6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Analog Communication - Introduction

The word communication arises from the Latin word commūnicāre, which means “to share”.
Communication is the basic step for exchange of information.

For example, a baby in a cradle, communicates with a cry when she needs her mother. A cow moos
loudly when it is in danger. A person communicates with the help of a language. Communication is
the bridge to share.

Communication can be defined as the process of exchange of information through means such as
words, actions, signs, etc., between two or more individuals.

Parts of a Communication System

Any system, which provides communication consists of the three important and basic parts as
shown in the following figure.

Sender is the person who sends a message. It could be a transmitting station from where the
signal is transmitted.
Channel is the medium through which the message signals travel to reach the destination.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 1/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Receiver is the person who receives the message. It could be a receiving station where the
transmitted signal is being received.

Types of Signals
Conveying an information by some means such as gestures, sounds, actions, etc., can be termed as
signaling. Hence, a signal can be a source of energy which transmits some information. This signal
helps to establish a communication between the sender and the receiver.

An electrical impulse or an electromagnetic wave which travels a distance to convey a message,

can be termed as a signal in communication systems.

Depending on their characteristics, signals are mainly classified into two types: Analog and Digital.
Analog and Digital signals are further classified, as shown in the following figure.

Analog Signal
A continuous time varying signal, which represents a time varying quantity can be termed as an
Analog Signal. This signal keeps on varying with respect to time, according to the instantaneous
values of the quantity, which represents it.

Example
Let us consider a tap that fills a tank of 100 liters capacity in an hour (6 AM to 7 AM). The portion
of filling the tank is varied by the varying time. Which means, after 15 minutes (6:15 AM) the
quarter portion of the tank gets filled, whereas at 6:45 AM, 3/4th of the tank is filled.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 2/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

If we try to plot the varying portions of water in the tank according to the varying time, it would
look like the following figure.

As the result shown in this image varies (increases) according to time, this time varying quantity
can be understood as Analog quantity. The signal which represents this condition with an inclined
line in the figure, is an Analog Signal. The communication based on analog signals and analog
values is called as Analog Communication.

Digital Signal
A signal which is discrete in nature or which is non-continuous in form can be termed as a Digital
signal. This signal has individual values, denoted separately, which are not based on the previous
values, as if they are derived at that particular instant of time.

Example
Let us consider a classroom having 20 students. If their attendance in a week is plotted, it would
look like the following figure.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 3/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

In this figure, the values are stated separately. For instance, the attendance of the class on
Wednesday is 20 whereas on Saturday is 15. These values can be considered individually and
separately or discretely, hence they are called as discrete values.

The binary digits which has only 1s and 0s are mostly termed as digital values. Hence, the signals
which represent 1s and 0s are also called as digital signals. The communication based on digital
signals and digital values is called as Digital Communication.

Periodic Signal
Any analog or digital signal, that repeats its pattern over a period of time, is called as a Periodic
Signal. This signal has its pattern continued repeatedly and is easy to be assumed or to be
calculated.

Example
If we consider a machinery in an industry, the process that takes place one after the other is a
continuous procedure. For example, procuring and grading the raw material, processing the
material in batches, packing a load of products one after the other, etc., follows a certain procedure
repeatedly.

Such a process whether considered analog or digital, can be graphically represented as follows.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 4/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Aperiodic Signal
Any analog or digital signal, that doesn’t repeat its pattern over a period of time is called as
Aperiodic Signal. This signal has its pattern continued but the pattern is not repeated. It is also not
so easy to be assumed or to be calculated.

Example
The daily routine of a person, if considered, consists of various types of work which take different
time intervals for different tasks. The time interval or the work doesn’t continuously repeat. For
example, a person will not continuously brush his teeth from morning to night, that too with the
same time period.

Such a process whether considered analog or digital, can be graphically represented as follows.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 5/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

In general, the signals which are used in communication systems are analog in nature, which are
transmitted in analog or converted to digital and then transmitted, depending upon the
requirement.

Analog Communication - Modulation

For a signal to be transmitted to a distance, without the effect of any external interferences or noise
addition and without getting faded away, it has to undergo a process called as Modulation. It
improves the strength of the signal without disturbing the parameters of the original signal.

What is Modulation?
A message carrying a signal has to get transmitted over a distance and for it to establish a reliable
communication, it needs to take the help of a high frequency signal which should not affect the
original characteristics of the message signal.

The characteristics of the message signal, if changed, the message contained in it also alters.
Hence, it is a must to take care of the message signal. A high frequency signal can travel up to a
longer distance, without getting affected by external disturbances. We take the help of such high
frequency signal which is called as a carrier signal to transmit our message signal. Such a process
is simply called as Modulation.

Modulation is the process of changing the parameters of the carrier signal, in accordance with the
instantaneous values of the modulating signal.

Need for Modulation

Baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission. For such a signal, to travel longer
distances, its strength has to be increased by modulating with a high frequency carrier wave, which
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 6/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

doesn’t affect the parameters of the modulating signal.

Advantages of Modulation
The antenna used for transmission, had to be very large, if modulation was not introduced. The
range of communication gets limited as the wave cannot travel a distance without getting
distorted.

Following are some of the advantages for implementing modulation in the communication systems.

Reduction of antenna size

No signal mixing
Increased communication range
Multiplexing of signals
Possibility of bandwidth adjustments
Improved reception quality

Signals in the Modulation Process

Following are the three types of signals in the modulation process.

Message or Modulating Signal

The signal which contains a message to be transmitted, is called as a message signal. It is a
baseband signal, which has to undergo the process of modulation, to get transmitted. Hence, it is
also called as the modulating signal.

Carrier Signal
The high frequency signal, which has a certain amplitude, frequency and phase but contains no
information is called as a carrier signal. It is an empty signal and is used to carry the signal to the
receiver after modulation.

Modulated Signal
The resultant signal after the process of modulation is called as a modulated signal. This signal is a
combination of modulating signal and carrier signal.

Types of Modulation
There are many types of modulations. Depending upon the modulation techniques used, they are
classified as shown in the following figure.
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 7/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

The types of modulations are broadly classified into continuous-wave modulation and pulse
modulation.

Continuous-wave Modulation
In continuous-wave modulation, a high frequency sine wave is used as a carrier wave. This is
further divided into amplitude and angle modulation.

If the amplitude of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called as
Amplitude Modulation.

If the angle of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the instantaneous value of the
modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Angle Modulation. Angle modulation is
further divided into frequency modulation and phase modulation.

If the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the instantaneous value
of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Frequency Modulation.

If the phase of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Phase
Modulation.

Pulse Modulation
In Pulse modulation, a periodic sequence of rectangular pulses, is used as a carrier wave. This is
further divided into analog and digital modulation.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 8/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

In analog modulation technique, if the amplitude or duration or position of a pulse is varied in

accordance with the instantaneous values of the baseband modulating signal, then such a
technique is called as Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Pulse Duration/Width Modulation
(PDM/PWM), or Pulse Position Modulation (PPM).

In digital modulation, the modulation technique used is Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) where the
analog signal is converted into digital form of 1s and 0s. As the resultant is a coded pulse train, this
is called as PCM. This is further developed as Delta Modulation (DM). These digital modulation
techniques are discussed in our Digital Communications tutorial

Amplitude Modulation
A continuous-wave goes on continuously without any intervals and it is the baseband message
signal, which contains the information. This wave has to be modulated.

According to the standard definition, “The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in accordance with
the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.” Which means, the amplitude of the carrier
signal containing no information varies as per the amplitude of the signal containing information, at
each instant. This can be well explained by the following figures.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 9/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

The first figure shows the modulating wave, which is the message signal. The next one is the
carrier wave, which is a high frequency signal and contains no information. While, the last one is
the resultant modulated wave.

It can be observed that the positive and negative peaks of the carrier wave, are interconnected with
an imaginary line. This line helps recreating the exact shape of the modulating signal. This
imaginary line on the carrier wave is called as Envelope. It is the same as that of the message
signal.

Mathematical Expressions
Following are the mathematical expressions for these waves.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 10/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Time-domain Representation of the Waves

Let the modulating signal be,

m (t) = Am cos(2πfm t)

and the carrier signal be,

c (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)

Where,

Am and Ac are the amplitude of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.

fm and fc are the frequency of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.

Then, the equation of Amplitude Modulated wave will be

s(t) = [Ac + Am cos(2πfm t)] cos(2πfc t) (Equation 1)

Modulation Index
A carrier wave, after being modulated, if the modulated level is calculated, then such an attempt is
called as Modulation Index or Modulation Depth. It states the level of modulation that a carrier
wave undergoes.

Rearrange the Equation 1 as below.

Am
s(t) = Ac [1 + ( ) cos(2πfm t)] cos(2πfc t)
Ac

⇒ s (t) = Ac [1 + μ cos(2πfm t)] cos(2πfc t) (Equation 2)

Where, μ is Modulation index and it is equal to the ratio of Am and Ac . Mathematically,

we can write it as

(Equation 3)
Am
μ =
Ac

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 11/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Hence, we can calculate the value of modulation index by using the above formula, when the
amplitudes of the message and carrier signals are known.

Now, let us derive one more formula for Modulation index by considering Equation 1. We can use
this formula for calculating modulation index value, when the maximum and minimum amplitudes
of the modulated wave are known.

Let Amax and Amin be the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the modulated wave.

We will get the maximum amplitude of the modulated wave, when cos(2πfm t) is 1.

⇒ Amax = Ac + Am (Equation 4)

We will get the minimum amplitude of the modulated wave, when cos(2πfm t) is -1.

⇒ Amin = Ac − Am (Equation 5)

Add Equation 4 and Equation 5.

Amax + Amin = Ac + Am + Ac − Am = 2Ac

(Equation 6)
A max +A min
⇒ Ac =
2

Subtract Equation 5 from Equation 4.

Amax − Amin = Ac + Am − (Ac − Am ) = 2Am

(Equation 7)
A max −A min
⇒ Am =
2

The ratio of Equation 7 and Equation 6 will be as follows.

Am (Amax − Amin ) /2
=
Ac (Amax + Amin ) /2

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 12/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

(Equation 8)
A max −A min
⇒ μ =
A max +A min

Therefore, Equation 3 and Equation 8 are the two formulas for Modulation index. The modulation
index or modulation depth is often denoted in percentage called as Percentage of Modulation. We
will get the percentage of modulation, just by multiplying the modulation index value with 100.

For a perfect modulation, the value of modulation index should be 1, which implies the percentage
of modulation should be 100%.

For instance, if this value is less than 1, i.e., the modulation index is 0.5, then the modulated output
would look like the following figure. It is called as Under-modulation. Such a wave is called as an
under-modulated wave.

If the value of the modulation index is greater than 1, i.e., 1.5 or so, then the wave will be an over-
modulated wave. It would look like the following figure.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 13/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

As the value of the modulation index increases, the carrier experiences a 180o phase reversal,
which causes additional sidebands and hence, the wave gets distorted. Such an over-modulated
wave causes interference, which cannot be eliminated.

Bandwidth of AM Wave
Bandwidth (BW) is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies of the signal.
Mathematically, we can write it as

BW = fmax − fmin

Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.

s (t) = Ac [1 + μ cos(2πfm t)] cos(2πfc t)

⇒ s (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t) + Ac μ cos(2πfc t) cos(2πfm t)

A cμ A cμ
⇒ s (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t) + cos[2π (fc + fm ) t] + cos[2π (fc − fm ) t]
2 2

Hence, the amplitude modulated wave has three frequencies. Those are carrier frequency fc ,

upper sideband frequency fc + fm and lower sideband frequency fc − fm

Here,

fmax = fc + fm and fmin = fc − fm

Substitute, fmax and fmin values in bandwidth formula.

BW = fc + fm − (fc − fm )

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 14/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

⇒ BW = 2fm

Thus, it can be said that the bandwidth required for amplitude modulated wave is twice the
frequency of the modulating signal.

Power Calculations of AM Wave

Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.

A cμ A cμ
s (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t) + cos[2π (fc + fm ) t] + cos[2π (fc − fm ) t]
2 2

Power of AM wave is equal to the sum of powers of carrier, upper sideband, and lower sideband
frequency components.

P t = P c + P U SB + P LSB

We know that the standard formula for power of cos signal is

– 2
2
v rms ( v m /√ 2 )
P = =
R 2

Where,

v rms is the rms value of cos signal.

vm is the peak value of cos signal.

First, let us find the powers of the carrier, the upper and lower sideband one by one.

Carrier power

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 15/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

– 2 2
(Ac /√2) Ac
Pc = =
R 2R

Upper sideband power

– 2 2 2
(Ac μ/2√2) Ac μ
P U SB = =
R 8R

Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of the upper side band power.

2 2
Ac μ
P LSB =
8R

Now, let us add these three powers in order to get the power of AM wave.

2 2 2 2 2
Ac Ac μ Ac μ
Pt = + +
2R 8R 8R

2 2 2
Ac μ μ
⇒ Pt = ( ) (1 + + )
2R 4 4

2
μ
⇒ P t = P c (1 + )
2

We can use the above formula to calculate the power of AM wave, when the carrier power and the
modulation index are known.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 16/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

If the modulation index μ = 1 then the power of AM wave is equal to 1.5 times the carrier

power. So, the power required for transmitting an AM wave is 1.5 times the carrier power for a
perfect modulation.

Numerical Problems 1
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the parameters used in Amplitude Modulation. Each
parameter has its own formula. By using those formulas, we can find the respective parameter
values. In this chapter, let us solve a few problems based on the concept of amplitude modulation.

Problem 1

A modulating signal m (t) = 10 cos(2π × 10 t)

3
is amplitude modulated with a carrier signal

c (t) = 50 cos(2π × 10 t)
5
. Find the modulation index, the carrier power, and the power

required for transmitting AM wave.

Solution
Given, the equation of modulating signal as

3
m (t) = 10 cos(2π × 10 t)

We know the standard equation of modulating signal as

m (t) = Am cos(2πfm t)

By comparing the above two equations, we will get

Amplitude of modulating signal as Am = 10volts

and Frequency of modulating signal as

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 17/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

3
fm = 10 H z = 1K H z

Given, the equation of carrier signal is

5
c (t) = 50 cos(2π × 10 t)

The standard equation of carrier signal is

c (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)

By comparing these two equations, we will get

Amplitude of carrier signal as Ac = 50volts

and Frequency of carrier signal as 5

fc = 10 H z = 100K H z

We know the formula for modulation index as

Am
μ =
Ac

Substitute, Am and Ac values in the above formula.

10
μ = = 0.2
50

Therefore, the value of modulation index is 0.2 and percentage of modulation is 20%.

The formula for Carrier power, Pc = is

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 18/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

2
Ac
Pc =
2R

Assume R = 1Ω and substitute Ac value in the above formula.

2
(50)
Pc = = 1250W
2 (1)

Therefore, the Carrier power, Pc is 1250 watts.

We know the formula for power required for transmitting AM wave is

2
μ
⇒ P t = P c (1 + )
2

Substitute Pc and μ values in the above formula.

2
(0.2)
P t = 1250 (1 + ) = 1275W
2

Therefore, the power required for transmitting AM wave is 1275 watts.

Problem 2
The equation of amplitude wave is given by

s (t) = 20 [1 + 0.8 cos(2π × 10 t)] cos(4π × 10 t)

3 5
. Find the carrier power, the total sideband

power, and the band width of AM wave.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 19/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Solution
Given, the equation of Amplitude modulated wave is

3 5
s (t) = 20 [1 + 0.8 cos(2π × 10 t)] cos(4π × 10 t)

Re-write the above equation as

3 5
s (t) = 20 [1 + 0.8 cos(2π × 10 t)] cos(2π × 2 × 10 t)

We know the equation of Amplitude modulated wave is

s (t) = Ac [1 + μ cos(2πfm t)] cos(2πfc t)

By comparing the above two equations, we will get

Amplitude of carrier signal as Ac = 20volts

Modulation index as μ = 0.8

Frequency of modulating signal as 3

fm = 10 H z = 1K H z

Frequency of carrier signal as 5

fc = 2 × 10 H z = 200K H z

The formula for Carrier power, Pc is

2
Ae
Pc =
2R

Assume R = 1Ω and substitute Ac value in the above formula.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 20/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

2
(20)
Pc = = 200W
2 (1)

Therefore, the Carrier power, Pc is 200watts.

We know the formula for total side band power is

2
Pcμ
P SB =
2

Substitute Pc and μ values in the above formula.

2
200 × (0.8)
P SB = = 64W
2

Therefore, the total side band power is 64 watts.

We know the formula for bandwidth of AM wave is

BW = 2fm

Substitute fm value in the above formula.

BW = 2 (1K ) = 2K H z

Therefore, the bandwidth of AM wave is 2 KHz.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 21/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Analog Communication - AM Modulators

In this chapter, let us discuss about the modulators, which generate amplitude modulated wave.
The following two modulators generate AM wave.

Square law modulator

Switching modulator

Square Law Modulator

Following is the block diagram of the square law modulator

Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as m (t) and A cos(2πfc t) respectively.

These two signals are applied as inputs to the summer (adder) block. This summer block produces
an output, which is the addition of the modulating and the carrier signal. Mathematically, we can
write it as

V1 t = m (t) + Ac cos(2πfc t)

This signal V1 t is applied as an input to a nonlinear device like diode. The characteristics of the

diode are closely related to square law.

V2 t = k1 V1 (t) + k2 V
1
2
(t) (Equation 1)

Where, k1 and k2 are constants.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 22/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Substitute V1 (t) in Equation 1

2
V2 (t) = k1 [m (t) + Ac cos(2πfc t)] + k2 [m (t) + Ac cos(2πfc t)]

2
⇒ V2 (t) = k1 m (t) + k1 Ac cos(2πfc t) + k2 m (t) +

2 2
k2 Ac cos (2πfc t) + 2k2 m (t) Ac cos(2πfc t)

2 2 2
⇒ V2 (t) = k1 m (t) + k2 m (t) + k2 Ac cos (2πfc t)+

2k 2
k1 Ac [1 + ( ) m (t)] cos(2πfc t)
k1

The last term of the above equation represents the desired AM wave and the first three terms of
the above equation are unwanted. So, with the help of band pass filter, we can pass only AM wave
and eliminate the first three terms.

Therefore, the output of square law modulator is

2k2
s (t) = k1 Ac [1 + ( ) m (t)] cos(2πfc t)
k1

The standard equation of AM wave is

s (t) = Ac [1 + ka m (t)] cos(2πfc t)

Where, Ka is the amplitude sensitivity

By comparing the output of the square law modulator with the standard equation of AM wave, we

will get the scaling factor as and the amplitude sensitivity as .

2k 2
k1 ka
k1

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 23/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Switching Modulator
Following is the block diagram of switching modulator.

Switching modulator is similar to the square law modulator. The only difference is that in the
square law modulator, the diode is operated in a non-linear mode, whereas, in the switching
modulator, the diode has to operate as an ideal switch.

Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as m (t) and c (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)

respectively. These two signals are applied as inputs to the summer (adder) block. Summer block
produces an output, which is the addition of modulating and carrier signals. Mathematically, we
can write it as

V1 (t) = m (t) + c (t) = m (t) + Ac cos(2πfc t)

This signal V1 (t) is applied as an input of diode. Assume, the magnitude of the modulating

signal is very small when compared to the amplitude of carrier signal Ac . So, the diode’s ON and

OFF action is controlled by carrier signal c (t) . This means, the diode will be forward biased

when c (t) > 0 and it will be reverse biased when c (t) < 0 .

Therefore, the output of the diode is

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 24/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

V1 (t) if c (t) > 0

V2 (t) = {
0 if c (t) < 0

We can approximate this as

V2 (t) = V1 (t) x (t) (Equation 2)

Where, x (t) is a periodic pulse train with time period T =

fc
1

The Fourier series representation of this periodic pulse train is

∞ n
1 2 (−1) − 1
x (t) = + ∑ cos(2π (2n − 1) fc t)
2 π 2n − 1
n=1

1 2 2
⇒ x (t) = + cos(2πfc t) − cos(6πfc t)+. . . .
2 π 3π

Substitute, V1 (t) and x (t) values in Equation 2.

1 2 2
V2 (t) = [m (t) + Ac cos(2πfc t)] [ + cos(2πfc t) − cos(6πfc t)+. . . . . ]
2 π 3π

m(t) Ac 2m(t) 2A c 2
V2 (t) = + cos(2πfc t) + cos(2πfc t) + cos (2πfc t)−
2 2 π π

2m(t) 2A c
cos(6πfc t) − cos(2πfc t) cos(6πfc t)+. . . . .
3π 3π

Ac m(t) 2A c
4 2
V2 (t) = (1 + ( ) m (t)) cos(2πfc t) + + cos (2πfc t)−
2 πA c 2 π

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 25/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

2m(t) 2A c
cos(6πfc t) − cos(2πfc t) cos(6πfc t)+. . . . .
3π 3π

The 1st term of the above equation represents the desired AM wave and the remaining terms are
unwanted terms. Thus, with the help of band pass filter, we can pass only AM wave and eliminate
the remaining terms.

Therefore, the output of switching modulator is

Ac 4
s (t) = (1 + ( ) m (t)) cos(2πfc t)
2 πAc

We know the standard equation of AM wave is

s (t) = Ac [1 + ka m (t)] cos(2πfc t)

Where, ka is the amplitude sensitivity.

By comparing the output of the switching modulator with the standard equation of AM wave, we

will get the scaling factor as 0.5 and amplitude sensitivity ka as 4

.
πA c

Analog Communication - AM Demodulators

The process of extracting an original message signal from the modulated wave is known as
detection or demodulation. The circuit, which demodulates the modulated wave is known as the
demodulator. The following demodulators (detectors) are used for demodulating AM wave.

Square Law Demodulator

Envelope Detector

Square Law Demodulator

Square law demodulator is used to demodulate low level AM wave. Following is the block diagram
of thesquare law demodulator.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 26/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

This demodulator contains a square law device and low pass filter. The AM wave V1 (t) is

applied as an input to this demodulator.

The standard form of AM wave is

V1 (t) = Ac [1 + ka m (t)] cos(2πfc t)

We know that the mathematical relationship between the input and the output of square law
device is

V2 (t) = k1 V1 (t) + k2 V
1
2
(t) (Equation 1)

Where,

V1 (t) is the input of the square law device, which is nothing but the AM wave

V2 (t) is the output of the square law device

k1 and k2 are constants

Substitute V1 (t) in Equation 1

2
V2 (t) = k1 (Ac [1 + ka m (t)] cos(2πfc t)) + k2 (Ac [1 + ka m (t)] cos(2πfc t))

⇒ V2 (t) = k1 Ac cos(2πfc t) + k1 Ac ka m (t) cos(2πfc t)+

2 1+cos(4πfc t)
2 2
k2 Ac [1 + Ka m (t) + 2ka m (t)] ( )
2

2
K2 A c
⇒ V2 (t) = k1 Ac cos(2πfc t) + k1 Ac ka m (t) cos(2πfc t) + +
2

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 27/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

2 2 2 2 2 2 2
K2 A c k 2 A c k a m (t) k 2 A c k a m (t)
cos(4πfc t) + + cos(4πfc t)+
2 2 2

2 2
k2 Ac ka m (t) + k2 Ac ka m (t) cos(4πfc t)

In the above equation, the term k2 Ac

2
ka m (t) is the scaled version of the message signal. It can

be extracted by passing the above signal through a low pass filter and the DC component
k2Ac

can be eliminated with the help of a coupling capacitor.

Envelope Detector
Envelope detector is used to detect (demodulate) high level AM wave. Following is the block
diagram of the envelope detector.

This envelope detector consists of a diode and low pass filter. Here, the diode is the main detecting
element. Hence, the envelope detector is also called as the diode detector. The low pass filter
contains a parallel combination of the resistor and the capacitor.

The AM wave s (t) is applied as an input to this detector.

We know the standard form of AM wave is

s (t) = Ac [1 + ka m (t)] cos(2πfc t)

In the positive half cycle of AM wave, the diode conducts and the capacitor charges to the peak
value of AM wave. When the value of AM wave is less than this value, the diode will be reverse
biased. Thus, the capacitor will discharge through resistor R till the next positive half cycle of AM
wave. When the value of AM wave is greater than the capacitor voltage, the diode conducts and
the process will be repeated.

We should select the component values in such a way that the capacitor charges very quickly and
discharges very slowly. As a result, we will get the capacitor voltage waveform same as that of the
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 28/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

envelope of AM wave, which is almost similar to the modulating signal.

Analog Communication - DSBSC Modulation

In the process of Amplitude Modulation, the modulated wave consists of the carrier wave and two
sidebands. The modulated wave has the information only in the sidebands. Sideband is nothing
but a band of frequencies, containing power, which are the lower and higher frequencies of the
carrier frequency.

The transmission of a signal, which contains a carrier along with two sidebands can be termed as
Double Sideband Full Carrier system or simply DSBFC. It is plotted as shown in the following
figure.

However, such a transmission is inefficient. Because, two-thirds of the power is being wasted in
the carrier, which carries no information.

If this carrier is suppressed and the saved power is distributed to the two sidebands, then such a
process is called as Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier system or simply DSBSC. It is plotted as
shown in the following figure.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 29/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Mathematical Expressions
Let us consider the same mathematical expressions for modulating and carrier signals as we have
considered in the earlier chapters.

i.e., Modulating signal

m (t) = Am cos(2πfm t)

Carrier signal

c (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)

Mathematically, we can represent the equation of DSBSC wave as the product of modulating and
carrier signals.

s (t) = m (t) c (t)

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 30/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

⇒ s (t) = Am Ac cos(2πfm t) cos(2πfc t)

Bandwidth of DSBSC Wave

We know the formula for bandwidth (BW) is

BW = fmax − fmin

Consider the equation of DSBSC modulated wave.

s (t) = Am Ac cos(2πfm t) cos(2πfc t)

Am Ac Am Ac
⇒ s (t) = cos[2π (fc + fm ) t] + cos[2π (fc − fm ) t]
2 2

The DSBSC modulated wave has only two frequencies. So, the maximum and minimum

frequencies are fc + fm and fc − fm respectively.

i.e.,

fmax = fc + fm and fmin = fc − fm

Substitute, fmax and fmin values in the bandwidth formula.

BW = fc + fm − (fc − fm )

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 31/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

⇒ BW = 2fm

Thus, the bandwidth of DSBSC wave is same as that of AM wave and it is equal to twice the
frequency of the modulating signal.

Power Calculations of DSBSC Wave

Consider the following equation of DSBSC modulated wave.

Am Ac Am Ac
s (t) = cos[2π (fc + fm ) t] + cos[2π (fc − fm ) t]
2 2

Power of DSBSC wave is equal to the sum of powers of upper sideband and lower sideband
frequency components.

P t = P U SB + P LSB

We know the standard formula for power of cos signal is

– 2
2
v rms (v m √ 2 )
P = =
R R

First, let us find the powers of upper sideband and lower sideband one by one.

Upper sideband power

– 2
2 2
(Am Ac /2√2) Am Ac
P U SB = =
R 8R

Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of upper sideband power.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 32/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

2 2
Am Ac
P U SB =
8R

Now, let us add these two sideband powers in order to get the power of DSBSC wave.

2 2 2 2
Am Ac Am Ac
Pt = +
8R 8R

2 2
Am Ac
⇒ Pt =
4R

Therefore, the power required for transmitting DSBSC wave is equal to the power of both the
sidebands.

Analog Communication - DSBSC Modulators

In this chapter, let us discuss about the modulators, which generate DSBSC wave. The following
two modulators generate DSBSC wave.

Balanced modulator
Ring modulator

Balanced Modulator
Following is the block diagram of the Balanced modulator.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 33/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Balanced modulator consists of two identical AM modulators. These two modulators are arranged
in a balanced configuration in order to suppress the carrier signal. Hence, it is called as Balanced
modulator.

The same carrier signal c (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t) is applied as one of the inputs to these two AM

modulators. The modulating signal m (t) is applied as another input to the upper AM

modulator. Whereas, the modulating signal m (t) with opposite polarity, i.e., −m (t) is

applied as another input to the lower AM modulator.

Output of the upper AM modulator is

s1 (t) = Ac [1 + ka m (t)] cos(2πfc t)

Output of the lower AM modulator is

s2 (t) = Ac [1 − ka m (t)] cos(2πfc t)

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 34/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

We get the DSBSC wave s (t) by subtracting s2 (t) from s1 (t) . The summer block is used

to perform this operation. s1 (t) with positive sign and s2 (t) with negative sign are applied

as inputs to summer block. Thus, the summer block produces an output s (t) which is the

difference of s1 (t) and s2 (t) .

⇒ s (t) = Ac [1 + ka m (t)] cos(2πfc t) − Ac [1 − ka m (t)] cos(2πfc t)

⇒ s (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t) + Ac ka m (t) cos(2πfc t) − Ac cos(2πfc t)+

Ac ka m (t) cos(2πfc t)

⇒ s (t) = 2Ac ka m (t) cos(2πfc t)

We know the standard equation of DSBSC wave is

s (t) = Ac m (t) cos(2πfc t)

By comparing the output of summer block with the standard equation of DSBSC wave, we will get

the scaling factor as 2ka

Ring Modulator
Following is the block diagram of the Ring modulator.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 35/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

In this diagram, the four diodes D1 , D2 , D3 and D4 are connected in the ring structure.

Hence, this modulator is called as the ring modulator. Two center tapped transformers are used in

this diagram. The message signal m (t) is applied to the input transformer. Whereas, the carrier

signals c (t) is applied between the two center tapped transformers.

For positive half cycle of the carrier signal, the diodes D1 and D3 are switched ON and the

other two diodes D2 and D4 are switched OFF. In this case, the message signal is multiplied

by +1.

For negative half cycle of the carrier signal, the diodes D2 and D4 are switched ON and the

other two diodes D1 and D3 are switched OFF. In this case, the message signal is multiplied

by -1. This results in 180

0
phase shift in the resulting DSBSC wave.

From the above analysis, we can say that the four diodes D1 , D2 , D3 and D4 are

controlled by the carrier signal. If the carrier is a square wave, then the Fourier series

representation of c (t) is represented as

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 36/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

∞ n−1
4 (−1)
c (t) = ∑ cos[2πfc t (2n − 1)]
π 2n − 1
n=1

We will get DSBSC wave s (t) , which is just the product of the carrier signal c (t) and the

message signal m (t) i.e.,

∞ n−1
4 (−1)
s (t) = ∑ cos[2πfc t (2n − 1)]m (t)
π 2n − 1
n=1

The above equation represents DSBSC wave, which is obtained at the output transformer of the
ring modulator.

DSBSC modulators are also called as product modulators as they produce the output, which is the
product of two input signals.

DSBSC Demodulators
The process of extracting an original message signal from DSBSC wave is known as detection or
demodulation of DSBSC. The following demodulators (detectors) are used for demodulating
DSBSC wave.

Coherent Detector
Costas Loop

Coherent Detector
Here, the same carrier signal (which is used for generating DSBSC signal) is used to detect the
message signal. Hence, this process of detection is called as coherent or synchronous detection.
Following is the block diagram of the coherent detector.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 37/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

In this process, the message signal can be extracted from DSBSC wave by multiplying it with a
carrier, having the same frequency and the phase of the carrier used in DSBSC modulation. The
resulting signal is then passed through a Low Pass Filter. Output of this filter is the desired
message signal.

Let the DSBSC wave be

s (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)m (t)

The output of the local oscillator is

c (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t + ϕ)

Where, ϕ is the phase difference between the local oscillator signal and the carrier signal, which

is used for DSBSC modulation.

From the figure, we can write the output of product modulator as

v (t) = s (t) c (t)

Substitute, s (t) and c (t) values in the above equation.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 38/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

⇒ v (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)m (t) Ac cos(2πfc t + ϕ)

2
= Ac cos(2πfc t) cos(2πfc t + ϕ)m (t)

2
Ac
= [cos(4πfc t + ϕ) + cos ϕ] m (t)
2

2 2
Ac Ac
v (t) = cos ϕm (t) + cos(4πfc t + ϕ)m (t)
2 2

In the above equation, the first term is the scaled version of the message signal. It can be extracted
by passing the above signal through a low pass filter.

Therefore, the output of low pass filter is

2
Ac
v0 t = cos ϕm (t)
2

The demodulated signal amplitude will be maximum, when ϕ = 0

0
. That’s why the local

oscillator signal and the carrier signal should be in phase, i.e., there should not be any phase
difference between these two signals.

The demodulated signal amplitude will be zero, when ϕ = ±90

0
. This effect is called as

quadrature null effect.

Costas Loop
Costas loop is used to make both the carrier signal (used for DSBSC modulation) and the locally
generated signal in phase. Following is the block diagram of Costas loop.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 39/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Costas loop consists of two product modulators with common input s (t) , which is DSBSC wave.

The other input for both product modulators is taken from Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)

with −90
0
phase shift to one of the product modulator as shown in figure.

We know that the equation of DSBSC wave is

s (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)m (t)

Let the output of VCO be

c 1 (t) = cos(2πfc t + ϕ)

This output of VCO is applied as the carrier input of the upper product modulator.

Hence, the output of the upper product modulator is

v 1 (t) = s (t) c 1 (t)

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 40/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Substitute, s (t) and c 1 (t) values in the above equation.

⇒ v 1 (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)m (t) cos(2πfc t + ϕ)

After simplifying, we will get v 1 (t) as

Ac Ac
v 1 (t) = cos ϕm (t) + cos(4πfc t + ϕ)m (t)
2 2

This signal is applied as an input of the upper low pass filter. The output of this low pass filter is

Ac
v 01 (t) = cos ϕm (t)
2

Therefore, the output of this low pass filter is the scaled version of the modulating signal.

The output of −90

0
phase shifter is

0
c 2 (t) = cos (2πfc t + ϕ − 90 ) = sin(2πfc t + ϕ)

This signal is applied as the carrier input of the lower product modulator.

The output of the lower product modulator is

v 2 (t) = s (t) c 2 (t)

Substitute, s (t) and c 2 (t) values in the above equation.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 41/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

⇒ v 2 (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)m (t) sin(2πfc t + ϕ)

After simplifying, we will get v 2 (t) as

Ac Ac
v 2 (t) = sin ϕm (t) + sin(4πfc t + ϕ)m (t)
2 2

This signal is applied as an input of the lower low pass filter. The output of this low pass filter is

Ac
v 02 (t) = sin ϕm (t)
2

The output of this Low pass filter has −90

0
phase difference with the output of the upper low

pass filter.

The outputs of these two low pass filters are applied as inputs of the phase discriminator. Based
on the phase difference between these two signals, the phase discriminator produces a DC control
signal.

This signal is applied as an input of VCO to correct the phase error in VCO output. Therefore, the
carrier signal (used for DSBSC modulation) and the locally generated signal (VCO output) are in
phase.

Analog Communication - SSBSC Modulation

In the previous chapters, we have discussed DSBSC modulation and demodulation. The DSBSC
modulated signal has two sidebands. Since, the two sidebands carry the same information, there is
no need to transmit both sidebands. We can eliminate one sideband.

The process of suppressing one of the sidebands along with the carrier and transmitting a single
sideband is called as Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier system or simply SSBSC. It is plotted as
shown in the following figure.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 42/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

In the above figure, the carrier and the lower sideband are suppressed. Hence, the upper sideband
is used for transmission. Similarly, we can suppress the carrier and the upper sideband while
transmitting the lower sideband.

This SSBSC system, which transmits a single sideband has high power, as the power allotted for
both the carrier and the other sideband is utilized in transmitting this Single Sideband.

Mathematical Expressions
Let us consider the same mathematical expressions for the modulating and the carrier signals as
we have considered in the earlier chapters.

i.e., Modulating signal

m (t) = Am cos(2πfm t)

Carrier signal

c (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)

Mathematically, we can represent the equation of SSBSC wave as

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 43/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

for the upper sideband

A mA c
s (t) = cos[2π (fc + fm ) t]
2

Or

for the lower sideband

A mA c
s (t) = cos[2π (fc − fm ) t]
2

Bandwidth of SSBSC Wave

We know that the DSBSC modulated wave contains two sidebands and its bandwidth is 2fm .

Since the SSBSC modulated wave contains only one sideband, its bandwidth is half of the
bandwidth of DSBSC modulated wave.

2fm
i.e., Bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave = 2
= fm

Therefore, the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave is fm and it is equal to the frequency of

the modulating signal.

Power Calculations of SSBSC Wave

Consider the following equation of SSBSC modulated wave.

s (t) =
A mA c
cos[2π (fc + fm ) t] for the upper sideband
2

Or

for the lower sideband

A mA c
s (t) = cos[2π (fc − fm ) t]
2

Power of SSBSC wave is equal to the power of any one sideband frequency components.

P t = P U SB = P LSB

We know that the standard formula for power of cos signal is

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 44/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

– 2
2
v rms ( v m /√ 2 )
P = =
R R

In this case, the power of the upper sideband is

– 2
2 2
(Am Ac /2√2) Am Ac
P U SB = =
R 8R

Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of the upper side band power.

2 2
Am Ac
P LSB =
8R

Therefore, the power of SSBSC wave is

2 2
Am Ac
P t = P U SB = P LSB =
8R

Advantages
Bandwidth or spectrum space occupied is lesser than AM and DSBSC waves.

Transmission of more number of signals is allowed.

Power is saved.

High power signal can be transmitted.

Less amount of noise is present.

Signal fading is less likely to occur.

Disadvantages
The generation and detection of SSBSC wave is a complex process.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 45/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

The quality of the signal gets affected unless the SSB transmitter and receiver have an
excellent frequency stability.

Applications
For power saving requirements and low bandwidth requirements.

In land, air, and maritime mobile communications.

In point-to-point communications.

In radio communications.

In television, telemetry, and radar communications.

In military communications, such as amateur radio, etc.

Analog Communication - SSBSC Modulators

In this chapter, let us discuss about the modulators, which generate SSBSC wave. We can generate
SSBSC wave using the following two methods.

Frequency discrimination method

Phase discrimination method

Frequency Discrimination Method

The following figure shows the block diagram of SSBSC modulator using frequency discrimination
method.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 46/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

In this method, first we will generate DSBSC wave with the help of the product modulator. Then,
apply this DSBSC wave as an input of band pass filter. This band pass filter produces an output,
which is SSBSC wave.

Select the frequency range of band pass filter as the spectrum of the desired SSBSC wave. This
means the band pass filter can be tuned to either upper sideband or lower sideband frequencies to
get the respective SSBSC wave having upper sideband or lower sideband.

Phase Discrimination Method

The following figure shows the block diagram of SSBSC modulator using phase discrimination
method.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 47/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

This block diagram consists of two product modulators, two −90

0
phase shifters, one local

oscillator and one summer block. The product modulator produces an output, which is the product

of two inputs. The −90

0
phase shifter produces an output, which has a phase lag of −90
0

with respect to the input.

The local oscillator is used to generate the carrier signal. Summer block produces an output, which
is either the sum of two inputs or the difference of two inputs based on the polarity of inputs.

The modulating signal Am cos(2πfm t) and the carrier signal Ac cos(2πfc t) are directly

applied as inputs to the upper product modulator. So, the upper product modulator produces an
output, which is the product of these two inputs.

The output of upper product modulator is

s1 (t) = Am Ac cos(2πfm t) cos(2πfc t)

Am Ac
⇒ s1 (t) = {cos[2π (fc + fm ) t] + cos[2π (fc − fm ) t]}
2

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 48/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

The modulating signal Am cos(2πfm t) and the carrier signal Ac cos(2πfc t) are phase shifted

by −90
0
before applying as inputs to the lower product modulator. So, the lower product

modulator produces an output, which is the product of these two inputs.

The output of lower product modulator is

0 0
s2 (t) = Am Ac cos(2πfm t − 90 ) cos(2πfc t − 90 )

⇒ s2 (t) = Am Ac sin(2πfm t) sin(2πfc t)

A mA c
⇒ s2 (t) = {cos[2π (fc − fm ) t] − cos[2π (fc + fm ) t]}
2

Add s1 (t) and s2 (t) in order to get the SSBSC modulated wave s (t) having a lower

sideband.

A mA c
s (t) = {cos[2π (fc + fm ) t] + cos[2π (fc − fm ) t]} +
2

A mA c
{cos[2π (fc − fm ) t] − cos[2π (fc + fm ) t]}
2

⇒ s (t) = Am Ac cos[2π (fc − fm ) t]

Subtract s2 (t) from s1 (t) in order to get the SSBSC modulated wave s (t) having a upper

sideband.

A mA c
s (t) = {cos[2π (fc + fm ) t] + cos[2π (fc − fm ) t]} −
2

A mA c
{cos[2π (fc − fm ) t] − cos[2π (fc + fm ) t]}
2

⇒ s (t) = Am Ac cos[2π (fc + fm ) t]

Hence, by properly choosing the polarities of inputs at summer block, we will get SSBSC wave
having a upper sideband or a lower sideband.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 49/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

SSBSC Demodulator
The process of extracting an original message signal from SSBSC wave is known as detection or
demodulation of SSBSC. Coherent detector is used for demodulating SSBSC wave.

Coherent Detector
Here, the same carrier signal (which is used for generating SSBSC wave) is used to detect the
message signal. Hence, this process of detection is called as coherent or synchronous detection.
Following is the block diagram of coherent detector.

In this process, the message signal can be extracted from SSBSC wave by multiplying it with a
carrier, having the same frequency and the phase of the carrier used in SSBSC modulation. The
resulting signal is then passed through a Low Pass Filter. The output of this filter is the desired
message signal.

Consider the following SSBSC wave having a lower sideband.

Am Ac
s (t) = cos[2π (fc − fm ) t]
2

The output of the local oscillator is

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 50/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

c (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)

From the figure, we can write the output of product modulator as

v (t) = s (t) c (t)

Substitute s (t) and c (t) values in the above equation.

Am Ac
v (t) = cos[2π (fc − fm ) t]Ac cos(2πfc t)
2

2
A mA c
= cos[2π (fc − fm ) t] cos(2πfc t)
2

2
A mA c
= {cos[2π (2fc − f m)] + cos(2πfm )t}
4

2 2
A mA c A mA c
v (t) = cos(2πfm t) + cos[2π (2fc − fm ) t]
4 4

In the above equation, the first term is the scaled version of the message signal. It can be extracted
by passing the above signal through a low pass filter.

Therefore, the output of low pass filter is

2
Am Ac
v 0 (t) = cos(2πfm t)
4

Here, the scaling factor is .

Ac

We can use the same block diagram for demodulating SSBSC wave having an upper sideband.
Consider the following SSBSC wave having an upper sideband.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 51/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Am Ac
s (t) = cos[2π (fc + fm ) t]
2

The output of the local oscillator is

c (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)

We can write the output of the product modulator as

v (t) = s (t) c (t)

Substitute s (t) and c (t) values in the above equation.

Am Ac
⇒ v (t) = cos[2π (fc + fm ) t]Ac cos(2πfc t)
2

2
A mA c
= cos[2π (fc + fm ) t] cos(2πfc t)
2

2
A mA c
= {cos[2π (2fc + fm ) t] + cos(2πfm t)}
4

2 2
A mA c A mA c
v (t) = cos(2πfm t) + cos[2π (2fc + fm ) t]
4 4

In the above equation, the first term is the scaled version of the message signal. It can be extracted
by passing the above signal through a low pass filter.

Therefore, the output of the low pass filter is

2
Am Ac
v 0 (t) = cos(2πfm t)
4

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 52/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Here too the scaling factor is .

Ac

Therefore, we get the same demodulated output in both the cases by using coherent detector.

Analog Communication - VSBSC Modulation

In the previous chapters, we have discussed SSBSC modulation and demodulation. SSBSC
modulated signal has only one sideband frequency. Theoretically, we can get one sideband
frequency component completely by using an ideal band pass filter. However, practically we may
not get the entire sideband frequency component. Due to this, some information gets lost.

To avoid this loss, a technique is chosen, which is a compromise between DSBSC and SSBSC. This
technique is known as Vestigial Side Band Suppressed Carrier (VSBSC) technique. The word
“vestige” means “a part” from which, the name is derived.

VSBSC Modulation is the process, where a part of the signal called as vestige is modulated along
with one sideband. The frequency spectrum of VSBSC wave is shown in the following figure.

Along with the upper sideband, a part of the lower sideband is also being transmitted in this
technique. Similarly, we can transmit the lower sideband along with a part of the upper sideband.
A guard band of very small width is laid on either side of VSB in order to avoid the interferences.
VSB modulation is mostly used in television transmissions.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 53/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Bandwidth of VSBSC Modulation

We know that the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave is fm . Since the VSBSC modulated

wave contains the frequency components of one side band along with the vestige of other
sideband, the bandwidth of it will be the sum of the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave and

vestige frequency fv .

i.e., Bandwidth of VSBSC Modulated Wave = fm + fv

Advantages
Following are the advantages of VSBSC modulation.

Highly efficient.

Reduction in bandwidth when compared to AM and DSBSC waves.

Filter design is easy, since high accuracy is not needed.

The transmission of low frequency components is possible, without any difficulty.

Possesses good phase characteristics.

Disadvantages
Following are the disadvantages of VSBSC modulation.

Bandwidth is more when compared to SSBSC wave.

Demodulation is complex.

Applications
The most prominent and standard application of VSBSC is for the transmission of television
signals. Also, this is the most convenient and efficient technique when bandwidth usage is
considered.

Now, let us discuss about the modulator which generates VSBSC wave and the demodulator
which demodulates VSBSC wave one by one.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 54/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Generation of VSBSC
Generation of VSBSC wave is similar to the generation of SSBSC wave. The VSBSC modulator is
shown in the following figure.

In this method, first we will generate DSBSC wave with the help of the product modulator. Then,
apply this DSBSC wave as an input of sideband shaping filter. This filter produces an output, which
is VSBSC wave.

The modulating signal m (t) and carrier signal Ac cos(2πfc t) are applied as inputs to the

product modulator. Hence, the product modulator produces an output, which is the product of
these two inputs.

Therefore, the output of the product modulator is

p (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)m (t)

Apply Fourier transform on both sides

Ac
P (f ) = [M (f − fc ) + M (f + fc )]
2

The above equation represents the equation of DSBSC frequency spectrum.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 55/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Let the transfer function of the sideband shaping filter be H (f ) . This filter has the input p (t)

and the output is VSBSC modulated wave s (t) . The Fourier transforms of p (t) and s (t)

are P (t) and S (t) respectively.

Mathematically, we can write S (f ) as

S (t) = P (f ) H (f )

Substitute P (f ) value in the above equation.

Ac
S (f ) = [M (f − fc ) + M (f + fc )] H (f )
2

The above equation represents the equation of VSBSC frequency spectrum.

Demodulation of VSBSC
Demodulation of VSBSC wave is similar to the demodulation of SSBSC wave. Here, the same
carrier signal (which is used for generating VSBSC wave) is used to detect the message signal.
Hence, this process of detection is called as coherent or synchronous detection. The VSBSC
demodulator is shown in the following figure.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 56/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

In this process, the message signal can be extracted from VSBSC wave by multiplying it with a
carrier, which is having the same frequency and the phase of the carrier used in VSBSC modulation.
The resulting signal is then passed through a Low Pass Filter. The output of this filter is the desired
message signal.

Let the VSBSC wave be s (t) and the carrier signal is Ac cos(2πfc t) .

From the figure, we can write the output of the product modulator as

v (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)s (t)

Apply Fourier transform on both sides

Ac
V (f ) = [S (f − fc ) + S (f + fc )]
2

We know that
Ac
S (f ) = [M (f − fc ) + M (f + fc )] H (f )
2

From the above equation, let us find S (f − fc ) and S (f + fc ) .

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 57/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Ac
S (f − fc ) = [M (f − fc − fc ) + M (f − fc + fc )] H (f − fc )
2

Ac
⇒ S (f − fc ) = [M (f − 2fc ) + M (f )] H (f − fc )
2

Ac
S (f + fc ) = [M (f + fc − fc ) + M (f + fc + fc )] H (f + fc )
2

Ac
⇒ S (f + fc ) = [M (f ) + M (f + 2fc )] H (f + fc )
2

Substitute, S (f − fc ) and S (f + fc ) values in V (f ) .

Ac Ac
V (f ) = [ [M (f − 2fc ) + M (f )]H (f − fc )+
2 2

Ac
[M (f ) + M (f + 2fc )]H (f + fc )]
2

2
Ac
⇒ V (f ) = M (f ) [H (f − fc ) + H (f + fc )]
4

2
Ac
+ [M (f − 2fc ) H (f − fc ) + M (f + 2fc ) H (f + fc )]
4

In the above equation, the first term represents the scaled version of the desired message signal
frequency spectrum. It can be extracted by passing the above signal through a low pass filter.

2
Ac
V0 (f ) = M (f ) [H (f − fc ) + H (f + fc )]
4

Analog Communication - Angle Modulation

The other type of modulation in continuous-wave modulation is Angle Modulation. Angle
Modulation is the process in which the frequency or the phase of the carrier signal varies according

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 58/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

to the message signal.

The standard equation of the angle modulated wave is

s (t) = Ac cos θi (t)

Where,

Ac is the amplitude of the modulated wave, which is the same as the amplitude of the carrier

signal

θi (t) is the angle of the modulated wave

Angle modulation is further divided into frequency modulation and phase modulation.

Frequency Modulation is the process of varying the frequency of the carrier signal linearly with
the message signal.

Phase Modulation is the process of varying the phase of the carrier signal linearly with the
message signal.

Now, let us discuss these in detail.

Frequency Modulation
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal varies. Whereas, in Frequency
Modulation (FM), the frequency of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal.

Hence, in frequency modulation, the amplitude and the phase of the carrier signal remains
constant. This can be better understood by observing the following figures.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 59/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

The frequency of the modulated wave increases, when the amplitude of the modulating or
message signal increases. Similarly, the frequency of the modulated wave decreases, when the
amplitude of the modulating signal decreases. Note that, the frequency of the modulated wave
remains constant and it is equal to the frequency of the carrier signal, when the amplitude of the
modulating signal is zero.
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 60/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Mathematical Representation

The equation for instantaneous frequency fi in FM modulation is

fi = fc + kf m (t)

Where,

fc is the carrier frequency

kt is the frequency sensitivity

m (t) is the message signal

We know the relationship between angular frequency ωi and angle θi (t) as

dθi (t)
ωi =
dt

dθi (t)
⇒ 2πfi =
dt

⇒ θi (t) = 2π ∫ fi dt

Substitute, fi value in the above equation.

θi (t) = 2π ∫ (fc + kf m (t)) dt

⇒ θi (t) = 2πfc t + 2πkf ∫ m (t) dt

Substitute, θi (t) value in the standard equation of angle modulated wave.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 61/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

s (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t + 2πkf ∫ m (t) dt)

This is the equation of FM wave.

If the modulating signal is m (t) = Am cos(2πfm t) , then the equation of FM wave will be

s (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t + β sin(2πfm t))

Where,

= modulation index
Δf kf Am
β = =
fm fm

The difference between FM modulated frequency (instantaneous frequency) and normal carrier

frequency is termed as Frequency Deviation. It is denoted by Δf , which is equal to the product

of kf and Am .

FM can be divided into Narrowband FM and Wideband FM based on the values of modulation

index β .

Narrowband FM
Following are the features of Narrowband FM.

This frequency modulation has a small bandwidth when compared to wideband FM.

The modulation index β is small, i.e., less than 1.

Its spectrum consists of the carrier, the upper sideband and the lower sideband.
This is used in mobile communications such as police wireless, ambulances, taxicabs, etc.

Wideband FM
Following are the features of Wideband FM.

This frequency modulation has infinite bandwidth.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 62/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

The modulation index β is large, i.e., higher than 1.

Its spectrum consists of a carrier and infinite number of sidebands, which are located around it.

This is used in entertainment, broadcasting applications such as FM radio, TV, etc.

Phase Modulation
In frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier varies. Whereas, in Phase Modulation (PM),
the phase of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.

So, in phase modulation, the amplitude and the frequency of the carrier signal remains constant.
This can be better understood by observing the following figures.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 63/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

The phase of the modulated wave has got infinite points, where the phase shift in a wave can take
place. The instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal changes the phase of the carrier
signal. When the amplitude is positive, the phase changes in one direction and if the amplitude is
negative, the phase changes in the opposite direction.

Mathematical Representation
The equation for instantaneous phase ϕi in phase modulation is

ϕ i = kp m (t)

Where,

kp is the phase sensitivity

m (t) is the message signal

The standard equation of angle modulated wave is

s (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t + ϕ i )

Substitute, ϕi value in the above equation.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 64/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

s (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t + kp m (t))

This is the equation of PM wave.

If the modulating signal, m (t) = Am cos(2πfm t) , then the equation of PM wave will be

s (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t + β cos(2πfm t))

Where,

β = modulation index = Δϕ = kp Am

Δϕ is phase deviation

Phase modulation is used in mobile communication systems, while frequency modulation is used
mainly for FM broadcasting.

Numerical Problems 2
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the parameters used in Angle modulation. Each
parameter has its own formula. By using those formulas, we can find the respective parameter
values. In this chapter, let us solve a few problems based on the concept of Frequency Modulation.

Problem 1
A sinusoidal modulating waveform of amplitude 5 V and a frequency of 2 KHz is applied to FM
generator, which has a frequency sensitivity of 40 Hz/volt. Calculate the frequency deviation,
modulation index, and bandwidth.

Solution
Given, the amplitude of modulating signal, Am = 5V

Frequency of modulating signal, fm = 2K H z

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 65/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Frequency sensitivity, kf = 40H z/volt

We know the formula for Frequency deviation as

Δf = kf Am

Substitute kf and Am values in the above formula.

Δf = 40 × 5 = 200H z

Therefore, frequency deviation, Δf is 200H z

The formula for modulation index is

Δf
β =
fm

Substitute Δf and fm values in the above formula.

200
β = = 0.1
2 × 1000

Here, the value of modulation index, β is 0.1, which is less than one. Hence, it is Narrow Band

FM.

The formula for Bandwidth of Narrow Band FM is the same as that of AM wave.

BW = 2fm

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 66/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Substitute fm value in the above formula.

BW = 2 × 2K = 4K H z

Therefore, the bandwidth of Narrow Band FM wave is 4K H z .

Problem 2

An FM wave is given by 6
s (t) = 20 cos(8π × 10 t + 9 sin(2π × 10 t))
3
. Calculate the frequency

deviation, bandwidth, and power of FM wave.

Solution
Given, the equation of an FM wave as

6 3
s (t) = 20 cos(8π × 10 t + 9 sin(2π × 10 t))

We know the standard equation of an FM wave as

s (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t + β sin(2πfm t))

We will get the following values by comparing the above two equations.

Amplitude of the carrier signal, Ac = 20V

Frequency of the carrier signal, 6

fc = 4 × 10 H z = 4M H z

Frequency of the message signal, 3

fm = 1 × 10 H z = 1K H z

Modulation index, β = 9

Here, the value of modulation index is greater than one. Hence, it is Wide Band FM.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 67/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

We know the formula for modulation index as

Δf
β =
fm

Rearrange the above equation as follows.

Δ = βfm

Substitute β and fm values in the above equation.

Δ = 9 × 1K = 9K H z

Therefore, frequency deviation, Δf is 9K H z .

The formula for Bandwidth of Wide Band FM wave is

BW = 2 (β + 1) fm

Substitute β and fm values in the above formula.

BW = 2 (9 + 1) 1K = 20K H z

Therefore, the bandwidth of Wide Band FM wave is 20K H z

Formula for power of FM wave is

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 68/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

2
Ac
Pc =
2R

Assume, R = 1Ω and substitute Ac value in the above equation.

2
(20)
P = = 200W
2 (1)

Therefore, the power of FM wave is 200 watts.

Analog Communication - FM Modulators

In this chapter, let us discuss about the modulators which generate NBFM and WBFM waves. First,
let us discuss about the generation of NBFM.

Generation of NBFM
We know that the standard equation of FM wave is

s (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t + 2πkf ∫ m (t) dt)

⇒ s (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t) cos(2πkf ∫ m (t) dt)−

Ac sin(2πfc t) sin(2πkf ∫ m (t) dt)

For NBFM,

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 69/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

∣ ∣
∣2πkf ∫ m (t) dt∣ << 1
∣ ∣

We know that cos θ ≈ 1 and sin θ ≈ 1 when θ is very small.

By using the above relations, we will get the NBFM equation as

s (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t) − Ac sin(2πfc t)2πkf ∫ m (t) dt

The block diagram of NBFM modulator is shown in the following figure.

Here, the integrator is used to integrate the modulating signal m (t) . The carrier signal

Ac cos(2πfc t) is the phase shifted by −90

0
to get Ac sin(2πfc t) with the help of −90
0

phase shifter. The product modulator has two inputs ∫ m (t) dt and Ac sin(2πfc t) . It

produces an output, which is the product of these two inputs.

This is further multiplied with 2πkf by placing a block 2πkf in the forward path. The summer

block has two inputs, which are nothing but the two terms of NBFM equation. Positive and

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 70/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

negative signs are assigned for the carrier signal and the other term at the input of the summer
block. Finally, the summer block produces NBFM wave.

Generation of WBFM
The following two methods generate WBFM wave.

Direct method
Indirect method

Direct Method
This method is called as the Direct Method because we are generating a wide band FM wave
directly. In this method, Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) is used to generate WBFM. VCO
produces an output signal, whose frequency is proportional to the input signal voltage. This is
similar to the definition of FM wave. The block diagram of the generation of WBFM wave is shown
in the following figure.

Here, the modulating signal m (t) is applied as an input of Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO).

VCO produces an output, which is nothing but the WBFM.

fi α m (t)

⇒ fi = fc + kf m (t)

Where,

fi is the instantaneous frequency of WBFM wave.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 71/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Indirect Method
This method is called as Indirect Method because we are generating a wide band FM wave
indirectly. This means, first we will generate NBFM wave and then with the help of frequency
multipliers we will get WBFM wave. The block diagram of generation of WBFM wave is shown in
the following figure.

This block diagram contains mainly two stages. In the first stage, the NBFM wave will be
generated using NBFM modulator. We have seen the block diagram of NBFM modulator at the
beginning of this chapter. We know that the modulation index of NBFM wave is less than one.
Hence, in order to get the required modulation index (greater than one) of FM wave, choose the
frequency multiplier value properly.

Frequency multiplier is a non-linear device, which produces an output signal whose frequency is ‘n’
times the input signal frequency. Where, ‘n’ is the multiplication factor.

If NBFM wave whose modulation index β is less than 1 is applied as the input of frequency

multiplier, then the frequency multiplier produces an output signal, whose modulation index is ‘n’

times β and the frequency also ‘n’ times the frequency of WBFM wave.

Sometimes, we may require multiple stages of frequency multiplier and mixers in order to increase
the frequency deviation and modulation index of FM wave.

Analog Communication - FM Demodulators

In this chapter, let us discuss about the demodulators which demodulate the FM wave. The
following two methods demodulate FM wave.

Frequency discrimination method

Phase discrimination method
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 72/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Frequency Discrimination Method

We know that the equation of FM wave is

s (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t + 2πkf ∫ m (t) dt)

Differentiate the above equation with respect to 't'.

ds (t)
= −Ac (2πfc + 2πkf m (t)) sin(2πfc t + 2πkf ∫ m (t) dt)
dt

We can write, − sin θ as sin(θ − 180 )

0
.

ds(t)
0
⇒ = Ac (2πfc + 2πkf m (t)) sin(2πfc t + 2πkf ∫ m (t) dt − 180 )
dt

ds(t) kf
0
⇒ = Ac (2πfc ) [1 + ( ) m (t)] sin(2πfc t + 2πkf ∫ m (t) dt − 180 )
dt kc

In the above equation, the amplitude term resembles the envelope of AM wave and the angle term

resembles the angle of FM wave. Here, our requirement is the modulating signal m (t) . Hence,

we can recover it from the envelope of AM wave.

The following figure shows the block diagram of FM demodulator using frequency discrimination
method.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 73/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

This block diagram consists of the differentiator and the envelope detector. Differentiator is used to
convert the FM wave into a combination of AM wave and FM wave. This means, it converts the
frequency variations of FM wave into the corresponding voltage (amplitude) variations of AM wave.
We know the operation of the envelope detector. It produces the demodulated output of AM wave,
which is nothing but the modulating signal.

Phase Discrimination Method

The following figure shows the block diagram of FM demodulator using phase discrimination
method.

This block diagram consists of the multiplier, the low pass filter, and the Voltage Controlled

Oscillator (VCO). VCO produces an output signal v (t) , whose frequency is proportional to the

input signal voltage d (t) . Initially, when the signal d (t) is zero, adjust the VCO to produce an

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 74/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

output signal v (t) , having a carrier frequency and −90

0
phase shift with respect to the carrier

signal.

FM wave s (t) and the VCO output v (t) are applied as inputs of the multiplier. The multiplier

produces an output, having a high frequency component and a low frequency component. Low
pass filter eliminates the high frequency component and produces only the low frequency
component as its output.

This low frequency component contains only the term-related phase difference. Hence, we get the

modulating signal m (t) from this output of the low pass filter.

Analog Communication - Multiplexing

Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple signals into one signal, over a shared medium. If
the analog signals are multiplexed, then it is called as analog multiplexing. Similarly, if the digital
signals are multiplexed, then it is called as digital multiplexing.

Multiplexing was first developed in telephony. A number of signals were combined to send
through a single cable. The process of multiplexing divides a communication channel into several
number of logical channels, allotting each one for a different message signal or a data stream to be
transferred. The device that does multiplexing can be called as Multiplexer or MUX.

The reverse process, i.e., extracting the number of channels from one, which is done at the receiver
is called as de-multiplexing. The device that does de-multiplexing can be called as de-multiplexer
or DEMUX.

The following figures illustrates the concept of MUX and DEMUX. Their primary use is in the field
of communications.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 75/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Types of Multiplexers
There are mainly two types of multiplexers, namely analog and digital. They are further divided
into Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM), Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM), and Time
Division Multiplexing (TDM). The following figure gives a detailed idea about this classification.

There are many types of multiplexing techniques. Out of which, we have the main types with
general classification, mentioned in the above figure. Let us take a look at them individually.

Analog Multiplexing
The signals used in analog multiplexing techniques are analog in nature. The analog signals are
multiplexed according to their frequency (FDM) or wavelength (WDM).

Frequency Division Multiplexing

In analog multiplexing, the most used technique is Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM). This
technique uses various frequencies to combine streams of data, for sending them on a
communication medium, as a single signal.

Example − A traditional television transmitter, which sends a number of channels through a single
cable uses FDM.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 76/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Wavelength Division multiplexing (WDM) is an analog technique, in which many data streams of
different wavelengths are transmitted in the light spectrum. If the wavelength increases, the
frequency of the signal decreases. A prism, which can turn different wavelengths into a single line,
can be used at the output of MUX and input of DEMUX.

Example − Optical fiber communications use WDM technique, to merge different wavelengths into
a single light for communication.

Digital Multiplexing
The term digital represents the discrete bits of information. Hence, the available data is in the form
of frames or packets, which are discrete.

Time Division Multiplexing

In Time Division Multiplexing (TDM), the time frame is divided into slots. This technique is used to
transmit a signal over a single communication channel, by allotting one slot for each message.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) can be classified into Synchronous TDM and Asynchronous
TDM.

Synchronous TDM
In Synchronous TDM, the input is connected to a frame. If there are ‘n’ number of connections, then
the frame is divided into ‘n’ time slots. One slot is allocated for each input line.

In this technique, the sampling rate is common for all signals and hence the same clock input is
given. The MUX allocates the same slot to each device at all times.

Asynchronous TDM
In Asynchronous TDM, the sampling rate is different for each of the signals and a common clock is
not required. If the allotted device for a time slot transmits nothing and sits idle, then that slot can
be allotted to another device, unlike synchronous

This type of TDM is used in Asynchronous transfer mode networks.

De-Multiplexer
De-multiplexers are used to connect a single source to multiple destinations. This process is the
reverse process of multiplexing. As mentioned previously, it is used mostly at the receivers.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 77/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

DEMUX has many applications. It is used in receivers in the communication systems. It is used in
arithmetic and logical unit in computers to supply power and to pass on communication, etc.

De-multiplexers are used as serial to parallel converters. The serial data is given as input to
DEMUX at regular interval and a counter is attached to it to control the output of the de-
multiplexer.

Both the multiplexers and de-multiplexers play an important role in communication systems, both
at the transmitter and the receiver sections.

Analog Communication - Noise

In any communication system, during the transmission of the signal or while receiving the signal,
some unwanted signal gets introduced into the communication, making it unpleasant for the
receiver, and questioning the quality of the communication. Such a disturbance is called as Noise.

What is Noise?
Noise is an unwanted signal, which interferes with the original message signal and corrupts the
parameters of the message signal. This alteration in the communication process, leads to the
message getting altered. It most likely enters at the channel or the receiver.

The noise signal can be understood by taking a look at the following figure.

Hence, it is understood that the noise is some signal which has no pattern and no constant
frequency or amplitude. It is quite random and unpredictable. Measures are usually taken to reduce
it, though it can’t be completely eliminated.
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 78/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Most common examples of noise are −

Hiss sound in radio receivers

Buzz sound amidst of telephone conversations

Flicker in television receivers, etc

Types of Noise
The classification of noise is done depending on the type of the source, the effect it shows or the
relation it has with the receiver, etc.

There are two main ways in which noise is produced. One is through some external source while
the other is created by an internal source, within the receiver section.

External Source
This noise is produced by the external sources, which may occur in the medium or channel of
communication usually. This noise cannot be completely eliminated. The best way is to avoid the
noise from affecting the signal.

Examples
Most common examples of this type of noise are

Atmospheric noise (due to irregularities in the atmosphere).

Extra-terrestrial noise, such as solar noise and cosmic noise.

Industrial noise.

Internal Source
This noise is produced by the receiver components while functioning. The components in the
circuits, due to continuous functioning, may produce few types of noise. This noise is quantifiable. A
proper receiver design may lower the effect of this internal noise.

Examples

Most common examples of this type of noise are

Thermal agitation noise (Johnson noise or Electrical noise)

Shot noise (due to the random movement of electrons and holes)

Transit-time noise (during transition)

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 79/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Miscellaneous noise is another type of noise which includes flicker, resistance effect and mixer
generated noise, etc.

Effects of Noise
Noise is an inconvenient feature, which affects the system performance. Following are the effects
of noise.

Noise limits the operating range of the systems

Noise indirectly places a limit on the weakest signal that can be amplified by an amplifier. The
oscillator in the mixer circuit may limit its frequency because of noise. A system’s operation
depends on the operation of its circuits. Noise limits the smallest signal that a receiver is capable of
processing.

Noise affects the sensitivity of receivers

Sensitivity is the minimum amount of input signal necessary to obtain the specified quality output.
Noise affects the sensitivity of a receiver system, which eventually affects the output.

Analog Communication - SNR Calculations

In this chapter, let us calculate Signal to Noise Ratios and Figure of Merits of various modulated
waves, which are demodulated at the receiver.

Signal to Noise Ratio

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) is the ratio of the signal power to noise power. The higher the value of
SNR, the greater will be the quality of the received output.

Signal-to-Noise Ratio at different points can be calculated using the following formulas.

Input SNR =
Average power of modulating signal
(S N R) =
I Average power of noise at input

Output SNR =
Average power of demodulated signal
(S N R) =
O Average power of noise at output

Channel SNR =
Average power of modulated signal
(S N R) =
C Average power of noise in message bandwidth

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 80/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Figure of Merit
The ratio of output SNR and input SNR can be termed as Figure of Merit. It is denoted by F. It
describes the performance of a device.

(S N R)
O
F =
(S N R)
I

Figure of merit of a receiver is

(S N R)
O
F =
(S N R)
C

It is so because for a receiver, the channel is the input.

SNR Calculations in AM System

Consider the following receiver model of AM system to analyze noise.

We know that the Amplitude Modulated (AM) wave is

s (t) = Ac [1 + ka m (t)] cos(2πfc t)

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 81/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

⇒ s (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t) + Ac ka m (t) cos(2πfc t)

Average power of AM wave is

2 2 2 2 2
Ac Ac ka m (t) Ac Ac ka P
Ps = ( ) + ( ) = +
– –
√2 √2 2 2

2 2
Ac (1 + ka P)
⇒ Ps =
2

Average power of noise in the message bandwidth is

P nc = W N0

Substitute, these values in channel SNR formula

Average P ower of AM W ave

(S N R) =
C ,AM
Average P ower of noise in message bandwidth

2 2
Ac (1 + ka )P
⇒ (S N R) =
C ,AM
2W N0

Where,

P is the power of the message signal=

Am

W is the message bandwidth

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 82/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Assume the band pass noise is mixed with AM wave in the channel as shown in the above figure.
This combination is applied at the input of AM demodulator. Hence, the input of AM demodulator
is.

v (t) = s (t) + n (t)

⇒ v (t) = Ac [1 + ka m (t)] cos(2πfc t)+

[n 1 (t) cos(2πfc t) − n Q (t) sin(2πfc t)]

⇒ v (t) = [Ac + Ac ka m (t) + n 1 (t)] cos(2πfc t) − n Q (t) sin(2πfc t)

Where n I (t) and n Q (t) are in phase and quadrature phase components of noise.

The output of AM demodulator is nothing but the envelope of the above signal.

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
d (t) = √[Ac + Ac Ka m (t) + n I (t)] + (n Q (t))

⇒ d (t) ≈ Ac + Ac ka m (t) + n 1 (t)

Average power of the demodulated signal is

2 2 2
Ac ka m (t) Ac ka P
Pm = ( ) =
–
√2 2

Average power of noise at the output is

P n o = W N0

Substitute, these values in output SNR formula.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 83/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Average P ower of demodulated signal

(S N R) =
O,AM
Average P ower of noise at Output

2 2
Ac ka P
⇒ (S N R) =
O,AM
2W N0

Substitute, the values in Figure of merit of AM receiver formula.

(S N R)
O,AM
F =
(S N R)
C ,AM

2 2
2 2 Ac (1 + ka )P
Ac ka P
⇒ F = ( )/( )
2W N0 2W N0

2
Ka P
⇒ F =
2
1 + Ka P

Therefore, the Figure of merit of AM receiver is less than one.

SNR Calculations in DSBSC System

Consider the following receiver model of DSBSC system to analyze noise.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 84/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

We know that the DSBSC modulated wave is

s (t) = Ac m (t) cos(2πfc t)

Average power of DSBSC modulated wave is

2 2
Ac m (t) Ac P
Ps = ( ) =
–
√2 2

Average power of noise in the message bandwidth is

P nc = W N0

Substitute, these values in channel SNR formula.

Average P ower of DS BS C modulated wave

(S N R) =
C ,DSBSC
Average P ower of noise in message bandwidth

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 85/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

2
Ac P
⇒ (S N R) =
C ,DSBSC
2W N0

Assume the band pass noise is mixed with DSBSC modulated wave in the channel as shown in the
above figure. This combination is applied as one of the input to the product modulator. Hence, the
input of this product modulator is

v 1 (t) = s (t) + n (t)

⇒ v 1 (t) = Ac m (t) cos(2πfc t) + [n I (t) cos(2πfc t) − n Q (t) sin(2πfc t)]

⇒ v 1 (t) = [Ac m (t) + n I (t)] cos(2πfc t) − n Q (t) sin(2πfc t)

Local oscillator generates the carrier signal c (t) = cos(2πfc t) . This signal is applied as another

input to the product modulator. Therefore, the product modulator produces an output, which is the

product of v 1 (t) and c (t) .

v 2 (t) = v 1 (t) c (t)

Substitute, v 1 (t) and c (t) values in the above equation.

⇒ v 2 (t) = ([Ac m (t) + n I (t)] cos(2πfc t) − n Q (t) sin(2πfc t)) cos(2πfc t)

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 86/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

2
⇒ v 2 (t) = [Ac m (t) + n I (t)] cos (2πfc t) − n Q (t) sin(2πfc t) cos(2πfc t)

1 + cos(4πfc t) sin(4πfc t)
⇒ v 2 (t) = [Ac m (t) + n I (t)] ( ) − n Q (t)
2 2

When the above signal is applied as an input to low pass filter, we will get the output of low pass
filter as

[Ac m (t) + n I (t)]

d (t) =
2

Average power of the demodulated signal is

2 2
Ac m (t) Ac P
Pm = ( ) =
–
2√ 2 8

Average power of noise at the output is

W N0
P no =
4

Substitute, these values in output SNR formula.

Average P ower of demodulated signal

(S N R) =
O,DSBSC
Average P ower of noise at Output

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 87/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

2 2
Ac P W N0 Ac P
⇒ (S N R) = ( )/( ) =
O,DSBSC
8 4 2W N0

Substitute, the values in Figure of merit of DSBSC receiver formula.

(S N R)
O,DSBSC
F =
(S N R)
C ,DSBSC

2 2
Ac P Ac P
⇒ F = ( )/( )
2W N0 2W N0

⇒ F = 1

Therefore, the Figure of merit of DSBSC receiver is 1.

SNR Calculations in SSBSC System

Consider the following receiver model of SSBSC system to analyze noise.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 88/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

We know that the SSBSC modulated wave having lower sideband is

Am Ac
s (t) = cos[2π (fc − fm ) t]
2

Average power of SSBSC modulated wave is

2 2 2
Am Ac Am Ac
Ps = ( ) =
–
2√ 2 8

Average power of noise in the message bandwidth is

P nc = W N0

Substitute, these values in channel SNR formula.

Average P ower of S S BS C modulated wave

(S N R) =
C ,SSBSC
Average P ower of noise in message bandwidth

2 2
Am Ac
⇒ (S N R) =
C ,SSBSC
8W N0

Assume the band pass noise is mixed with SSBSC modulated wave in the channel as shown in the
above figure. This combination is applied as one of the input to the product modulator. Hence, the
input of this product modulator is

v 1 (t) = s (t) + n (t)

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 89/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Am Ac
v 1 (t) = cos[2π (fc − fm ) t] + n I (t) cos(2πfc t) − n Q (t) sin(2πfc t)
2

The local oscillator generates the carrier signal c (t) = cos(2πfc t) . This signal is applied as

another input to the product modulator. Therefore, the product modulator produces an output,

which is the product of v 1 (t) and c (t) .

v 2 (t) = v 1 (t) c (t)

Substitute, v 1 (t) and c (t) values in the above equation.

A mA c
⇒ v 2 (t) = ( cos[2π(fc − fm )t] + n I (t) cos(2πfc t)−
2

n Q (t) sin(2πfc t)) cos(2πfc t)

A mA c
⇒ v 2 (t) = cos[2π (fc − fm ) t] cos(2πfc t)+
2

2
n I (t) cos (2πfc t) − n Q (t) sin(2πfc t) cos(2πfc t)

A mA c
⇒ v 2 (t) = {cos[2π (2fc − fm ) t] + cos(2πfm t)} +
4

1+cos(4πfc t) sin(4πfc t)
n I (t) ( ) − n Q (t)
2 2

When the above signal is applied as an input to low pass filter, we will get the output of low pass
filter as

Am Ac n I (t)
d (t) = cos(2πfm t) +
2 2

Average power of the demodulated signal is

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 90/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

2 2 2
Am Ac Am Ac
Pm = ( ) =
–
4√ 2 32

Average power of noise at the output is

W N0
P no =
4

Substitute, these values in output SNR formula

Average P ower of demodulated signal

(S N R) =
O,SSBSC
Average P ower of noise at output

2 2 2 2
Am Ac W N0 Am Ac
⇒ (S N R) = ( )/( ) =
O,SSBSC
32 4 8W N0

Substitute, the values in Figure of merit of SSBSC receiver formula

(S N R)
O,SSBSC
F =
(S N R)
C ,SSBSC

2 2 2 2
Am Ac Am Ac
F = ( )/( )
8W N0 8W N0

F = 1

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 91/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Therefore, the Figure of merit of SSBSC receiver is 1.

Analog Communication - Transmitters

The antenna present at the end of transmitter section, transmits the modulated wave. In this
chapter, let us discuss about AM and FM transmitters.

AM Transmitter
AM transmitter takes the audio signal as an input and delivers amplitude modulated wave to the
antenna as an output to be transmitted. The block diagram of AM transmitter is shown in the
following figure.

The working of AM transmitter can be explained as follows.

The audio signal from the output of the microphone is sent to the pre-amplifier, which boosts
the level of the modulating signal.

The RF oscillator generates the carrier signal.

Both the modulating and the carrier signal is sent to AM modulator.

Power amplifier is used to increase the power levels of AM wave. This wave is finally passed
to the antenna to be transmitted.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 92/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

FM Transmitter
FM transmitter is the whole unit, which takes the audio signal as an input and delivers FM wave to
the antenna as an output to be transmitted. The block diagram of FM transmitter is shown in the
following figure.

The working of FM transmitter can be explained as follows.

The audio signal from the output of the microphone is sent to the pre-amplifier, which boosts
the level of the modulating signal.

This signal is then passed to high pass filter, which acts as a pre-emphasis network to filter
out the noise and improve the signal to noise ratio.

This signal is further passed to the FM modulator circuit.

The oscillator circuit generates a high frequency carrier, which is sent to the modulator along
with the modulating signal.

Several stages of frequency multiplier are used to increase the operating frequency. Even
then, the power of the signal is not enough to transmit. Hence, a RF power amplifier is used at
the end to increase the power of the modulated signal. This FM modulated output is finally
passed to the antenna to be transmitted.

Analog Communication - Receivers

The antenna present at the beginning of the receiver section, receives the modulated wave. First
let us discuss the requirements of a receiver.

Requirements of a Receiver
AM receiver receives AM wave and demodulates it by using the envelope detector. Similarly, FM
receiver receives FM wave and demodulates it by using the Frequency Discrimination method.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 93/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Following are the requirements of both AM and FM receiver.

It should be cost-effective.
It should receive the corresponding modulated waves.

The receiver should be able to tune and amplify the desired station.

It should have an ability to reject the unwanted stations.

Demodulation has to be done to all the station signals, irrespective of the carrier signal
frequency.

For these requirements to be fulfilled, the tuner circuit and the mixer circuit should be very
effective. The procedure of RF mixing is an interesting phenomenon.

RF Mixing
The RF mixing unit develops an Intermediate Frequency (IF) to which any received signal is
converted, so as to process the signal effectively.

RF Mixer is an important stage in the receiver. Two signals of different frequencies are taken where
one signal level affects the level of the other signal, to produce the resultant mixed output. The
input signals and the resultant mixer output is illustrated in the following figures.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 94/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Let the first and second signal frequencies be f1 and f2 . If these two signals are applied as

inputs of RF mixer, then it produces an output signal, having frequencies of f1 + f2 and

f1 − f2 .

If this is observed in the frequency domain, the pattern looks like the following figure.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 95/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

In this case, f1 is greater than f2 . So, the resultant output has frequencies f1 + f2 and

f1 − f2 . Similarly, if f2 is greater than f1 , then the resultant output will have the

frequencies f1 + f2 and f1 − f2 .

AM Receiver
The AM super heterodyne receiver takes the amplitude modulated wave as an input and produces
the original audio signal as an output. Selectivity is the ability of selecting a particular signal, while
rejecting the others. Sensitivity is the capacity of detecting RF signal and demodulating it, while at
the lowest power level.

Radio amateurs are the initial radio receivers. However, they have drawbacks such as poor
sensitivity and selectivity. To overcome these drawbacks, super heterodyne receiver was invented.
The block diagram of AM receiver is shown in the following figure.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 96/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

RF Tuner Section
The amplitude modulated wave received by the antenna is first passed to the tuner circuit through
a transformer. The tuner circuit is nothing but a LC circuit, which is also called as resonant or tank
circuit. It selects the frequency, desired by the AM receiver. It also tunes the local oscillator and the
RF filter at the same time.

RF Mixer
The signal from the tuner output is sent to the RF-IF converter, which acts as a mixer. It has a local
oscillator, which produces a constant frequency. The mixing process is done here, having the
received signal as one input and the local oscillator frequency as the other input. The resultant

output is a mixture of two frequencies [(f1 + f2 ) , (f1 − f2 )] produced by the mixer, which is

called as the Intermediate Frequency (IF).

The production of IF helps in the demodulation of any station signal having any carrier frequency.
Hence, all signals are translated to a fixed carrier frequency for adequate selectivity.

IF Filter
Intermediate frequency filter is a band pass filter, which passes the desired frequency. It eliminates
all other unwanted frequency components present in it. This is the advantage of IF filter, which

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 97/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

allows only IF frequency.

AM Demodulator
The received AM wave is now demodulated using AM demodulator. This demodulator uses the
envelope detection process to receive the modulating signal.

Audio Amplifier
This is the power amplifier stage, which is used to amplify the detected audio signal. The
processed signal is strengthened to be effective. This signal is passed on to the loudspeaker to get
the original sound signal.

FM Receiver
The block diagram of FM receiver is shown in the following figure.

This block diagram of FM receiver is similar to the block diagram of AM receiver. The two blocks
Amplitude limiter and De-emphasis network are included before and after FM demodulator. The
operation of the remaining blocks is the same as that of AM receiver.

We know that in FM modulation, the amplitude of FM wave remains constant. However, if some
noise is added with FM wave in the channel, due to that the amplitude of FM wave may vary. Thus,
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 98/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

with the help of amplitude limiter we can maintain the amplitude of FM wave as constant by
removing the unwanted peaks of the noise signal.

In FM transmitter, we have seen the pre-emphasis network (High pass filter), which is present
before FM modulator. This is used to improve the SNR of high frequency audio signal. The reverse
process of pre-emphasis is known as de-emphasis. Thus, in this FM receiver, the de-emphasis
network (Low pass filter) is included after FM demodulator. This signal is passed to the audio
amplifier to increase the power level. Finally, we get the original sound signal from the
loudspeaker.

Analog Communication - Sampling

So far, we have discussed about continuous-wave modulation. We will discuss about pulse
modulation in the next chapter. These pulse modulation techniques deal with discrete signals. So,
now let us see how to convert a continuous time signal into a discrete one.

The process of converting continuous time signals into equivalent discrete time signals, can be
termed as Sampling. A certain instant of data is continually sampled in the sampling process.

The following figure shows a continuous-time signal x(t) and the corresponding sampled signal
xs(t). When x(t) is multiplied by a periodic impulse train, the sampled signal xs(t) is obtained.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 99/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

A sampling signal is a periodic train of pulses, having unit amplitude, sampled at equal intervals of

time Ts , which is called as sampling time. This data is transmitted at the time instants Ts and

the carrier signal is transmitted at the remaining time.

Sampling Rate
To discretize the signals, the gap between the samples should be fixed. That gap can be termed as

the sampling period Ts . Reciprocal of the sampling period is known as sampling frequency or

sampling rate fs .

Mathematically, we can write it as

1
fs =
Ts

Where,

fs is the sampling frequency or the sampling rate

Ts is the sampling period

Sampling Theorem
The sampling rate should be such that the data in the message signal should neither be lost nor it
should get over-lapped. The sampling theorem states that, “a signal can be exactly reproduced if it

is sampled at the rate fs , which is greater than or equal to twice the maximum frequency of the

given signal W.”

Mathematically, we can write it as

fs ≥ 2W

Where,

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 100/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

fs is the sampling rate

W is the highest frequency of the given signal

If the sampling rate is equal to twice the maximum frequency of the given signal W, then it is
called as Nyquist rate.

The sampling theorem, which is also called as Nyquist theorem, delivers the theory of sufficient
sample rate in terms of bandwidth for the class of functions that are bandlimited.

For continuous-time signal x(t), which is band-limited in the frequency domain is represented as
shown in the following figure.

If the signal is sampled above Nyquist rate, then the original signal can be recovered. The following
figure explains a signal, if sampled at a higher rate than 2w in the frequency domain.

If the same signal is sampled at a rate less than 2w, then the sampled signal would look like the
following figure.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 101/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

We can observe from the above pattern that there is over-lapping of information, which leads to
mixing up and loss of information. This unwanted phenomenon of over-lapping is called as
Aliasing.

Aliasing can be referred to as “the phenomenon of a high-frequency component in the spectrum of

a signal, taking on the identity of a low-frequency component in the spectrum of its sampled
version.”

Hence, the sampling rate of the signal is chosen to be as Nyquist rate. If the sampling rate is equal
to twice the highest frequency of the given signal W, then the sampled signal would look like the
following figure.

In this case, the signal can be recovered without any loss. Hence, this is a good sampling rate.

Analog Communication - Pulse Modulation

After continuous wave modulation, the next division is Pulse modulation. In this chapter, let us
discuss the following analog pulse modulation techniques.

Pulse Amplitude Modulation

Pulse Width Modulation
Pulse Position Modulation

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 102/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Pulse Amplitude Modulation

In Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) technique, the amplitude of the pulse carrier varies, which is
proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.

The pulse amplitude modulated signal will follow the amplitude of the original signal, as the
signal traces out the path of the whole wave. In natural PAM, a signal sampled at Nyquist rate can
be reconstructed, by passing it through an efficient Low Pass Filter (LPF) with exact cutoff
frequency.

The following figures explain the Pulse Amplitude Modulation.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 103/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Though the PAM signal is passed through a LPF, it cannot recover the signal without distortion.
Hence, to avoid this noise, use flat-top sampling. The flat-top PAM signal is shown in the following
figure.

Flat-top sampling is the process in which, the sampled signal can be represented in pulses for
which the amplitude of the signal cannot be changed with respect to the analog signal, to be
sampled. The tops of amplitude remain flat. This process simplifies the circuit design.

Pulse Width Modulation

In Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) or Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM) or Pulse Time Modulation
(PTM) technique, the width or the duration or the time of the pulse carrier varies, which is
proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.

The width of the pulse varies in this method, but the amplitude of the signal remains constant.
Amplitude limiters are used to make the amplitude of the signal constant. These circuits clip off the
amplitude to a desired level, and hence the noise is limited.

The following figure explains the types of Pulse Width Modulations.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 104/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

There are three types of PWM.

The leading edge of the pulse being constant, the trailing edge varies according to the
message signal. The waveform for this type of PWM is denoted as (a) in the above figure.

The trailing edge of the pulse being constant, the leading edge varies according to the
message signal. The waveform for this type of PWM is denoted as (b) in the above figure.

The center of the pulse being constant, the leading edge and the trailing edge varies according
to the message signal. The waveform for this type of PWM is denoted as (c) shown in the
above figure.

Pulse Position Modulation

Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) is an analog modulation scheme in which, the amplitude and the
width of the pulses are kept constant, while the position of each pulse, with reference to the
position of a reference pulse varies according to the instantaneous sampled value of the message
signal.

The transmitter has to send synchronizing pulses (or simply sync pulses) to keep the transmitter
and the receiver in sync. These sync pulses help to maintain the position of the pulses. The
following figures explain the Pulse Position Modulation.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 105/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 106/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Pulse position modulation is done in accordance with the pulse width modulated signal. Each
trailing edge of the pulse width modulated signal becomes the starting point for pulses in PPM
signal. Hence, the position of these pulses is proportional to the width of the PWM pulses.

Advantage
As the amplitude and the width are constant, the power handled is also constant.

Disadvantage
The synchronization between the transmitter and the receiver is a must.

Comparison between PAM, PWM, and PPM

The following table presents the comparison between three modulation techniques.

PAM PWM PPM

Amplitude is varied Width is varied Position is varied

Bandwidth depends on the Bandwidth depends on the rise Bandwidth depends on the rise
width of the pulse time of the pulse time of the pulse

Instantaneous transmitter Instantaneous transmitter power Instantaneous transmitter

power varies with the varies with the amplitude and the power remains constant with
amplitude of the pulses width of the pulses the width of the pulses

System complexity is high System complexity is low System complexity is low

Noise interference is high Noise interference is low Noise interference is low

It is similar to amplitude It is similar to frequency It is similar to phase modulation

modulation modulation

Analog Communication - Transducers

Transducer is a device, which converts energy from one form to other. In this chapter, let us discuss
about the transducers used in communication systems.

Why do We Need Transducers?

In the real world, communication between any two nearby persons takes place with the help of
sound waves. But, if the persons are far away, then it is difficult to convey the information without
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 107/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

any loss by using sound waves in its physical form.

To overcome this difficulty, we can use modulators in the transmitter section and demodulators in
the receiver section. These modulators and demodulators operate with electrical signals. That’s
why we require a device, which has to convert the sound waves into electrical signals or vice versa.
That device is known as a transducer.

Following is a simple block diagram of a transducer.

This transducer has a single input and a single output. It converts the energy present at the input
into its equivalent output having another energy. Basically, a transducer converts the non-electrical
form of energy into an electrical form or vice versa.

Types of Transducers
We can classify the transducers into following two types based on the placement (position) of the
transducer in communication systems.

Input Transducer
Output Transducer

Input Transducers
The transducer present at the input of the communication system is known as an input transducer.
Following is the block diagram of an input transducer.

This input transducer converts the non-electrical physical quantity into an electrical signal. The
physical quantities such as sound or light can be converted into electrical quantities such as
voltage or current by using this transducer. Example: Microphone.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 108/109
6/30/23, 4:34 PM Analog Communication - Quick Guide

Microphone is used as the input transducer, which is placed between the information source and
the transmitter section. The information source produces the information in the form of sound
waves. The microphone converts these sound waves into electrical signals with the help of a
diaphragm. These electrical signals can be used for further processing.

Output Transducers
The transducer present at the output of communication system is known as output transducer.
Following is the block diagram of an output transducer.

This output transducer converts the electrical signal into non-electrical physical quantity. The
electrical quantities such as voltage or current can be converted into physical quantities such as
sound or light by using this transducer. Example: Loudspeaker.

The loud speaker is used as the output transducer, which is placed between the receiver section
and the destination. The demodulator present in the receiver section produces the demodulated
output. So, the loud speaker converts the electrical signals (demodulated output) into sound
waves. Therefore, the functionality of the loud speaker is just opposite to the functionality of the
microphone.

In addition to the above transducers, there is one more transducer which is used in communication
systems. This transducer can be placed either at the end of the transmitter section or at the
starting of the receiver section. Example: Antenna.

An Antenna is a transducer, which converts electrical signals into electromagnetic waves and vice
versa. An Antenna can be used either as a transmitting antenna or as a receiving antenna.

A transmitting antenna converts electrical signals into electromagnetic waves and radiates them.
While, a receiving antenna converts electromagnetic waves from the received beam into electrical
signals.

In this two-way communication, the same antenna can be used for both transmission and
reception.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_quick_guide.htm 109/109