic difference between a higher and basic size

Unilateral and Bilateral Tolerance:

When tolerance is specified on one side of basic size either positive or negative. It is
called unilateral tolerance.
 If 50 is basic size then 50 + 0.01 , 50 – 0.01, 50 ± 0.01

When tolerance is specified on both sides of the basic size, it is called bilateral tolerance.

If 50 is basic size then 50 +0.01 , 50 +

 .
Fits and types of fit :
The degree of tightness or looseness between mating parts known as fit. The nature of
fit characterized by the presence and size of clearance or interference.

Types of fit:
Clearance fit
Interference fit
Transition fit
Hole and shaft basis system:

Hole basis system:

In this system the hole is kept constant the shaft diameter is changed to obtain various
types of fits. The basic size of the hole is taken as the low limit size of the hole. Hole in
dimension denotes by H.

The diagram
represents size of the
hole kept constant and
shaft size is varied to get
different fits.
 The shaft is kept constant and the hole is varied to get various fit. In this basic size of
shaft taken as one of the limit size for the shaft in dimension denoted by ‘h’

Concept of Interchangeability and selective assembly :

The part which can be substituted for the component manufactured to the same shape
and dimensions is known as interchangeability.

The operation of substituting the part for similar manufactured component of the same
shape and dimensions is known as interchangeability.

In case of big assembly several parts of that unit may be produced in different country
with respect to availability of trained labour, raw material , power and other facilities.

But final assembly is come out as one place so each part should be manufactured
under the concept of interchangeability with other same mating part.

The interchangeable part called as spare parts.

Advantages of interchangeability:

Replacement of worn out part is easy

Repair came out easily
Maintenance cost is less
Shut down machines having interchangeable component is reduced.
 Interchangeability is not possible, without using any standards. So, some standards
must be strictly followed, mainly two standards are followed such as international standards
and local standards, [Local standards also based on international standards]

Universal acceptance obtained by international standards.

It can be obtained in two ways namely

1. Universal (or) fully interchangeability
2. Selective assembly

This is about the interchangeability in measurement systems.

 UNIT - II

MODULE – II

Linear Measuring Instruments:

 The linear measurements include the measurement of length diameter height and
thickness, the basic principle of linear measurement is that of comparison with standard
dimensions on a suitably engraved instrument or devices.

The various devices used for measuring the linear measurements are
Vernier Calipers
Micrometers
Slip gauge (or) Gauge blocks
Comparators

Angular measurements is another important element in measuring. It involves the

measurement of angles of taper and similar surfaces.

The most common instrument is sine bar. The main difference between linear and
angular measurement is that no absolute standard is required for angular measurement.

Vernier Caliper:
Vernier calipers have two scales namely the main scale and Vernier Scale. the vernier
scale moves along the main scale. the vernier calipers are used to measure both internal and
external dimensions.

The caliper is placed on the object to be measured and the angular adjustment rotated
until the jaws fit tightly against the workpiece. the readings from the main and vernier scale
are taken.

Vernier Instruments:
The principle of vernier is that two scales of different sizes are used to measure the
dimensions in high accuracy. The vernier caliper has two steel rules which side of each other,
one of the longer scale is named as main scale which is graduated on a solid L-shaped frame.
 The graduation is done for 20 parts in which one small division is equal to 0.05 cm.
the vernier caliper consists of three elements such as beam, fixed jaw and sliding or moving
jaw.

The movable jaw slides over the main scale according to the direction of the
speciment to be measured. before the starting the measurement the scale would be checked
for zero reading when two measuring jaws are in contact with each other.
Reading the Vernier scale.

In

vernier scale, each small division on the main scale is equal to 0.02 units. the vernier scale
has 50 divisions. 49 divisions on the main scale are divided into 50 divisions on the vernier
scale.

50 VSD = 49 MSD = 1 VSD = 49/50 MSD

Least count (LC) is the minimum value that can be measured. It is the difference
between one main scale division and one Vernier scale division.

L.C = 1 MSD - 1 VSD = 1 - 49/50 = 1/50 = 0.02 unit

The least count of Vernier is 0.02 unit. Errors in measurements with vernier calipers.
The errors may arise in manipulation vernier calipers.
Jaw movement should be perpendicular to the scale readings, otherwise
measurements will not be correct.

The contact portion of measuring jaws should be good condition. so the wear and tear
& wrapping of vernier caliper jaws should be tested frequently.

Care and precautions in use of Vernier Caliper:

The jaws should not be used as a wrench or hammer because vernier Caliper is not a
nigged instrument.

These instruments should also be kept in box and no suddenly dropped and turned up
and down.
 During measurements, the vernier should not be used with oil, and chips in part to be
measured.

The operator should wear eye-glass and magnifying glass during measurement
because the accuracy of measurement mainly depends on the sensing of sight and sense of
touch.

Vernier Height Gauge:

This is also a vernier caliper but attached with a special base block and other
attachments. The whole is made in such a way to measure height of parts to be measured.

The removable clamp is attached between Jaw and vernier. both upper & lower end of
measuring jaws are parallel to the base of Vernier height gauge
A scribing attachment is fitted to mark scribe lines on the parts where it required sometimes
measuring jaws of vernier caliper are replaced by dial gauge according to type of
measurement we need.

Specification of
Vernier height gauges:

 Range of measurements
 Types of scale needed
 Types of Vernier needed
Parts of Vernier height gauge
i) Base - It should be rigid and stability. the base is ground and lapped well with an
accuracy of 0.005 mm.
ii) Beam - Beam should be rigid in such a way to withstand 1 kg when it is applied
upward at the tip of the scriber. the sliding edge of the beam should be perfectly plated within
the various ranges corresponding measuring ranges. The face of the beam should be exactly
perpendicular to the base within 0.04 mm / 100 mm.
iii) Measuring jaws and scriber - the projection of measuring jaw of the beam should
be at least equal to the projection of base.
iv) Slider- A provision is made to obtain a fine adjustment of slider to fit the slider
perfectly a clamp is attached.

Precautions.
Vernier height gauges should always kept in boxes when not in measurement. The
springing should be avoided during measurement.
To avoid heating of instrument measuring jaws of long height gauge care should
always taken.

Vernier Depth gauge:

The Vernier depth gauge is one type of vernier caliper, the graduated scale is directly
stable through the base but vernier scale remain stationary. this instrument mainly for
measuring the depth holes recess and distance from a plane.
The range of trueness and squareness of Vernier depth gauge should be correct.
otherwise, the rest of depth gauges will be inched
Micrometer:
The micrometer has an accurate screw consistency of 10 to 20 threads per cm. this
screw rotates inside a fixed nut. the end of the screw act as one measuring tips and fixed anvil
acts as other measuring tip.
Threads are cut for certain length on screw and it is left to free remaining portion
called sleeve. the spindle move towards the fixed anvil or away from it by rotating the
thimble.
The spindle is placed inside the anvil of barrel in such a way to freely slide over the
barrel. But the barrel is firmly fixed with the frame 20 divisions per cm are made in barrel.
This is the lead screw fore one complete revolution but the thimble has 25 divisions
around circumference. so each revolution is again divided into 25 divisions. therefore each
division is equal to 0.002 cm

While measuring dimensions, the locknut arrest the movement of the spindle to
ensure correct reading. The ratchet is provided to apply uniform pressure after just touching
the ends of the part to be measured.
Parts description of Micrometer

i) Frame ii) Anvil iii) Spindle iv) Ratchet driver v) Thimble and barrel vi) adjusting
nut

The frame is made to required shape but at the same time, it should be in such a way
that to permit the part to be measured.
It should be rigid to carry 1kg weight of the part frames are made by using light alloys
for larger micrometers.

Anvil:
The fixed anvil of the micrometer produces for 3mm from frame to support the part at
one end
The measuring faces on the anvil should be strong enough to reduce wear and tear the
face of anvil is tipped with tungsten carbide

Spindle:
The spindle is placed inside the barrel to slide freely. a bush is placed in the space
between barrel and spindle the free turning of spindle
Ratchet driver:
Wear resistant material is used to make ratchet.

Thimble and barrel:

Graduations are made on both barrel and thimble these parts are made by using high
wear resistance material.

Adjusting Nut:
The adjusting nuts used to get zero reading the adjustment is done using spanners and
keys, the accuracy of measurement mainly depends on original accuracy and function of
locknut.

While measuring the dimensions of a part, some elements will involve due to wear and tear
and incorrect usage.

1. Backlash : It is the lagging in between true value when the thimble rotates. It means
the thimble rotation direction is changed.

2. Total error : It is the maximum difference between true value and measured value.

3. Cumulative error : It is the difference between true value and measuring value at any
point of the measuring range.

Internal measurement - Slip Gauges :

Slip gauges are used as measuring blocks. It is also called precision gauge blocks.
They are made of hardened alloy steel for rectangular cross-section.
The surface of the Slip gauges are made to a high degree of accuracy. The distance
between to opposite faces indicates the size of the gauge.
But all slip gauges are made to same thickness to perform wringing. Wringing or
sliding is nothing, but combining the faces of slip gauges one over other
Different set of slip gauges are measured in standard sets of 32 pieces, 45 pieces,
88 pieces.
A normal set of slip gauges has 45 pieces. the slip gauges should be stored carefully
in a
box for obtaining higher accuracy. They are stored in a temperature controlled room.
Classification of slip gauges
Grade 2
Grade 1
Grade 0
Grade 00
Calibration grade

Grade 2 - It is workshop grade slip gauges used for setting tools, cutters and checking
dimension roughly.
Grade 1 - The grade is used for precise work in tool rooms.
Grade 0 - It is used as inspection grade of slip gauges mainly by inspection department.
Grade 00 - It is mainly for high precision works in the form of error detection in instruments.
Calibration grade - The actual size of the slip gauge is calibrated on a chart supplied by the
manufacturer.
The applications can be increased by providing accessories like measuring jaw, scriber &
centre point and holder box

Basics of Interferometry:

Principle of Interferometry
Two light rays from the same monochromatic light source can be combined to give a
bright or dark surface by changing the face difference between them the brightness or
darkness can then we a measure of displacement
Interferometer:
This is an instrument used to compare the unknown length with number of known
wavelength of light.

The light rays from a monochromatic light source are collimated into parallel rays by
a lens when these rays reach the mirror A which has a partially silvered surface. about half of
the light is reflected towards mirror B and the other half passes through the workpiece and
table surface.
Thus the light rays are divided and directed along two different paths. These divided
light rays are then reflected back to mirror A

Optical Flat :

An optical flat is used in conjunction with a monochromatic light to measure the

difference between two surfaces. A vertical beam of light of known wavelength is arranged to
fall on the flat.
 Two reflected beams will combine according to their phase relation. It causes the
appearance of fringes . (i.e) dark interference bands. A fringe represents a focus between
work and plat of a definite integral number of half wavelengths of light used.
Adjacent fringes may be seen as representing contours of elevation differing by one -
half wavelength.

The distance is called fringe interval

Let
θ - Angle the first that makes with the block.
l - Distance between blocks.
λ - wavelength of light ray.
y - mean value of distance between two successive fringe.
x - Difference between two successive blocks.
Then
Lλ
X=
2Y
Limit Gauges

Limit gauge is not a measuring gauge. They are just used as inspecting gauges. The
limit gauges are used in inspection by method of attributes.
It gives the information about the products which may be either within the prescribed
limit or not. By using control charts of p and c charts are drawn to control invariance of
products
This procedure is mostly performed by the quantity control department of each and
every industry
Limit gauges are mainly used for checking cylindrical holes is made to the upper limit, gitze
of the shaft and NOGO for the lower limit.
while checking shaft, The Go ring gauge will pass through the shaft and NOGO will
not pass.
To identify the NGO ring gauges easily, a red mark or a small groove is fit on its
periphery.
Snap Gauge
Snap gauges used for checking external dimensions they are also called gap gauges

Taylors principle:

It states that Go Gauge should check all related dimensions simultaneously. NoGo gauge
should check only one dimensions at time.

Maximum Metal Conditions,

It refers to the conditions of hole or shaft when minimum material is left on such as low
limit of shaft and high limit of hole.

Design of gauges should add manufacturing tolerance and wear allowance.

1. Manufacturing tolerance is nearly 10% of work tolerance
2. Allowance varies 5-15% of work tolerance.

Note:
 In gauge design, The plug gauges are designed to check the hole.
The ring gauges are designed to check the shaft

Statement of Taylor’s Principle.

1. The Go gauge must be made to check the maximum metal conditions.
2. The NOGO gauge must be made to check the minimum metal conditions.
3. The Go gauge should be as far as possible the geometrical shape of the Component.
4. For circular holes, The Go gauge should be plug gauge having equal length of the
hole Component.
5. For circular holes The NOGO gauge should be a pin gauge.
6. For circular shaft, The Go gauge should be a ring gauge length equal to length of the
shaft.
7. For circular shaft, The NOGO should be in the form of gap gauge.

Example Design the general type of GO and NOT GO gauges as per the present British
system for a 40 mm shaft and hole pair designated as 40 H8/d9, given that

(a) i = 0.453 3√ D + 0.001D

(b) 40 mm lies in the diameter range of 30-50 mm
(c) IT8 = 25i
(d) IT9 = 40i
(e) upper deviation of shaft = -16D0.44
(f) wear allowance assumed to be 10% of gauge tolerance

Solution
The standard diameter steps for 40 mm shaft falls in the range of 30-50 mm.
D can be calculated using the equation √ Dmax x Dmin Therefore,
D = √ 30 ×50
D = 38.7298 mm
The value of fundamental tolerance unit is given by
i = 0.453 3√ D + 0.001D
i = 0.453 (3√ 38.7298) + 0.001(38.7298) = 1.571 μm
For hole quality H8, the fundamental tolerance is 25i.
25i = 25(1.571) = 39.275 μm = 0.039275 mm ≈ 0.039 mm
For hole, the fundamental deviation is zero.
Hence, hole limits are as follows:
LLH = 40 mm
HLH = 40.00 + 0.039 = 40.039 mm
Hole tolerance = 40.039 - 40 = 0.039 mm
For shaft quality d9, the fundamental tolerance is 40i:
40i = 40(1.571) = 62.84 µm = 0.06284 mm = 0.063 mm
For d shaft, the fundamental deviation is given by -16D0.44
Therefore, fundamental deviation = -16(38.7298)0.44
= -79.9576 µm = -0.07996 mm = -0.080 mm
Hence, shaft limits are as follows:
HLS = 40 - 0.080 = 39.92 mm
LLS = 40 - (0.080 + 0.063) = 39.857 mm
Shaft tolerance = 39.92 - 39.857 = 0.063 mm
Hence, the hole and shaft limits are as follows:
+0.039 -0.080
+0.000
Hole = 40 mm and shaft = 40-0.143 mm
The disposition of tolerances is as shown in Fig. 3.29.

Assuming gauge tolerance to be 10% of work tolerance,

gauge tolerance for hole = 10% of 0.039 = 0.0039 mm
Wear allowance for hole = 10% of Gauge tolerance; therefore,
Therefore, wear allowance for hole = 10% of 0.0039 = 0.00039 mm

Similarly,
Gauge tolerance for shaft = 10% of 0.063 = 0.0063 mm
Wear allowance for shaft = 10% of 0.0063 = 0.00063 mm

For hole:
The limits of GO Plug gauge are as follows:
Low limit = Basic size + Wear allowance
Low limit = 40.00 + 0.00039 = 40.00039 mm
High limit = Basic size + (Wear allowance + Gauge tolerance)
High limit = 40.00 + (0.00039 + 0.0039) mm
= 40.00 + (0.00429) = 40.00429 mm
+0.00429

Limits of GO plug gauge = 40 +0.00039 mm

The limits of NOT GO Plug gauge are as follows:
Low limit = Basic size + Fundamental tolerance for hole
Low limit = 40.00 + 0.039= 40.039 mm
High limit = Basic size + (Fundamental tolerance for hole + Gauge tolerance)
High limit = 40.00 + (0.039 + 0.0039) mm
= 40.00 + (0.0429) = 40.0429 mm
-0.0429

Limits of NOT GO plug gauge = 40 +0.0390 mm

For shaft:
The limits of GO snap gauge are as follows:
High limit = Basic size - (Fundamental deviation + Wear allowance)
High limit = 40.00 - (0.080 + 0.00063) mm
High limit = 40.00 - (0.08063) = 39.91937 mm
Low limit = Basic size - (Fundamental deviation + Wear allowance + Gauge tolerance)
Low limit = 40.00 - (0.080 + 0.00063 + 0.0063) mm
= 40.00 - (0.08693) = 39.91307 mm
-0.08063

Limits of GO snap gauge = 40 -0.00693 mm

Limits of NOT GO snap gauge are as follows:
High limit = Basic size - (Fundamental deviation + Fundamental tolerance)
High limit = 40.00 - (0.080 + 0.063) mm
High limit = 40.00 - (0.143) = 39.857 mm
Low limit = Basic size - (Fundamental deviation + Fundamental tolerance + Gauge tolerance)
Low limit = 40.00 - (0.080 + 0.063 + 0.0063) mm
Low limit = 40.00 - (0.1493) = 39.8507 mm
-0.1430

Limits of NOT GO snap gauge = 40 -0.1493 mm

The disposition of gauge tolerances and wear allowance for the GO and NOT GO
plug and snap gauge are schematically shown in Fig. 3.30.

Comparators;
It is one form of linear measurement device which is quick and more convenient for
checking large number of identical dimensions.
 Comparators will not show the actual dimensions of the work piece. They will be
shown only the deviation in size (I e) during the measurement, a comparator is able to give
the division of the dimensions from the set dimensions.

It cannot be used as dimensions from the set dimensions,

The classification of comparators.
Mechanical Comparators
Electrical Comparators
Optical Comparators
Pneumatic Comparators.

Mechanical Comparators,
Mechanical Comparators employs mechanical means for magnifying all deviations. The
method of magnifying small movement of the indicator in all mechanical comparators are
affected by means of levers, gear gear trains or a combination of these elements.

Working of mechanical comparators.

Very slight upward movement on the plunger moves it upward and the movement is indicated
by the dial pointer.

The dial graduated into 100 divisions. A full revolution of the pointer about these
scale corresponds to 1 mm travel of the plunger. Thus a turn of the pointer by one scale
division represents a plunger travel of 0.01 mm.
Electronic Comparator:
The electronic comparators, transducer, induction or the principle of application of
frequency modulation or ratio of oscillation is followed.

Principle of
operation:
The linear measurement of plunger is converted into electric signal by a suitable
transducer. Then electrical signal converted as direct current.
The DC supply to meter to actuate. The demodulator used to convert Ac signal into
DC signal.
The pointer in the dial gauge is adjusted to zero.
The slip gauges are removed. Now the component to be checked is introduced under the stem
of the dial gauge. If there is any deviation in the height of the components, it will be indicated
by the pointer.
Mechanism:
The plunger has rack teeth. A set of gears engage with rack. The pointer is connected
to a small pinion. The small pinion is co-independently hinged.
It is not connected to the plunger. The vertical movement of the plunger is transmitted
to the pointer through a set of gears. A spring gives a constant downward pressure to the
plunger.

Advantages:

- It is usually robust, compact and easy to handle

- There is no external supply such as electricity air required.
- It has very simple mechanism and is cheaper when compared to other.

Disadvantages:

-It has more moving parts hence friction is more, accuracy less

Optical comparator :

In this type of comparator , a small plunger displacement is amplified by both

mechanical and optical system. The amplification is first done by a pivoted lever and then by
a simple optical system
Construction details :
i. Pivoted lever
ii. Objective lens
iii. Scale
iv. Plunger
v. Table and base
vi. Mirror

i.) pivoted lever :

The pivoted lever amplifies the plunger movement mechanically. It is pivoted near the
plunger. One end is fitted with the plunger and other end is fitted with a mirror.
ii) optical lens :
The main function of objective lens is to convert the incoming light rays from the
source into parallel beams
iii) screen and scale :
It is a final display device from which the readings can be obtained. This is nothing
but Sem transparent glass.
iv) plunger :
It is a reciprocating member. During the measurement the plunger actuates.
v) Table :
The work is placed on the table to carry out the task.
vi) Base:
 It is rigid support over which the table mounts.
vii) Mirror:
It reflects the incoming light rays from source.
Pneumatic Comparator:
The term pneumatic associates with pressurised air. The pressurised air is used as the
working medium in pneumatic comparator. Based on the physical phenomenon. The
pneumatic comparator are classified in two types.

i) Flow or velocity type,

ii) Back pressure type.
Principle of working :

The readings are obtained by sensing and indicating the rate of airflow through a
tapered glass tube. The glass tube is already calibrated to the required dimensions by a
suitable device called slip gauge. The measuring head has orifices through which the air
escapes to the atmosphere. The position of float depends on the gap between the internal
dimensions and the gauging head. If more displacement for the float requires with high
amplifications, The following modification has no implement.

Advantages of Pneumatic Comparator.

 The wear of measuring head is avoided due to absence of direct contacts.
 High magnification is possible.
 Friction is less due to less number of moving parts.
Disadvantages
 Accurate pressure regulation needed.
 It is bulky so portability is difficult.
 Various measuring heads are required for different dimensions which increase the
cost of comparator
Angular Measurements:
Sine bar :
Sine bar are always used along slip gauges as a device the measurement of angles very
precisely.
They are used to
1. measure angle very accurately.
2. locate the work piece to a given angle with very high pressure precision.
The working surfaces of the rollers are finished to 0.2 µm Ra value. The cylindrical
holes are provided to reduce the weight of the slide bar.

Working principle of sine bar:

The working of sine bar is based on trigonometry principle. To measure the angle of a
given specimen. one roller of sine bar is placed on the surface plate and another one roller is
placed over the surface of slip gauges.
Now ‘h’ be the height of the slip gauge and l be the distance between roller centres,
then the angle is calculated as
 h h
Sin θ = => θ = sin-1 ( )
L L

Accuracy requirement of sine bar :

The accuracy of sine bar depends on the following constructional features.
The rollers must have equal diameters and equal cylinders.
The rollers should be placed parallel to each outer and also to upper face.
Limitations :
Sine bars are fairly reliable for angles less than 15.
Bevel Protractors :
Bevel protractor is angular measuring instrument types of bevel protractors.

working principle :
The vernier bevel protractor is attached with acute angle attachment. The body is
designed such that it back in flat and no projection beyond.

The base plate is attached to the main body and an adjustable blade is attached to the
circular plate containing vernier scale. The main scale graduated in degrees from 0° to 90° in
both the direction.
Taper Measurement Concepts, Applications :

The adjustable blade can be made to rotate freely about the centre of the main scale
and it can be locked at any positions. For measuring acute angle a special attachment is
provided.
The base plate is made flat for measuring angles and can be moved throughout its
length.

The main scale graduated as one main scale division is 1 and vernier is graduated into
12 divisions on each side of zero. Therefore the least count is calculated as

Least Count = one main scale division

No. of divisions on vernier scale

1 1× 60
Least Count = = = 5 minutes.
12 12

Applications of Bevel protractor :

For checking a ‘V’ block

For measuring acute angles
For checking inside beveled face of a ground surfaces

Auto Collimator :
It is an optical instrument used for the measurement of small angular difference
changes or deflection, plane surface inspection.

For small angular measurement, autocollimator provides a very sensitive and accurate
approach an autocollimator is essentially an infinity telescope and collimator combined into
one instrument.
Basic principle :

If a length source placed in the focus of a collimating lens it is projected as a parallel

beam at light.

The distance of focus from the object is given by

x = 2θf
f - focal length of the lens
θ -filled angle of reflecting mirror

Angle dekkor :
This is a type of auto collimator, There are an illuminated scale in the focal plane of
the collimating lens. The illuminated grade is projected as a parallel beam by the collimating
lens which after striking a reflector below the instrument is refocused by the lens in the field
of view of the eyepiece.

In the field view of the eyepiece microscope there is another datum scale fixed across
the centre of screen. The reflected image of the illuminated scale is received at right angle to
the fixed scale.
 Thus the changes in angular position of the reflector in two planes are indicated by
changes in the point of intersection of the two scales.

one division on the scale is calibrated to read 1 minute. The whole optical system is
enclosed in a tube which is mounted on a adjustable bracket.
 UNIT -III

Measurements of screw threads

Screw threads are used to fasten two components with help
of nuts and bolts.
Screw thread classified as
Internal threads
External threads

Screw thread :

1. It is a continuous helical grooves of specified cross section produced on the external

or internal surface
2. Crest - It is the top surface joining two sides of thread
 3. Flank - It is the surface between crest and root.
4. Root - The bottom of the grooves between the two flat of the threads
Screw thread terminology

5. lead - lead = number of starts × pitch

6. pitch - The distance measured parallel to the axis from a point on a thread to the
corresponding next point.
7. Helix angle. The helix is the angle made by the helix of the thread at the pitch line
with the axis.
8. Flank angle. Angle made by the flank of a thread with perpendicular to the thread
axis.
9. Depth of thread - The distance between the crest and root of the thread is called depth
of thread.
10. Major diameter - It is the distance or diameter of an imaginary coaxial cylinder which
would touch the crest of external or internal thread.
11. Minor diameter - It is the diameter of an imaginary of coaxial cylinder which would
touch the roots of an external thread.
12. Addendum –For external thread, it is the radial distance between the major and pitch
cylinder.

13. Dedendum - For external thread, It is the radial distance between the pitch and minor
cylinder.

The effective diameter measurement is carried out by

One wire method
Two wire method
Three wire method
Micro meter method
Effective diameter measured by thread micrometer.
The thread micrometer is used to measure threads within certain range of thread
pitches. Any given micrometer is required to measure range of threads of different pitches, a
small error can be arise because of anvil settings.

In this method, first pitch diameter is measured for a standard plug gauges of some
size as the thread to measured and then compensate for error. The thread micrometer has
special contacts.
In this micrometer, the end of spindle is pointed to the V thread form with a
corresponding vee-races in the fixed anvil.
Advantages of thread micrometer:
Is the only method which shows the variation in direction thread.
Limitations.
It must be set to a standard thread plug when the standard plug gauge is set the
reading is not exactly zero.
Thread geometry can be measured accurately on certain measuring machines or by
projecting it profile. But these procedures cannot be adapted in normal production work, so
the use of gauges is made with which takes the form of mating surfaces.
The classification of thread gauges.
Plug screw gauges
Ring screw gauges
Caliper gauges.
Plug gauges made in different design according to the purpose for which they are required
most widely used patterns are,

Go and NOGO gauges are used in check tolerance to minnor diameter, minimum effective
diameter, major effective diameter.

Floating carriage micrometer:

The floating carriage micrometer consists of Three main units
1. Base casting
2. lower carriage
3. upper carriage

The base has housings to support the work centres. Two vee-grooves on the table is parallel
to the centres and support the lower carriage.
 This carriage has two conical pegs resting in one vee groove, the opposite side of the
carriage having a flat resting upon a ball which lies in the second vee groove of the base.

The upper surface of the lower carriage also two v-groove on ball bearings. The uppr
carriage floats freely on the balls. It is called floating carriage.

Measure of gears:

Gears are mechanical drivers which transmit power through toothed wheel.

Gear terminology

Tooth profile - It is shape of any side of gear

In this section, we will discuss the gear fundamentals, considering spur gears. It is the most common
and the simplest form, and hence the most comprehensible. The same principles apply to spiral
gears and bevel gears too.

A gear can be defined in terms of its pitch, pressure angle and number of teeth. Let’s
discuss few terms here:

Pitch Circle Diameter (d) - This is the diameter of a circle about which the gear tooth
geometry is designed or constructed. The pitch circle is the imaginary circle found at the
point where the teeth of two gears mesh. The diameter of the pitch circle is called the pitch
diameter.

Outside Diameter (OD) - The outside circle is the distance around the outer edge of the
gear’s teeth. The diameter of the outside circle is called the outside diameter.

Root - The root is the bottom part of a gear wheel.

Pitch - Pitch is a measure of tooth spacing along the pitch circle. It is the distance between
any point on one tooth and same point on the next tooth.

It is expressed in the following forms:

Diametral Pitch (Pd) - is the number of teeth per inch of the pitch diameter and is also an
index of tooth size. It is given as:
 Z
Pd=
d

Where: • Pd = diametral pitch

• Z = number of teeth
• d = pitch circle diameter in inches

A large diametral pitch indicates a small tooth and vice versa. Another way of saying this;
larger gears have fewer teeth per inch of diametral pitch.

Important! The use of diametral pitch is a handy reference in gear design. An important rule
to remember is that a pair of gears can only mesh correctly if and when the diametral pitch
(Pd) is the same, i.e.:
ZGear ZPinion
Pd= =
d Gear d Pinion

Module (m) is the metric equivalent of diametral pitch, i.e. the pitch diameter (in mm)
divided by the number of teeth, but unlike diametral pitch, the higher number, the larger the
teeth. Meshing gears must have the same module:

1 d
m= =
Pd Z

A 1 module gear has 1 tooth for every mm of pitch circle diameter. Thus a 0.3 mod gear
having 60 teeth will have a pitch circle diameter of 18 mm (0.3 *60).

Circular Pitch (Pc): is the distance from a point on one tooth to the corresponding poing on
the adjacent tooth, measured along the pitch circle. Calculated in inches, the circular pitch
equals the pitch circle circumference divided by the number of teeth:

Circumfrence(πd)
Pc=
Number of teeth (Z )

Because the circular pitch is directly proportional to the module and inversely proportional to
the diametral pitch, meshing teeth must have the same circular pitch.
Pitch point:

Pitch point is the point where gear teeth actually make contact with each other as they rotate.
Refer to the figure below for two meshing gears. The pitch point “P” always lies at the line
connecting the centers of two gears.

Relationship between Circular Pitch and Diameteral Pitch:

πd Z
From Pc¿ ∧ pd
Z d

We have,

Pd Pc = π

The product of the circular pitch and the diametral pitch is equal to pi ().
Number of Teeth (N):
The number of gear teeth is related to the diametral pitch and the pitch circle diameter by
equation Z= d x Pd.
Tooth Size: Diametral pitch, module and circular pitch are all indications of tooth size; ratios
which determine the number of teeth in a gear for a given pitch diameter.

In designing a gear set, the number of teeth in each member is of necessity. As a rule of
thumb, teeth should be large and low in number for heavily loaded gears and small and
numerous for smooth operation.

Center Distance (CD) : Center Distance is the distance between the centers of the shaft of
one spur gear to the center of the shaft of the other spur gear. The standard center distance
between two spur gears is one-half the sum of their pitch diameters.

In its cross section.

Base circle - It is the circle of gear from which the involute gear profile is derived

Base circle diameter = pitch circle diameter x cosine of Pressure angle of gear.

Pitch circle diameter (pcd) :

It is the diameter of the circle which will produce the same motion as the toothed gear
wheel

Pitch circle :
It is the imaginary circle of gear that rolls without slipping over the circle of its
mating gears.

Addendum circle:
The circle coincides with the crest (or) top of teeth.

Dedendum circle:
This circle coincides with the roots (or) bottom of teeth.

Pressure angle :
It is the angle made by the action with the common tangent to the pitch circles of
mating parts.

Module (m) :
It is the ratio of pitch circle diameter to total number of teeth m = d/T

Circular pitch:
It is the distance along the pitch circle between corresponding points of adjacent teeth.

πd
Pc = =πm.
h
Tooth Thickness measurement.
Thickness of tooth is generally measured at pitch circle and also in most cases the
chordal Thickness measurement is Carried out.
The method which are used for measuring the gear tooth thickness.

Gear tooth vernier mother.

Profile Projector

A profile projector, also known as an optical comparator, is an optical measurement

instrument used to magnify and project the profile of a workpiece onto a screen for inspection
and analysis. It aids in assessing the dimensional accuracy and surface features of a
component, enabling businesses to maintain strict quality standards.

How does a Profile Projector work?

Projection Lens: This aids project the workpiece on a screen and determines the
magnification and image clarity.

Light Source: Typically, a halogen or LED lamp provides the illumination required to create
a sharp and clear image.

Aperture Diaphragm: The aperture diaphragm controls the light reaching the projection
lens.

Magnification Adjustment: Profile projectors offer adjustable magnification to inspect

different-sized workpieces accurately.
Construction

Fixturing and Alignment: The stage and workpiece holder facilitates stable & secure
positioning and alignment of the workpiece, minimising errors caused by vibrations or
misalignment.

Focus Adjustment: Profile projectors provide mechanisms to adjust the focus of both the
projection lens and the screen, enabling professionals to obtain sharp and clear images.

Surface Illumination: The ability to adjust the illumination angle, intensity, and colour
temperature helps uncover imperfections and variations on the surface.

how image formation and projection work.

Optical Magnification: The profile projector’s optical system magnifies and projects the
workpiece’s profile onto a screen, making it easier for professionals to examine and analyze
surface features.

Surface Contour Illumination: By adjusting the surface illumination techniques, such as

bright field, dark field, or silhouette, professionals can highlight specific contours or surface
details.

Measurement and Analysis: These tools enable professionals to quantify dimensions,

angles, and other critical parameters, ensuring adherence to desired specifications.

Least Count of Profile Projector

The least count of a profile projector depends on the measurement system used, such as the
micrometer, digital readout, or vernier scale. Typically, the least count is:

• Optical micrometer: 0.001 mm (1 micron)

• Digital readout systems: 0.001 mm to 0.01 mm
• Vernier scale: 0.02 mm

The least count represents the smallest measurable unit of the device, ensuring high precision
in dimensional inspection.
Applications

Quality Control and Inspection:

Profile projectors are indispensable tools that enable professionals to assess the dimensional
accuracy, surface finish, and overall quality of workpieces, ensuring adherence to strict
standards.

Reverse Engineering and Design:

By capturing the profile of a physical object, profile projectors facilitate reverse engineering
and design processes. They help understand complex shapes and capture data points for
product development.

Manufacturing and Production:

Profile projectors assist in verifying component tolerances, inspecting critical features, and
validating the conformity of manufactured parts, resulting in improved productivity and
reduced rework.

from this movement of carriage as indicated to the dial gauge will show the errors in the gear
test,

Limitations,
Accuracy ±0.01mm
Maximum gear diameter is 300mm
Errors are not clearly indicated
Measurement is dependent upon the master gear

The tooth vernier caliper consist of vernier scale and two perpendicular arms. In two
perpendicular arms, one arm is used to measure the thickness and other arm is used to easure
the depth,

Horizontal vernier scale reading gives chordal thickness (w) and vertical vernier scale
gives the chordal addendum. Finally two vernier scales compared.

Profile projector,
It is an optical comparator, or even called a shadowgraph, that can be used for
measuring.
Surface finish measurement
when we are producing components by various methods of manufacturing process

Parkinson gear tester

working principle:
The master gear is fixed on vertical spindle and the gear to be tested is fixed.

The carriage which can slide both side and these gears are maintained in mesh by
spring pressure. when the gears are rotated the movement of sliding carriage indicated by a
dial indicator irregularities in the gear test.

The rotation is recorded in a recorder which is fitted in the form of a waved circular
chart.

If errors occurred in the tooth from when gears will be closer mesh pitch or
concentricity of pitch line will cause a variation in centre distance

Measurement of Surface finish

1) Stylus Probe Instrument (Contact type)

• These methods enable to determine a numerical value of the surface finish of any surface.

• Skid or shoe which is drawn slowly over the surface either by hand or by motor drive. The
skid when moved over the surface follows its general contours and provides a datum for the
measurements.

• A stylus or probe which moves over the surface with the skid. The stylus should be cone
shaped with a spherical tip. This records the micro-geometrical form of the surface. It moves
vertically up and down relative to skid movement due to roughness of the surface.
• As the stylus tracks the surface peaks and valleys, its vertical motion is converted to a time
varying electrical signal that represent surface profile.
• Generally it is desired that if the skid is moving up then the stylus must also be moving up.

• It is indicating & recording instrument used to measure roughness in

microns.
• It consist of two units Tracer & amplifier.
• Tracer is finely pointed stylus mounted in pick-up unit which consist of
induction coil located in field of Permanent magnet.
• When tracer (stylus) is moved across the surface to be tested, it is
displaced vertically up & down due to surface irregularities.
• This causes induction coil to move in the field of Permanent magnet &
induces the voltage.
• The induced voltage is amplified & recorded.
2) Tomlinson Surface Meter (Contact type)

Construction:- 1) The diamond stylus on the surface finish recorder is held by spring
pressure against the surface of a lapped steel cylinder.
2) The stylus is also attached to the body of the instrument by a leaf spring and its height
is adjustable to enable the diamond to be positioned conveniently.
3) The lapped cylinder is supported on one side by the stylus and on the other side by
two fixed rollers as shown in Fig.2.
3) The stylus is restrained from all motions except the vertical one by the tensions in coil
and leaf spring.
4) The tensile forces in these two Springs also keep the lapped steel cylinder in position
between the stylus and a pair of fixed rollers.
5) A light spring steel arm is attached to the horizontal lapped steel cylinder and it
carries at its tip a diamond scriber which bears against a smoked glass.

• Working:-
• 1) Any vertical movement of the stylus caused by the surface irregularities causes the
horizontal lapped steel cylinder to roll.
• 2) By its rolling, the light arm attached to its end provides a magnified movement on a
smoked glass plate.
• 3) The smoked glass trace is then, further projected at x50 or x100 magnification for
examination. This instrument is comparatively cheap one and gives reliable results.
2) The Taylor-Hobson Talysurf (Contact type)
This instrument also gives the same information as the previous instrument, but much more
rapidly and accurately.

Construction: - 1) The measuring head of this instrument consists of a diamond stylus of

about 0.002 mm tip radius and skid or shoe which is drawn across the surface by means of a
motorized driving unit.
1) The arm carrying stylus forms an armature which pivots about centre piece of E-shaped
stamping.
2) On two legs of (outer pole pieces) the E-shaped stamping there are coils carrying an a.c.
current. These two coils with other two resistances form an oscillator.
Working:- 1) As the armature is pivoted about the central leg, any movement of the
stylus causes the air gap to vary and thus the amplitude of the original a.c. current
flowing in the coils is modulated.
2) This is further demodulated so that the current now is directly proportional to the
vertical displacement of the stylus only.
3) The Demodulated output is caused to operate a pen recorder to produced a permanent
record & meter gives numerical assessment directly.

Straightness Measurements:
The basic principle of straightness measurement is that all measurement values will show the
position of the detector unit relative to the laser beam.

The laser beam can be envisioned as a very, very long, absolutely straight and weightless
ruler. First, the beam is roughly aligned along the measurement object.

A coordinate measuring machine can measure straightness by the operator simply putting the
stylus lightly on the target. Thanks to this feature, there is almost no error caused by
measurement pressure, and stable measurement results can be obtained.

Different types of straightness:

The first type is a flat surface such as a face of a cube. The second type is a cylindrical
surface in the axial direction. In both cases, the tolerance zone forms a 2D plane. It is shown
as two parallel lines (also parallel to the surface), one above and the other below the surface.

Purpose of straightness:

The standard form of straightness is a 2-Dimensional tolerance that is used to ensure that a
part is uniform across a surface or feature. Straightness can apply to either a flat feature such
as the surface of a block, or it can apply to the surface of a cylinder along the axial direction.
Instruments used to measure straightness:

Flatness Measurement Stand

Digital Angle Meter

Protractor Code

Digital Protractor

Waterproof Digital Protractor

Comparison of straightness and flatness:

Straightness measures follow a one-dimensional trace over a surface in 3D space, flatness

scans cover a two-dimensional trace. Generally a flatness control therefore constrains the
surface form more than straightness, and flatness cannot apply to, for instance, cylinders or
conical tapers, where straightness can.

Using a Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)

A coordinate measuring machine can measure straightness by the operator simply putting the
stylus lightly on the target. Thanks to this feature, there is almost no error caused by
measurement pressure, and stable measurement results can be obtained. Additionally, the
stylus can be placed on the target from different angles, which enables accurate measurement
of targets that cannot be secured level, i.e., targets that cannot be measured using a height
gauge.
Flatness:

Machine tool tables, which hold workpieces during machining, should have a high degree of
flatness. Many metrological devices like the sine bar invariably need a perfectly flat surface
plate.

Flatness error may be defined as the minimum separation of a pair of parallel planes that will
just contain all the points on the surface.

Figure given below illustrates the measure of flatness error a. It is possible, by using simple
geometrical approaches, to fit a best-fit plane for the macrosurface topography.

Flatness is the deviation of the surface from the best-fit plane. According to IS: 2063-1962, a
surface is deemed to be flat within a range of measurement when the variation of the
perpendicular distance of its points from a geometrical plane (this plane should be exterior to
the surface to be tested) parallel to the general trajectory of the plane to be tested remains
below a given value.

The geometrical plane may be represented either by means of a surface plane or by a family
of straight lines obtained by the displacement of a straight edge, a spirit level, or a light beam.

While there are quite a few methods for measuring flatness, such as the beam comparator
method, interferometry technique, and laser beam measurement,

Types of Roundness:

The roundness measurement methods are:

• Diameter measurement

• Vee-block

• Co-ordinate Measuring Machine

• Rotational Datum

Diameter measurement

• Perhaps the first and simplest approach to determining the roundness of a component is to
measure the consistency of its diameter at several different orientations. This is often done in-
process for checking machine set-up and can be adequate for assessing a component where
the roundness is a cosmetic, rather than functional, requirement. It can be functionally
relevant of course.

Vee-Block Method

• Another method for determining roundness that is often used is to place the part in a vee-
block and rotate it in contact with a dial gauge or similar indicator. This is essentially a
threepoint method rather than the two-point method above. If the part is truly round, with
negligible irregularity, the pointer of the gauge will not move.

• Errors in the form will cause the dial indicator to show a reading, however the part will also
move up and down as the irregularities contact the vee-block. Moreover, in the case of a
shaft, the contact with the vee-block is not restricted to the plane being measured.
This means that irregularities of the component along its length will affect the dial
indicator reading. However, the three-point method is applied, it will always suffer from
the limitation that the results may vary according to the vee angle and the spacing of the
irregularities.
Co-ordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)

Another way to measure roundness is to use a coordinate measuring machine (CMM). A

standard CMM has three accurate, orthogonal axes and is equipped with a touch-trigger
probe. The probe is brought into contact with the component being measured and its
position is recorded. Several points are taken around the component and these are then
combined in a computer to calculate the roundness of the component. Typically, the
number of data points is very small because of the time taken to collect them.

Rotational Datum Method

The most accurate method for determining roundness of a component is to measure the
variation of radius from an accurate rotational datum using a scanning probe
A circle can then be fitted to this data and the roundness calculated from knowledge of
the component centre. There are many dedicated instruments made for the measurement
of roundness. The most common configuration is a system that contains a rotating table
onto which the component is mounted. A gauge is mounted on a radial arm, which can be
adjusted to bring the gauge into contact with the component. The arm itself is mounted on
a column that permits the height of the measurement plane to be adjusted.
 UNIT -1V

Precision instruments based on laser – Principles

Laser stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. Laser

instruments are devices to produce powerful monochromatic collimated beam of light in
which the waves are coherent.

Laser Metrology :

A laser beam projected directly into a position detector is a method of alignment used
in a number of commercially available systems. The laser with its highly controlled
frequency modes and coherent output are used extensively for interferometry (He-Ne gas
type).
Laser is suitable for more general applications principle of laser.
 The principle involved in laser is when the photon emitted during stimulated emission
has the same energy phase and frequency as the incident photon.
The photon comes in contact with another atom or molecules, in the high energy level
E2 then it will cause atom to return to ground state energy level E1 by releasing photon.
The sequence of triggered identical photon from stimulated atom is known as
stimulated emission

Laser interferometer:

It uses A.C laser as the light source and thus enables the measurements to be made
over longer distance. Laser represents the instrument source of intensively monochromatic
optical energy which can be collimated into a directional beam.
The laser beam wavelength is exact and pure for highly accurate instrument The laser
interferometer utilises the principle of both optical techniques and digital electronics

Construction :

The A.C laser interferometer has the following components

1. Two frequency beam zeeman laser

2. Beam spliter

3. Fixed internal cube corners

4. External Cube Corners
5. Photon detectors
6. Amplifiers
7. Pulse converter

Two frequency zeeman laser :

It is generally He-Ne type that generates stable coherent light beams of two
frequency. One is polarized vertically and the other one is polarized horizontally relative to
the plane of the mounting photo detectors.
It receives the signal from the beam splitter and changes into the frequency signal
amplifiers.
 There are two amplifiers used in Ac laser interferometer. It is used to separate the
frequency difference pulse converter.

Working of laser interferometer:

The two frequencies zeeman laser generates light of two slightly different frequencies
with opposite circular polarization. Beam splitter B2 optically separates the frequencies f1.
The two amplifiers A1 & A2 separate frequency difference signal f2 = f1 and f1-(f1 + Δf)
The pulse converter contracts Δf and displays in the form of pulses in analog to digital form
in the output.

Applications; in linear, angular measurements:

Linear measurement
The linear measurements . The beam existing from the laser lead is spilted up out the
surface of a polarizing beam splitters Both frequencies are reflected back along a common
axis to the photo detector block, one includes doppler frequency shift whenever the measured
retro reflector moves.
Linear measurement

Angular
Measurements

In Angular measurement, a 45 mirror is mounted in place of the reference retro

reflector so that two frequency f1 and f2 are sent out parallel.
Machine Tool metrology

The accurate production of the component parts depends upon the accuracy of the
machine tools.
The quality of price depends on:
1. Rigidity and stiffness
2. Alignment
3. Quality and accuracy

Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)

The measuring machine are more useful and advantages than vernier calipers,
micrometer, screw gauges. The coordinate measuring machine is used to conduct inspection
parts when it is used for CIM. The CMM are controlled by computer numerical control.

Machine tool metrology

In a general sense, metrology is the science of measurement and its application. More specific
types of metrology include machine tool metrology which is concerned with measuring and
maintaining the accuracy and performance of a machine tool or part machining metrology
which is concerned with measuring the accuracy of the parts produced.

Metrology equipment to facilitate this measurement or maintenance includes dial test

indicators, squares, length bar, spindle probes, lasers and automated CNC metrology
software. The latter is the most accurate as it is the only type of metrology that can remove
manual involvement from the measurement process.

If manufacturers are machining parts without the proper use of metrology to monitor or
maintain their machine tool, they run the risk of inaccurately machining parts. If the machine
is not setup correctly, if there are errors elsewhere on the machine or if it is unknown that the
machine is underperforming, this is a recipe for scrapping parts or producing parts which
need to be reworked or sold as concessions.

Accurate metrology systems are especially important for 5-axis CNC machining where
machines tend to be more complex and parts have higher tolerance requirements. In this
scenario, specialist metrology systems that monitor the machine tool’s performance and
uncover hidden errors that would not be found any other way should be considered.

Furthermore, if the machine tool metrology is digital, this can feed into industry 4.0 data
systems for increased knowledge sharing and connectivity across the entire shop floor.
Overall, machine tool metrology can provide much needed confidence for manufacturers in
trusting their machine tools, machining processes and the parts being produced.

Principle

Four types (OR) Elements of machine vision system and the schematic arrangement are
shown

(i) Image formation.

(ii) Processing of image in a form suitable for analysis by computer.
(iii) Defining and analyzing the characteristic of image.
Interpretation of image and decision-making Lighting and presentation of object to evaluated.

➢ It has great compact on repeatability, reliability and accuracy.

➢ Iighting source and projection should be chosen and give sharp contrast.
➢ Images sensor compressor TV camera may he vidicon or solid state.
➢ For simple processing, analog comparator and a computer controller to convert
the video information to a binary image is used.
➢ Data compactor employs a high speed away processor to provide high speed
processing of the input image data.
➢ System control computer communicates with the operator and make decision
about the part being inspected.

Applications of Machine Vision in Inspection

Machine vision can he used to replace human vision fur welding. Machining and maintained
relationship between tool and work piece and assembly of parts to analyze the parts.
• This is frequently used for printed circuit board inspection to ensure minimum
conduction width and spacing between conductors. These are used for weld seam
tracking, robot guideness and control, inspection of microelectronic devices and
tooling, on line inspection in machining operation, assemblies monitoring high speed
packaging equipment etc.
• It gives recognition of an object from its image. These are designed to have strong
geometric feature interpretation capabilities and pa handling equipment.

Types of Measuring Machine C.M.M.:-

Types of CMM
1. Cantilever type
2. Bridge type
 3. Horizontal boring type
4. Vertical boring type

Cantilever type

It is easy to load and unload but is most sensitive to mechanical error because of sag or
deflection in y axis beam

Bridge type :

It is difficult to lead but less sensitive to mechanical errors

Horizontal boring mill type

 It is suited for large heavy work pieces working principle
when the distance is measured between two holes using CMM, the work piece should
be clamped to the worktable and aligned for three measuring slides x, y and z.
Now the tapered probe tip is seated in first the hole and probe position digital readout
is set to zero.

The probe is then moved to successive holes, the read out represents the coordinate
part hole location with respect to the datum hole.

Features of CMM :
In faster machines with higher accuracies, the stiffness to weight ratio has to be high
in order to reduce dynamic forces.
Errors in machines are built up and fed into the computer system so that error
comparison is built up into the software.

Causes of Error in CMM :

The table of CMM may not have perfect geometric form
The probe may be a degree of run out.
Some perpendicular errors occurs when probe is moving up and down.
The errors can be controlled by the manufacturer and minimized by the measuring
software.

Performance of CMM :
Geometrical accuracies such as positioning accuracy straightness and squareness.
Total measuring accuracy in terms of axial length measuring accuracy.
Volumetric length measuring and length measuring repeatability (ie) CMM has to tested as
complete system.

Applications of CMM:
CMM finds applications in automatic, machine tool electronics, space and other large
companies
CMM is ideally suited for development of new products and construction prototype
For aircraft and space vehicles, hundred percent inspections are carried out by CMM
CMM can be used for determining the dimensional accuracy of the components
CMM is best suited for the test and inspection of test equipment gauges and tools

Advantages of CMM :

 The inspection rate is increased

 Improved accuracy of mechanical parts
  Minimisation of operator error
 Skill requirement of the operator is reduced
 Uniform inspection quality
 Reduction in setup time
 Compensation for misalignment
 Reduction of inspection procedures

Disadvantages of CMM:
 The table and probe may not be in perfect alignment
 The probe may have to run out
 The probe in 2-axis may have some perpendicular errors
 Probe will move in x and y direction but not be square to each other
 There may be errors in digital system

Digital devices :
Most of the digital readout system compromise a glass scale and optical detector head.
These are however liable to be affected under workshop conditions by contaminants such as
oil, sweat and dirt.

Advantages of digital system:

Measuring element is free from errors.

Learning line is short.

Features of digital devices:

Easy identification of component features out of tolerance.

Storage of upto two dimensions

Computer Aided inspection:

A big advantages of computer is its processing capability and presently data. The
application of using computer for processing the output of measuring instrument is unlimited.

Computer Aided Inspection using Robots:

Robots can be used to carry out inspection or testing operation for mechanical
dimensions.

MACHINE VISION SYSTEMS:

A machine vision system enables the identification and orientation of a work part
within the field of vision, and has far-reaching applications. It can not only facilitate
automated inspection, but also has wide ranging applications in robotic systems. Machine
vision can be defined as the acquisition of image data of an object of interest, followed by
processing and interpretation of data by a computer program, for useful applications.

Stages of Machine Vision:

 The principal applications in inspection include dimensional gauging, measurement, and
verification of the presence of components. The operation of a machine vision system,
illustrated in the given figure shows the following four important stages:

1. Image generation and digitization

2. Image processing and analysis
3. Image interpretation
4. Generation of actuation signals

Applications of Machine Vision in Inspection:

• Machine vision systems are used for various applications such as part identification,
safety monitoring, and visual guidance and navigation. However, by far, their biggest
application is in automated inspection.
• It is best suited for mass production, where 100% inspection of components is
sought.
The inspection task can either be in on-line or off-line mode.
• The following are some of the important applications of machine vision system in
inspection: Dimensional gauging and measurement Work parts, either stationary or
moving on a conveyor system, are inspected for dimensional accuracy.
• A simpler task is to employ gauges that are fitted as end effectors of a transfer
machine or robot, in order to carry out gauging, quite similar to a human operator.
• A more complicated task is the measurement of actual dimensions to ascertain the
dimensional accuracy. This calls for systems with high resolution and good lighting of
the scene, which provides a shadow-free image. Identification of surface defects on
the surface such as scratch marks, tool marks, pores, and blow holes can be easily
identified.
• defects reveal themselves as changes in reflected light and the system can be
 programmed to identify such defects.
• Verification of holes This involves two aspects. Firstly, the count of number of holes
can be easily ascertained. Secondly, the location of holes with respect to a datum can
be inspected for accuracy.
• Identification of flaws in a printed label Printed labels are used in large quantities on
machines or packing materials.
• Defects in such labels such as text errors, numbering errors, and graphical errors can
be easily spotted and corrective action taken before they are dispatched to the
customer.

 Checking robot, programmable robot and co-ordinate robots are some of the types
given to a multi axis measuring machine.
 They are not accurate as precision as CMM but they can check up to accuracies of
micrometers.
 The co-ordinate robot can take successive readings at high speed and evaluate the
result using a computer graphics, based real time statistical analysis system.

Measurement of force:
Force is a basic engineering parameter, the measurement of which can be done in
many way as follows.

 Direct methods
 indirect methods

Direct methods
1. Equal arm balance
When the unknown force is applied at one end of the beam. The pointer is attached to the
center of the beam

An equilibrium Condition is indicated by the pointer when it is absolutely

perpendicular
Taking moment about the knife edge

m1 g l1 = m2 g l2 i.e l1,l2
w1 = w2 = m2 g

Analytical balance
 Analytical balance consists of an arm that rotates about a pivot o two force w1, w2
(or) weight are added at the two ends.
Let G be the centre of gravity of arm. This balance is indicated by angle θ when the
pointer makes with the vertical.

For equilibrium the requirement

WG . xG = W₁ x₁ = W₂ x₂

Indirect Methods
A force will make a body to accelerate, by measuring the acceleration the force may
determined from the equation F= ma when m = mass of the body used to measure
acceleration.

Force measurement by acceleration

ii) Electromagnetic balance
iii) load cells
iv) Elastic loaded members

Torque Measurements
Torque is just a rotational force or a force through distance. It is represented as
moment vector of a force.

Torque reaction methods:

 Any system involving torque transmission through a shaft of the transmitted torque
can be measured by Crading then measuring the reaction force F and the arm length L.
In this system there is a possibility of inherent errors such as bearing friction and
windage torque.

Cradler Power source

Proney brake
It is one of the earliest method of measuring the torque in a rotating shaft. In this
system, all the power produced is absorbed by friction in a brake.
A rope or belt brake is wrapped around a flywheel carried by the shaft. The rope, for
the force in the lower end of the rope arrest from the weight and is mg. if the spring balance
reading is for the difference in tension between the ends of the rope
Mechanical Dynamometer

These come under the absorption type an example for this kind is prony brake.
In proney brake, mechanical energy is converted into heat through dry friction
between the wooden brake blocks and the flywheel (pulley) of the machine.
One block carries lever arm, An arrangement is provided to tighten so as to increase
the frictional resistance between the block and the pulleys.

2 πNT 2 πNFr
Power dissipated P¿ ¿
60 60

F- load applied
r- lever arm.

Eddy current (or) production Dynamometer

An eddy current dynamometer consists of a metal disc or wheel which is rotated in
the flux of a magnetic field.
The field is produced by field elements or coils is excited by a external source and
attached to the dynamometer which is mounted in tandem bearings. As the result disc turns
eddy currents are generated.

Flow measurements
Flow measurements is very important in industry application

Types of flow meter

 obstruction meters
orifice, venturi, nozzle
Velocity probes
Static pressure probes
Total pressure probes

Orifice meter:
It is most common type of hood flow measuring device for medium and large
pipe sizes.

Flow rate through orifice meter

Cd ⋅ a1 ⋅ a2 √ 2 gh
Q=
√ a −a
2
1
2
2

Venturi meter

The inlet cone or convergent cone tapers towards right from pipe area to throat. So the
diameter at inlet is bigger when compared to outlet diameter of the convergent cone.
A manometer measure the pressure difference between two sections.

Power Measurement: (Mechanical, Pneumatic, Hydraulic and Electrical Type)

Torque is exerted along a rotating shaft. By measuring this torque which is exerted
along a rotating shaft, the shaft power can be determined. For torque measurement
dynamometers are used.
T = F.r P = 2πNT
Where,
T - Torque,
F - Force at a known radius r,
P – Power
Types of dynamometers

• Absorption dynamometers
• Driving dynamometers
• Transmission dynamometers

Absorption dynamometers:

The dynamometer absorbs the mechanical energy when torque is measured. It dissipates
mechanical energy (heat due to friction) when torque is measured. Therefore, dynamometers
are used to measure torque/power of power sources like engine and motors.
Mechanical Dynamometers:

• In prony brake, mechanical energy is converted into heat through dry friction between the
wooden brake blocks and the flywheel (pulley) of the machine.
• One block carries a lever arm. An arrangement is provided to tighten the rope which is
connected to the arm. Rope is tightened so as to increase the frictional resistance between the
blocks and the pulley. Power dissipated, P = 2πNT/60.
The capacity of proney brake is limited due to wear of wooden blocks, friction coefficient
varies. So, it is unsuitable for large powers when it is used for long periods.

Eddy Current Dynamometer:

 Basically an electrical dynamometer of absorption type, used to measure power from

a source such as engine or a motor. When a conducting material moves through a
magnetic flux field, voltage is generated, which causes current to flow.
 If the conductor is a wire forming, a part of a complete circuit current will be caused
to flow through that circuit and with some form of commutating device a form of A.C
or D.C generator may result. An eddy current dynamometer is shown above.
 It consists of a metal disc or wheel which is rotated in the flux of a magnetic field.
The field if produced by field elements or coils is excited by an external source and
attached to the dynamometer housing which is mounted in trunnion bearings.
 As the disc turns, eddy currents are generated. Its reaction with the magnetic field
tends to rotate the complete housing in the trunnion bearings. Water cooling is
employed.
Hydraulic or Fluid Friction Dynamometer:

 A rotating disk that is fixed to the driving shaft, Semi-elliptical grooves are provided
on the disc through which a stream of water flows. There is a casting which is
stationary and the disc rotates in this casing. When the driving shaft rotates, water
flow is in a helical path in the chamber.
 Due to vortices and eddy-currents setup in the water, the casting tends to rotate in the
same direction as that of the driving shafts.
 By varying the amount of water, the braking action is provided. Braking can also be
provided by varying the distance between the rotating disk and the casting.
 The absorbing element is constrained by a force-measuring device placed at the end
of the arm of radius r
UNIT – V
 UNIT - V

Digital and Thermal Metrology

Acoustic measurement:

Acoustic measurement involves quantifying and analyzing sound waves and vibrations,
encompassing techniques like sound level measurement, frequency analysis, and impulse
response measurement to understand and characterize acoustic environments.

Key Aspects of Acoustic Measurement:

• Sound Level Measurement:

Determining the intensity or loudness of sound, typically in decibels (dB), which can be done
in various environments, from quiet rooms to noisy industrial settings.

• Frequency Analysis:

Analyzing the frequency components of sound waves to identify specific frequencies or

ranges of interest, such as those in human speech, musical instruments, or machinery noise.

• Impulse Response Measurement:

Capturing the acoustic response of a space or object to an impulsive sound, like a clap or a
test signal, often used in room acoustics to assess reverberation, echoes, and overall sound
quality.

• Noise Source Identification:

Pinpointing and characterizing sources of noise in an environment, which can involve using
directional microphones or arrays to locate and assess noise sources.

• Sound Pressure Level (SPL) Measurement:

A basic technique using a sound pressure level meter (also known as a decibel meter) to
assess noise or sound levels by measuring sound pressure.
 • Equivalent Sound Level (LEQ):

When measurements are performed over time, the equivalent sound level (LEQ) is used to
assess the overall noise exposure.

• Acoustic Parameters of Rooms:

Acoustic measurements are used to determine the acoustic parameters of rooms, such as
reverberation time, sound absorption, and sound insulation.

 Sound Insulation Measurement:

Assessing the resistance of partitions (walls or ceilings) to the transmission of airborne or
impact sounds.

 Sound Intensity Measurement:

Measuring the energy passing through a unit area, often expressed in decibels relative to a
reference intensity.

 Vibration Measurement:

Measuring vibrations that cause sound, often using accelerometers.

Tools and Techniques:

 Microphones: Measurement-grade microphones are used to capture sound, with

different types (pressure, free-field, and random-incidence) suited for various
applications.

 Sound Level Meters: These instruments measure sound pressure levels, often referred
to as decibel meters or noise meters.

 Sound Intensity Probes: Used to quantify acoustic emission and ranking.

 Particle Velocity Probes: Used to localize acoustic leakage.

 Software: Software like Room EQ Wizard is used for analyzing acoustic

measurements and creating visualizations.

 Acoustic Testing and Measurement Solutions: Systems that support essential sound
measurement applications, including sound level, sound power, sound quality, sound
intensity, octave band analysis, and reverberation time (RT60).

 Standards: Measurements are often performed according to international standards,

such as ISO 354:2003 for measuring sound absorption.
Ultrasonic measurements:

Ultrasonic measurements utilize high-frequency sound waves to determine properties of

materials, including thickness, corrosion, and even stress levels, through a process called non-
destructive testing (NDT).

Ultrasonic measurements, or ultrasonic testing (UT), is a non-destructive testing (NDT)

method that uses high-frequency sound waves (ultrasound) to examine materials without
causing damage.

Working:

Ultrasonic waves are sent into a material, and the time it takes for the waves to travel through
the material and return to the sensor, or the way they are reflected, is analyzed to determine
properties like thickness, material integrity, and the presence of flaws.

Applications:

• Thickness Measurement: UT is widely used to measure the thickness of materials,

especially in applications where access is limited to one side, such as inspecting pipes, tanks,
and structural steel for corrosion or erosion.

• Corrosion Detection: By measuring the thickness of a material over time, UT can help
detect and monitor corrosion and erosion.

• Flaw Detection: Ultrasonic waves can be used to detect cracks, voids, and other flaws
within materials.

 Material Characterization: UT can also be used to characterize materials, such as

measuring grain size or assessing the presence of stress.

 Liquid Level Measurement: Ultrasonic sensors can measure liquid levels in containers
or pipes.
Types of Ultrasonic Measurements:

 Thickness Measurement: Measuring the thickness of a material using the time it takes
for an ultrasonic pulse to travel through it and return.

 Velocity Measurement: Measuring the speed of sound waves in a material, which can
be used to determine material properties or stress levels.

 Flaw Detection: Detecting cracks, voids, and other flaws by analyzing the way
ultrasonic waves are reflected or transmitted through a material.
Advantages of Ultrasonic Measurements:
 Non-destructive: UT does not damage the material being tested.

 Versatile: UT can be used to inspect a wide variety of materials and applications.

 Accurate: UT can provide accurate measurements of material properties.

 Rapid: UT can be a quick and efficient way to inspect materials.

Radiation thermal measurements:

Radiation thermal measurements involve measuring the thermal radiation emitted by objects,
often using instruments like infrared pyrometers or thermal imaging cameras, to determine
temperature without physical contact.

Thermal Radiation:
 • All objects above absolute zero temperature emit thermal radiation, which is a form
of electromagnetic radiation in the infrared (IR) part of the spectrum.

• The amount and type of radiation emitted depend on the object’s temperature.

• Thermal radiation can be emitted, reflected, or transmitted by a surface.

Measurement of radiation:

• Infrared Pyrometers:
These devices measure the infrared radiation emitted by an object and convert it into a
temperature reading.

• Thermal Imaging Cameras:

These cameras detect and visualize the infrared radiation emitted by objects, creating a
thermal image or thermogram that shows temperature variations.

• Other Instruments:

Radiation thermometers, also known as pyrometers, are instruments that measure temperature
by radiation.

Key Concepts:

• Emissivity:

A measure of how well a surface emits thermal radiation, ranging from 0 (perfect reflector) to
1 (perfect emitter or blackbody).

• Stefan-Boltzmann Law:

This law states that the total radiant energy emitted by a surface is proportional to the
fourth power of its absolute temperature (T).

• Thermal Dose Unit (TDU):

A unit used in the oil and gas industry to measure exposure to thermal radiation, which is a
function of intensity and exposure time.

• Heat Flux:

The rate of heat energy transfer per unit area.

 • Thermopile:

A sensor used in heat flux sensors that converts the amount of heat flux into an output
voltage.

• Radiosity:

The total amount of thermal radiation leaving a surface, which is the sum of the emitted,
reflected, and transmitted components.

• Blackbody:

An idealized object that absorbs all incident radiation and emits the maximum possible
amount of radiation at a given temperature.

Radiation Pyrometer:
A radiation pyrometer, also known as a radiation thermometer or infrared thermometer, is a
non-contact temperature measurement device that detects the emitted thermal radiation from
an object to determine its surface temperature.

• Radiation pyrometers measure temperature by detecting the infrared or visible

radiation emitted by an object, which is proportional to its temperature.

 Unlike thermocouples or resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) that require

physical contact, radiation pyrometers measure temperature from a distance, making them
suitable for measuring the temperature of moving objects, inaccessible surfaces, or very
hot objects.

 Applications:

Radiation pyrometers are used in various industries, including metal processing, glass
manufacturing, and power generation, where precise and non-contact temperature
measurements are crucial.

Advantages:
 • Non-contact: Avoids contact with the object, preventing contamination, corrosion,
or interference.

• Fast response: Provides quick temperature measurements.

• High temperature measurement: Suitable for measuring temperatures above 600°C,

where other sensors may fail.

Disadvantages:

• Emissivity: The accuracy of the measurement depends on the emissivity of the

object, which is the ratio of the radiation emitted by the object to that of a black body.

• Cost: Radiation pyrometers can be more expensive than contact-based temperature

sensors.
• Maintenance: Requires routine maintenance to keep the sighting path clear and the
optical elements clean.

Capacitance-based measurements:

Capacitance-based measurements involve determining the capacitance of a component or

material by measuring the electrical charge stored or the change in capacitance, often used in
applications like level sensing, material characterization, and damage detection.

Capacitance:

• Capacitance is a measure of a component’s or material’s ability to store electrical

energy in the form of an electric field.

• It’s measured in Farads (F).

• A capacitor is a device designed to store electrical energy.

Methods of measuring capacitance:

This method involves charging and discharging a capacitor with a known current and
measuring the resulting voltage change.

• AC Response:

Applying an AC signal to the capacitor and measuring the resulting voltage and current can
reveal capacitance.

• Bridge Methods:
This technique involves comparing the capacitance of the component under test to a known
standard capacitance using a bridge circuit.

• Resonance Frequency Based Methods:

Measuring the resonance frequency of a circuit containing a known inductor and the
capacitor under test allows for capacitance determination.

• Time-domain measurement:

A new time-domain measurement method for capacitive sensors is proposed.

Temperature Measurements
It is defined as a measure of velocity of fluid particles. It is a property which is used
to determine the degree of hotness or coldness or the level heat intensity of the body.

Bimetalic strip :
The bimetalic strip temperature measurement is based on change in diameter of the
metal. A very widely used method of temperature measurement is the bimetallic strip. It
works based on the change in dimension of metal (i e) expands or contracts when there is a
change in temperature.
The expansion or contraction is based on the thermal expansion coefficient It changes from
metal to metal.
Pressure Thermometer (Fluid expansion thermometer)

Principle

The basic principle of pressure thermometer are when liquid, gases, vapour are
heated. They will expand, when They are cooled, It will contract.

Application area of Thermistor

Measurement of Thermal Conductivity

Measurement of gas composition

Reliability
It is the probability that a system will perform satisfactory for at least a given period
of time when used under stated conditions.

Readability
It refers to the ease with which the readings of a measuring instrument can be read

Vibrometer
It is the scientific instrument that is used to make non contact vibration

Electrical Resistance Thermistor:

 Semiconductors that are used to measure temperature are called thermistors.

 When a thermistor is employed for temperature measurement, its resistance
decreases with increase in temperature.
  The valence electrons, which are mutually shared by the metal atoms, move
continuously and freely through the metal during their movement from atom to
atom.
 The vibration in the crystal lattice of atoms increases with the increase in
temperature. The free movement of electrons becomes restricted due to an
increase in the volume of space occupied by the atoms.
 In case of thermistors, the valence electrons are attached more firmly to the atoms;
some of the electrons are detached and flow due to the increase in temperature,
which decreases electrical resistance facilitating the easy flow of electrons.
 Materials used in thermistors for temperature measurements have very high
temperature coefficients (8-10 times higher than platinum and copper) and high
resistivity (higher than any pure metal). Thus, they are very sensitive to small
variations in temperature and respond very quickly.
 The relationship between temperature and resistance is given by the following
equation: R = RR e β( 1 - 1 T T ) R Here, R is the resistance at temperature T, RR
is the resistance at the reference temperature TR, e is the base of the Napierian
logarithm, and β is a constant, which lies in the range of 3000-4600K depending
on the composition.
 The temperature coefficient of resistance is given by the following equation:
dR/dT R = b T2 The temperature coefficient of platinum at 25 °C is +0.0036/K
and, for thermistors, it is generally around -0.045/K, which is more than 10 times
sensitive when compared to platinum. A variety of ceramic semiconductor
materials qualify as thermistor materials.
 Among them, germanium containing precise proportions of arsenic, gallium, or
antimony is most preferred. The temperature measurement range of thermistors is
-250 to 650°C. Thermistors are also produced using oxides of manganese, nickel
cobalt, nickel copper, iron, zinc, titanium, and tin.
 In order to attain better reproducibility and stability of the thermistor
characteristics, some chemically stabilizing oxides are added. The oxides are
milled into powder form and mixed with a plastic binder, which are then
compressed into desired forms such as disks or wafers.
 Disks are formed by compressing the mixtures using pelleting machines, and the
wafers are compression moulded. They are then sintered at high temperatures to
produce thermistor bodies. Depending on their intended application, leads are then
added to these thermistors and coated if necessary.
 To achieve the required stability, the thermistors so formed are subjected to a
special ageing process. Figure given below illustrates the sensor in electrical
thermistor.

The use of thermistors as temperature sensors has several advantages:

1. Thermistors possess very high sensitivity, which is much higher than that of RTDs and
thermocouples, and hence have the capability to detect very small changes in
temperature.

2. Their response is very fast, and hence, they are employed for precise control of
temperature. 3. They are inexpensive.

Thermistors also have certain disadvantages:

1. They have highly non-linear resistance temperature characteristics.

2. The temperature range is narrow.

3. Low fragility is often a problem.

4. High-temperature performance of thermistors is not good and they exhibit instability with
time.

5. They are prone to self-heating errors

Vibrometers and

Vibrometers also known as low frequency transducer is used to measure the high
frequency ω of a vibrating body.

Accelerometer is used to measure the acceleration of a vibrating body.

A vibrometer is generally a two beam laser interferometer that measures the

frequency or phase difference between an internal reference beam and a test beam. The most
common type of laser is an LDV is the helium - neon laser, although laser diodes, fiber lasers
and Nd: YAG lasers are also used.

An accelerometer is a sensor that measures the dynamic acceleration of a physical

devices a voltage. The basis underlying working principle of an accelerometer is such as
dumped mass on a spring.

When acceleration is experienced by this device, the mass gets displaced till the
spring can easily move the mass, with the same rate equal to the acceleration it sensed.

The use of accelerometer based measurement techniques for evaluating bridge forced
vibrations or to perform bridge modal analysis is well established on the other hand laser
vibrometer systems detect relative displacements as opposed to the absolute measures of
accelerometers.
Seismic accelerometers:

Strong-motion sensors are accelerometers and are designed to measure the large
amplitude, high frequency seismic waves typical of large local earthquakes.

These seismic waves result in the strong ground motion we feel during a large
earthquake.

A seismometer is an instrument that responds to ground motions, such as caused by

earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and explosions.

Seismic accelerometers are generally much bigger and heavier than other test and
measurement accelerometers. This is due to the much higher quantity of piezoelectric
material and the large mass material required to create the high output which allows for
micro-g measurements.

They are also limited on their higher frequency capability, usually limited to 500Hz to
1KHz, with a typical peak measurement range of just 0.5g their use is restricted to typical
seismic applications.

The advantages of seismic accelerometers include

 High sensitivity
 wide dynamic, frequency and temperature ranges.
 low output impedance, low noise.
 Easy calculation
 Durable and efficient.

Disadvantages:
 Spring system is not always accurate.
 Fluctuation in mass leads to wrong calculation

Applications:
Medical applications and navigation.
 UNIT-I

BASICS OF METROLOGY

1. What is measurement? Give its types.

Measurement is the process of determining the numerical value of a physical quantity
by comparing it to a known standard.
Types of measurement
● Length
● Mass
● Time
● Temperature
● Electric current.

2. Distinguish between line standard and end standard.

Line Standard End Standard.

Principle: Length is defined by the Principle: Length is defined by the
distance between two engraved lines. distance between two flat, parallel
surfaces.
Examples: Rulers, measuring scales, Examples: Slip gauges, end bars,
imperial yard. micrometer anvils.
Characteristics: Quick measurements Characteristics:
over a wide range. Highly accurate for measurements of
close tolerances.

3. What is the relationship between sensitivity and range?

Sensitivity and range are related in that sensitivity describes how an instrument
responds to changes in the quantity being measured, while range defines the span of
 values that the instrument can measure. A higher sensitivity generally indicates the
ability to detect smaller changes, but this can also be tied to a smaller overall range.

4. State the difference between primary and secondary transducers.

Primary Transducer Secondary Transducer

It directly senses the physical quantity to It takes the mechanical output from a
be measured, such as pressure, primary transducer and converts it into
temperature, or displacement. an electrical signal.
It typically converts the measured The output is an electrical signal, such
quantity into a mechanical signal, like a as a voltage or current, which is easier
change in position or force. to process and transmit.

5. Define the term sensitivity

Sensitivity refers to a measurement instrument’s ability to detect and respond to
changes in the quantity being measured. Specifically, it’s the ratio of the change in the
instrument’s output to a change in the input being measured.

6. What you mean by sensitivity of a measuring instrument?

The sensitivity of a measuring instrument refers to its ability to detect and respond to
small changes in the quantity being measured. It’s essentially how well the instrument
can pick up subtle variations in the input.

7. Define precision and accuracy

✓ Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true or accepted value.
✓ Precision refers to how close a series of measurements are to each other, regardless
of their closeness to the true value.

8. Define readability.
Readability refers to the ease with which a measurement scale or instrument display
can be read and understood. It’s about how clearly and precisely the measurement
value is presented, allowing the user to determine the result with minimal ambiguity.

9. Define the term repeatability.

Repeatability refers to the ability of a measurement system to produce the same (or
very similar) results when measuring the same quantity multiple times under the same
conditions.

10. Define the term reliability.

Reliability is defined as the probability that a product, system, or service will perform
its intended function adequately for a specified period of time, or will operate in a
defined environment without failure.

11. What is hysteresis?

Hysteresis refers to the dependence of a measurement instrument’s output on the
direction and history of the input. Essentially, it’s a “lagging” effect where the
 instrument’s reading can differ depending on whether the measured quantity is
increasing or decreasing.

12. State the dynamic characteristics of simplified measuring system.

1. Speed of Response
2. Measuring Lag
3. Fidelity
4. Dynamic Errors

13. Define systematic errors.

Systematic errors are deviations in measurements that consistently occur in one
direction, leading to a bias or offset from the true value.

14. Distinguish between relative error and random error.

Relative error Random error

✓ Relative error is the ratio of the Random error is the unpredictable

absolute error to the true value. fluctuation in measurements.
Indicates the accuracy of a measurement It is caused by unknown and
relative to the size of the measured uncontrollable factors.
value.

15 Mention the various methods used for limiting temperature errors.

✓ Use of Temperature-Controlled Environments

✓ Regular Calibration
✓ Thermal Insulation

16. What are the sources of error?

Systematic Errors:
i. Consistent and predictable errors due to calibration issues, instrument defects, or
environmental factors.
Random Errors:
ii. Unpredictable variations caused by uncontrollable factors like slight changes in
environmental conditions
Gross Errors:
iii. Human mistakes such as misreading instruments or recording data incorrectly.

17. Define calibration.

Calibration is the process of comparing the measurements of a device under test
with a known standard to ensure accuracy. It involves adjusting the device to align with
the standard, if necessary.

18. What are the principles of High-precision measurements?

 1. Minimized Uncertainty:
Reducing errors to the smallest possible level.
2. Stable Environment: Conducting measurements in controlled conditions to avoid
environmental influences.

19. What is resolution?

Resolution refers to the smallest detectable change in a measured quantity that an
instrument can reliably indicate. A higher resolution allows for detecting finer differences
between measurements.
20. What are the applications of measurements?

1. Manufacturing
2. Healthcare
3. Environmental Science
4. Engineering
5. Research and Development
6. Quality Control
UNIT-II

LINEAR & ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS

1. Define – Metrology
Metrology is the science of measurement, encompassing both experimental and
theoretical aspects. It involves the development and application of measurement
standards, ensuring accuracy and consistency across various fields.

2. Why laser is preferred in Engineering Metrology?

Lasers are preferred in engineering metrology due to their coherent and
monochromatic light, which allows for high precision in measurements. They enable non-
contact measurement techniques, reducing the risk of errors caused by physical contact
with the object.

3. List any four linear measuring instruments.

✓ Vernier Caliper
✓ Micrometer Screw Gauge
✓ Height Gauge
✓ Slip Gauge

4. Give the advantages of digital vernier caliper.

✓ Provides direct digital reading, reducing human error.
✓ Often includes features like data hold and memory functions.
✓ May offer higher resolution and accuracy compared to analog versions.

5. What is laser micrometer?

A laser micrometer is a non-contact measuring instrument that uses laser beams to
determine the dimensions of an object with high precision. It is commonly used for
measuring
small diameters and thicknesses.
6. Discuss the relative merits and demerits of micrometer and vernier caliper.
Micrometer:
• Merits: Offers high accuracy and precision for small dimensions.
• Demerits: Limited to measuring external dimensions; requires careful handling
Vernier Caliper:
• Merits: Versatile; can measure internal, external, and depth dimensions.
• Demerits: Less accurate than a micrometer; requires skill to read.

7. What is wringing of gauge blocks?

Wringing is the process of sliding two-gauge blocks perpendicularly to each other to form
a tight, flat contact. This is achieved through molecular adhesion, allowing for precise
length measurement.

8. Describe the precautionary measures to be taken at various stages of using slip gauges.
✓ Ensure surfaces are clean and free from oil or dirt.
✓ Apply a thin film of light oil to prevent corrosion.
✓ Store in a controlled environment to avoid dimensional changes.
✓ Regularly calibrate to maintain accuracy.

9. How the gauge blocks are selected to built-up the length of 45.525mm?
To achieve a length of 45.525 mm, select gauge blocks that sum up to this value. For
example, combining blocks of 25 mm, 10 mm, 5 mm, 5 mm, and 0.525 mm can provide
the desired length

10. What are constructional requirements of a good sine bar?

✓ Two accurately ground and parallel surfaces.
✓ Precise and uniform length between the centers of the rollers.
✓ High-grade material to minimize wear and deformation.
✓ Accurate positioning of rollers to ensure stability

11. What are the chances of errors in using sine bars?

✓ Incorrect placement of the workpiece.
✓ Improper calculation of sine angles.
✓ Wear or damage to the sine bar or rollers.
✓ Environmental factors like temperature affecting measurements.

12. What is the advantage of using laser beam in interferometry?

The coherence and monochromatic nature of laser beams provide high precision and
stability in interferometric measurements, allowing for detection of minute changes in
length or displacement.

13. What is the use of Autocollimator in mechanical measurements?

An autocollimator is used to measure small angular displacements with high precision. It
is commonly employed for aligning components and checking the flatness of surfaces.
14. State “Taylor’s principle of gauge design”
Taylor’s Principle states that a gauge should be designed to check the maximum material
condition of a part, ensuring that the part will fit within the specified limits when
produced.

15. What are the limitations of sine bar?

✓ Limited to measuring angles up to approximately 45°
✓ Requires precise calculation and setup.
✓ Not suitable for measuring internal angles or complex geometries.

16. Name any two materials commonly used or gauges.

✓ High-carbon steel
✓ Ceramic materials
✓ Tool steel
✓ Stainless steel

17. What is a comparator?

A comparator is an instrument used to compare the dimensions of a workpiece with a
reference standard, providing a quick and accurate indication of any deviations.

18. What is the principle of working of pneumatic comparator?

A pneumatic comparator operates on the principle that changes in the dimension of a
workpiece alter the airflow resistance, which is detected and amplified to indicate
dimensional
variations.

19. What is the constructional difference between an autocollimator and an angle dekkor?
✓ Autocollimator: Consists of a light source, collimator lens, and a detector to measure
angular displacements.
✓ Angle Dekkor: Comprises a telescope and a scale to directly measure angular
deviations.

20. Classify the comparator according to the principles used for obtaining magnification.
✓ Mechanical Comparators: Use mechanical linkages to magnify small displacements.
✓ Optical Comparators: Employ optical systems to magnify and project images.
✓ Electrical Comparators: Utilize electrical signals to detect and amplify displacements.
✓ Pneumatic Comparators: Use air pressure variations to detect dimensional changes.

UNIT-III

FORM MEASUREMENT

1. Define the effective diameter of thread.

 The effective diameter of a thread is the diameter of the thread measured at a point where
the load is primarily transmitted between the mating threads. It is the diameter at which the
contact between the male and female threads occurs.

2. Name the two corrections to be applied for the measurement of effective diameter.
✓ Pitch Diameter Correction: Correction for the variation in the pitch diameter,
ensuring the measurement is taken at the correct diameter for accurate fit.
✓ Thread Angle Correction: Adjustment for deviations in the thread angle from the
nominal angle, which affects the effective diameter.

3. What is meant by "Best size wire" in screw thread measurement?

The best size wire is the wire used in the measurement of the pitch diameter of a screw
thread, which fits perfectly between the crests of the external thread and the roots of the
internal thread. It provides the most accurate measurement of the thread pitch diameter.

4. How Taylor's principle is applied to screw thread gauge?

Taylor's principle in screw thread gauge design states that a gauge should check the
maximum material condition (MMC) of a part. For screw threads, this means that the internal
thread gauge should be designed to check the minimum diameter of the internal threads, and
the external thread gauge should check the maximum diameter of the external threads.

5. Explain drunken error in screw threads

Drunken error in screw threads refers to irregularities in the thread geometry caused by
misalignment or defects during manufacturing, resulting in non-uniform thread form or pitch.
This can lead to poor fit and inconsistent engagement between the mating threads.

6. What is the helix angle of M 50x3 2-Statrt thread?

The helix angle ( θ ) of a thread is given by the formula:
θ=tan−1( p/ π D)where:

 p is the pitch ( 3 mm ),
 D is the diameter ( 50 mm ).
θ=tan−1(3/ π ×50)≈ 1.73 .
So, the helix angle is approximately 1.73∘.
7. Define Lead.
Lead is the distance the nut moves along the axis of the thread per one complete
revolution of the screw. It is calculated by multiplying the pitch by the number of starts of
the thread. For a single-start thread, lead is equal to the pitch.

8. What are the various methods used for measuring the gear tooth thickness?
✓ Vernier Calipers
✓ Micrometers
✓ Gear Tooth Vernier
✓ CMM (Coordinate Measuring Machine)

9. Why is monochromatic light used in interferometry instead of white light?

Monochromatic light is used in interferometry because it has a single wavelength, ensuring
stable and well-defined interference patterns. White light, with multiple wavelengths, would
create overlapping fringes, making it difficult to achieve precise measurements.

10 State the methods used for checking gear tooth profile.

1. Profile Projector
2. Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)
3. Gear Tooth Vernier
4. Optical Comparator:
11. Define constant chord.
The constant chord is the distance between two points on a gear tooth profile, which are
spaced by a constant distance along the arc of the pitch circle. It is used in the
approximation of the gear tooth shape during measurements.

12. Define the term cut-off length with respect to surface roughness measurement.
Cut-off length is the length of the surface under examination that is excluded from the
roughness profile due to long-wavelength surface features. It is used to remove the effect
of large-scale surface imperfections, ensuring that only the finer roughness features are
measured.

13. Define –Lays. Mention any four of its type.

Lays refer to the pattern or direction of surface texture left on a workpiece by the cutting
or finishing process.
Types of lays:
✓ Parallel Lay
✓ Perpendicular Lay
✓ Cross Lay
✓ Random Lay

14. Define Straightness.

Straightness is the condition of a line that is uniformly straight in all directions. It is a
measure of how closely a line deviates from being perfectly straight over its entire length.

15. Define concentricity.

Concentricity refers to the condition where two or more parts share a common center,
ensuring their axes are aligned. It is commonly used to check the alignment of circular
features such as holes and shafts.

16. What is gear runout?

Gear runout is the deviation of the gear teeth from their ideal circular path during
rotation. It is a measure of how much the gear tooth profile varies radially as the gear
rotates, often caused by manufacturing defects.

17. What is secondary texture of a surface?

Secondary texture refers to the finer features of a surface that are formed as a result of
postprocessing or secondary operations, such as polishing or lapping. These features
typically appear at a higher frequency than primary texture.
18. What is the symbol for fully defining surface roughness?
The symbol for fully defining surface roughness is RaR_aRa, which stands for the
Arithmetic Average Roughness. It is used to quantify surface texture and is defined as
the average deviation of the surface profile from the mean line.
19. Name the various stylus probe instruments used for surface finish measurement.

✓ Stylus Profilometer:
✓ Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)
✓ Surface Roughness Tester

20. The outside diameter of a gear is 110 mm and the number of teeth is 20 . What is the
module of gear?

The module ( mmm ) of a gear is calculated by the formula:

m=d /z

where d is the pitch diameter and z is the number of teeth.

Substituting values:

m=110 /20=5.5 mm

So, the module is 5.5 mm .

UNIT-IV

LASER & ADVANCES IN METROLOGY

1. What do you mean by alignment test on machine tools?

An alignment test on machine tools is a procedure used to verify the accuracy and
precision of the machine tool’s setup, ensuring that all axes are aligned correctly and the
machine operates within the specified tolerances. This helps in detecting errors like
misalignment or deflection that can affect machining accuracy.

2. Mention the types of CMM.

✓ Bridge-Type CMM
✓ Gantry-Type CMM
✓ Cantilever-Type CMM
✓ Horizontal Arm CMM
✓

1. What is CNC CMM?

CNC CMM (Computer Numerical Control Coordinate Measuring Machine) is a type of
CMM that uses a computer to control the movement of the probe in three-dimensional space.
It allows for automated, high-precision measurement of complex parts and reduces human
error

2. What are the benefits of using CMM?

 ✓ High Accuracy: CMMs provide precise measurement of part dimensions,
improving quality control.
✓ Automated Inspection: CMMs automate the measurement process, reducing human
error and labor costs.
✓ Versatility: CMMs can measure a wide variety of geometries, including complex
3D shapes.

3. Define Machine Vision.

Machine vision is a technology that uses cameras, sensors, and software to enable a machine
to "see" and interpret the physical world. It is used in automation and inspection tasks for
defect detection, dimensional measurement, and quality control.

4. Mention any four advantages of column type CMM.

✓ Stable
✓ Large Measuring Area
✓ Flexibility
✓ High Precision

5. Name the types of accuracy specifications used for CMM.

✓ Geometric Accuracy:
Specifies the machine’s ability to measure geometric features (e.g., flatness,
straightness, roundness).
✓ Volumetric Accuracy:
Indicates the accuracy of the machine over its entire measurement volume.

6. State any two applications of laser in machine tool metrology.

✓ Surface Profiling:
Laser scanners are used to create high-precision 3D profiles of a workpiece’s
surface for quality control and reverse engineering.
✓ Geometric Measurement:
Lasers are employed for measuring dimensions such as straightness, flatness,
and roundness with high precision.

7. What is the advantage of using laser beam interferometry?

Laser beam interferometry provides extremely high precision and sensitivity for
measuring small displacements or changes in length. It offers micron or sub-micron level
accuracy, making it ideal for applications requiring high accuracy over large distances.

8. Why is monochromatic light used in interferometry instead of white light?

Monochromatic light is used in interferometry because it has a single wavelength,
creating a stable and consistent interference pattern. White light, with multiple
wavelengths, would create overlapping fringes, making it difficult to accurately measure
small displacements.

9. What is the purpose of retro-reflectors in LASER interferometers?

Retro-reflectors are used in laser interferometers to reflect the laser beam back to its
source with minimal deviation. They ensure high accuracy by reducing errors due to
beam misalignment during measurements.
10. What is laser micrometer?
A laser micrometer is a non-contact measurement tool that uses laser beams to precisely
measure the dimensions (such as diameter) of an object. It offers high accuracy and is
commonly used in the manufacturing of small components.

11. Define axial slip of machine tool.

Axial slip refers to the unwanted movement of a machine tool’s tool or spindle along its
axis during machining operations. This slip can cause inaccuracies in machining and is
often caused by machine wear or improper alignment.

12. What are the advantages of computer aided inspection?

✓ Increased Accuracy
✓ Efficiency
✓ Data Analysis

13. Distinguish between co-ordinate and conventional metrology.

Co-ordinate metrology Conventional metrology

Involves the use of devices like CMMs to Uses manual tools like calipers,
measure the physical geometry of objects in micrometers, and gauges to measure
three-dimensional space. physical dimensions.
It provides highly accurate and automated It is more labor-intensive and less accurate
measurements. than coordinate metrology.

14. State the applications of CMM in reverse engineering.

CMMS are used in reverse engineering to digitize the physical geometry of objects,
which can then be analyzed, modified, and used for manufacturing replacement parts or
creating digital models of existing products.

15. Why laser is preferred in engineering metrology?

Laser is preferred in engineering metrology because it provides high precision, non-
contact measurement, and is highly effective in measuring small features, even over long
distances. It can measure without physical contact, reducing the risk of damage to delicate
parts.

16. List out the different methods of dimensional measurements using laser.
✓ Laser Micrometry
✓ Laser Interferometry
✓ Laser Scanning
✓ Laser Triangulation

17. List out the merits of CAI.

✓ Increased Efficiency
✓ Improved Accuracy
✓ Data Storage and Analysis
18. What is interferometer? Name the different types of interferometers.
An interferometer is a device that uses the interference of light waves (typically laser beams)
to measure small displacements, surface flatness, or changes in distance with extreme
precision.

Types of Interferometers:
✓ Michelson Interferometer
✓ Fizeau Interferometer
✓ Mach-Zehnder Interferometer
✓ Fabry-Perot Interferometer
✓

UNIT-V

DIGITAL AND THERMAL METROLOGY

1. Define digital metrology.

✓ Digital metrology uses digital devices to perform measurements.
✓ It improves accuracy, repeatability, and ease of data processing.
✓ Common tools include digital calipers and digital micrometers.

2. Define thermal metrology.

✓ Thermal metrology deals with temperature and heat flow measurement.
✓ It uses instruments like thermocouples and RTDs.
✓ It is crucial in industries requiring thermal control.

3. What is a thermocouple?
A thermocouple is a sensor made from two dissimilar metals. It generates a voltage based
on temperature differences. Used widely due to low cost and wide temperature range.

4. Mention the purpose of RTD

RTD stands for Resistance Temperature Detector. It measures temperature by the change
in resistance of a metal. It offers high accuracy and stability over time.

5. List the function of digital thermometer.

A digital thermometer measures temperature electronically. It displays readings in
numeric format on an LCD. It’s used in medical, industrial, and laboratory applications.

6. What is resolution?
Resolution is the smallest change an instrument can detect. Higher resolution means more
precise measurements. Important in fine measurement applications.

7. Define accuracy.
Accuracy is how close a measurement is to the true value. It indicates correctness of the
reading. High accuracy is essential for quality control.

8. What is the Seebeck effect?

It is the phenomenon of voltage generation in thermocouples. Voltage is produced when
 two dissimilar metals are at different temperatures. It’s the basis for thermocouple
operation.

9. What is a pyrometer?
A pyrometer is a non-contact temperature-measuring device. It measures thermal
radiation from an object. Commonly used for high-temperature surfaces.

10. What is a digital caliper?

A digital caliper measures dimensions with electronic display. It gives quick, accurate
readings with minimal human error. Used in mechanical and manufacturing industries.

11. Write the range emissivity

Emissivity is a material’s ability to emit thermal radiation. It ranges from 0 (perfect
reflector) to 1 (black body). Used in thermal imaging and infrared thermometry.

12. What is thermal conductivity?

It is the ability of a material to conduct heat. Measured in watts per meter per kelvin
(W/mK). Important in thermal insulation and heat exchanger design.

13. What is a bimetallic strip?

It consists of two metals with different thermal expansion rates. Bends with temperature
change, triggering a mechanical switch. Used in thermostats and thermal controls.

14. Mention the purpose of thermocouple.

A Thermocouple is a sensor used to measure temperature. Thermocouples consist of two
wire legs made from different metals

15. State the principle behind fluid expansion thermometer

These liquid thermometers are based on the principal of thermal expansion. When a
substance gets hotter, it expands to a greater volume. Nearly all substances exhibit this
behavior of thermal expansion

16. Give the principle of hot wire Anemometer.

Hot Wire Anemometer works when an electrically heated wire is placed in a flowing gas
stream, heat is transferred from the wire to the gas and hence the temperature of the wire
reduces, and due to this, the resistance of the wire also changes.

17. Name the different types of bimetallic sensors.

Bimetallic strips are available in different forms like helix type, cantilever, spiral, and
also flat type

18. Give some bimetallic strip materials.

A bimetallic strip is used to convert a temperature change into mechanical displacement.
The strip consists of two strips of different metals which expand at different rates as they
are heated, usually steel and copper, or in some cases steel and brass.

19. Name the metals used in a thermistor.

Many NTC thermistors are made from a pressed disc, rod, plate, bead or cast chip of
semiconducting material such as sintered metal oxides. They work because raising the
 temperature of a semiconductor increases the number of active charge carriers it promotes
them into the conduction band.

20. Write the different types of materials used in bimetallic strip.

The strip consists of two metal strips of different metals which expand at different rates as
they are heated, usually steel and copper, or in some cases steel and brass.

21. Name some instruments used to measure negative pressures.

Vacuum, Suction, Negative Pressure Gauges. Vacuum range gauges for measuring
absolute vacuum or suction pressures which can be permanently installed or used as a test
gauge. Use vacuum range gauges to measure pressures which are negative relative to
atmospheric pressure.

22. Write the purpose of Anemometer.

An anemometer is an instrument that measures wind speed and wind pressure.
Anemometers are important tools for meteorologists, who study weather patterns.

23. Name the different types of thermistors

Then there are two types of thermistors available: negative temperature coefficient (NTC)
of resistance and positive temperature coefficient (PTC) of resistance.

UNIT-I – BASICS OF METROLOGY

Part – B QUESTIONS

1. i) Give the structure of generalized measurements system and explain in detail.

ii) Discuss the fundamental and derived units in details.

2. Explain the need of standards of measurements in the modern industrial system

and describe the term traceability in connection with standards.

3. Explain briefly about primary standard, secondary standard, territory standard and
working standard with example.

4. i) Explain the different types of error in measurement.

ii) Distinguish between precision and accuracy.

5 i) Elaborate the significance of Repeatability and Reproducibility with an example.

ii) Explain different types of measurement method used in metrology.

6 i) Enumerate Static and Dynamic response with example.

ii) Explain systematic error and random error.

7 Compare systematic error and random errors. Also explain the causes of those errors
with suitable example.
8 i) Write a note on the following terms
a) Readability (b) Calibration © Correction factor
ii) Draw the block diagram of generalized measurement system.
9 i) Write a short note on Interchangeability.
ii) Explain about Shaft basis system and Hole basis system.

10 i) A circular shaft having diameter 25+0.020

0.010 mm is manufactured by turning process. A 50 μm thick coating of TiN is
deposited on the shaft. Allowed variation in TiN film thickness ± 5 μm. Find the
minimum hole Diameter (in mm) to just provide clearance fit

ii) Given are the dimensions given for the hole of size 25 ± 0.2 mm and the size of the
shaft as 24 ± 0.1 mm, answer the following questions.
a) What will be the tolerance for the hole?
b) What will be the tolerance for the shaft?
c) What will be the allowance for the assembly?

UNIT-II

LINEAR AND ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS

Part – B QUESTIONS (16 marks)

1. i) Enumerate the construction details of Optical Comparator.

ii) Elaborate the types of limit gauge with neat sketches.

2. i) With neat sketch explain the construction and working of vernier caliper.
ii) Discuss the construction and working of micrometer with neat sketch.

3. i) Discuss about Screw Thread Terminology with a neat sketch.

ii) Write a short note on pneumatic comparator.

4. i) Explain the working principle of angle dekkor with neat sketch.

ii) List the applications of angle dekkor.

5. i) Enumerate the working principle of tool maker microscope with a neat sketch.
ii) Explain the applications of slip gauges.

6. i) Describe the working principle of autocollimator with a neat sketch.

ii) Enumerate the terms involved in gear terminology.

7. i) With a neat sketch explain about gear tooth measurement by using gear tooth vernier
caliper.
ii) Write short notes on normal backlash in gear measurement.
8. i) With a neat sketch explain the working principle of sine bar.
ii) Explain V Block method of surface finish measurement.

9. (i) An optical flat to check the height of the slip gauge against a standard gauge of 20 mm
height. The wavelength of a cadmium light source is 0.509 µm. If the number of fringes
on a gauge width of 15 mm is 10 and the distance between the two blocks is 30 mm,
calculate the true height of the gauge being inspected.
(ii) The main scale in a vernier instrument is graduated in millimeters, with the smallest
division being 1 mm. Ten divisions on the vernier scale correspond to nine divisions on
the main scale. (a) Is the vernier scale a forward vernier or a backward vernier (b) What is
the least count of the instrument?

10. (i) A slip gauge is being inspected using the NPL flatness interferometer. It is recorded
that the gauge exhibits 10 fringes along its width in one position and 18 fringes in the
other position. If the wavelength of the monochromatic light source is 0.5 µm, determine
the error of flatness over its width.
(ii) A metric screw thread is being inspected using the two-wire method in order to
measure its effective diameter and the following data is generated: Pitch = 1.25 mm,
diameter of the best-size wire = 0.722 mm, and distance over the wires = 25.08 mm.
Determine the effective diameter of the screw thread.

UNIT-III FORM MEASUREMENTS

Part – B QUESTIONS (16 marks)

1. 1 i) Explain the important elements of screw thread with neat sketch.

ii) Illustrate briefly the measurement of effective diameter of a screw thread using three
wires.

2. i) Define straightness. Explain the principle of testing straightness using laser

interferometer.
ii) How will you test the straightness using Spirit level and autocollimator?

3. With neat sketch, discuss the gear tooth nomenclature by indicating the different parts.

4. i) Explain gear tooth vernier method of measuring the gear tooth thickness

ii)Explain constant chord method of measuring the gear tooth thickness

5. i) Derive the expression for the tooth thickness of the gear in this method

ii) Explain the measurement of gear tooth thickness using base tangent method.

6. i) Describe the method of roundness measurement using V- block.

ii) Explain V block and three point probe methods of measurement of roundness
7. i) Write the difference between surface roughness and surface waviness

ii) Describe the various symbols used for representation of surface texture.

8. Discuss the various elements of surface roughness, and explain the importance of
sampling length in surface roughness measurement.

9. Explain the different methods of measuring surface finish with example

10. What are the applications of surface roughness measurements in production industry and
its significance?

UNIT-IV ADVANCES IN METROLOGY

Part – B QUESTIONS (16 marks)

1. i) With a neat diagram explain the construction and working principle of laser
interferometer.
ii) Write short notes on Retro reflectors.

2. i) Describe Computer Controlled Co-Ordinate Measuring Machine with a neat sketch.

ii) What are the features of CMM Software?

3. i) Explain about Computer Aided Inspection Using Robots.

ii) Discuss about Integration of CAD/CAM with Inspection System.

4. i) With a neat sketch explain about Machine Vision system in detail.

ii) Explain the function of machine vision system.

5. i) Elaborate the Two- frequency laser interferometer with a neat sketch.

ii) Brief on the gauging wide diameter used in diffraction pattern.

6. i) Explain about pendulum scale used to measure force (Multi-lever Type)

ii) Describe about elastic force meter.

7. i) Explain the working principle of venturimeter with a neat sketch.

ii) Discuss about principle of Laser interferometry in detail

8. i) Describe the working of mechanical dynamometer with a neat sketch.

ii) List the advantages and disadvantages of mechanical dynamometer.

9. i) With a neat sketch explain the working principle of eddy current dynamometer.
ii) List the advantages and disadvantages of eddy current dynamometer.

10. i) Explain the working principle of hydraulic dynamometer with a neat sketch.
ii) List the advantages and disadvantages of hydraulic dynamometer.
 UNIT-V DIGITAL AND THERMAL METROLOGY

Part – B QUESTIONS (16 marks)

1. i) Explain the magnetostriction method of generating ultrasonic waves

ii) Discuss the engineering applications of acoustic and ultrasonic measurements.
2. i) With neat sketch explain the working principle of ultrasonic flow meter.
ii) Generalize the use of bellows in pressure measurement.

3. i) With a neat sketch explain about the working principle of mechanical temperature
measuring devices.
ii) Write short note on Bimetallic strip thermometer.

4. i) Explain the working principle of an electrical resistance thermometer.

ii) Illustrate the advantages and disadvantages of non-conducting type Thermometers.

5. Describe briefly how the following are used to measure the temperature.
(i)Thermocouples
(ii) Pyrometer

6. i) Differentiate RTD and Thermistor

ii) Explain the thermocouple laws and their practical significance

7. Explain the construction and working principle of electrical resistance thermistor with
neat sketch

8. i) Differentiate vibrometers and accelerometers

ii) Discuss the working of seismic accelerometer with neat sketch.