Renewable Energy Sources (OE)

UNIT – III
By
Dr. C Venkata Subba Reddy
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

BVRIT HYDERABAD College of Engineering for Women

Name of the Course Renewable Energy Sources
Course Code EE601OE
Year & Semester B.Tech III Year II Sem
Section IT
Name of the Faculty Dr. C Venkata Subba Reddy
Lecture Hour | Date May, 2024
Name of the Topic Induction Generators
Session Outcome(s) understand the operation, control, and economic aspects of self-
excited induction generators, including steady-state behavior, self-
excitation, and system configurations.

BVRIT HYDERABAD College of Engineering for Women

UNIT – III:
Induction Generators
• Principles of Operation-Representation of Steady-State Operation-Power and
Losses Generated-Self Excited Induction Generator-Magnetizing Curves and
Self-Excitation Mathematical Description of the Self-Excitation Process-
Interconnected and Stand-alone operation -Speed and Voltage Control
Economical Aspects.
Principles of Operation of Induction Generator
• An induction generator is one type of electrical generator that converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy using the principles of electromagnetic induction.
• Induction generators operate by mechanically turning their rotors faster than synchronous speed.
• An induction generator operates when its rotor is driven at a speed greater than its synchronous
speed. When this happens, the rotor induces a current in the stator windings, and the machine
starts generating power.
• Principle: Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field an EMF gets induced
across the conductor (called as induced emf), and the magnitude of induced emf is equal to the
rate of change of flux linkages with the coil. if the conductor is a closed circuit then induced
current flows through it.

• E is the induced emf

• Φ is the magnetic flux
Fig: Induction Generator with grid connected
Fig: Cross section view of Induction Generator
Principles of Operation of Induction Generator
Operation:
• An induction generator initially start as a motor when an AC supply given and creates a rotating
magnetic field in the stator. And the speed of rotating magnetic field is Ns=120f/P
• When the rotor is run by prime mover beyond rotating magnetic filed or synchronous speed, an
emf will be induced in the rotor conductors.
• The induced EMF in the rotor creates a current and magnetic field that opposes the stator field,
causes a stator voltage that pushes current out of the stator winding, enabling the machine to
function as an induction generator.

E is the induced emf

Φ is the magnetic flux
Principles of Operation of Induction Generator
Slip:
• In an induction generator, the speed at which the rotating magnetic field (RMF) rotates is known as
synchronous speed (NS).
• The value of the synchronous speed depends upon the number of stator poles (P) in the generator and the
supply frequency (f). Therefore, for a given generator of P-poles, the synchronous speed is,

• An induction generator cannot run at synchronous speed. If it runs at synchronous speed, there would be no
cutting of the flux by the rotor conductors and there would be no induced EMF, no current and no torque.
Therefore, the rotor of the induction generator rotates at a speed slightly more than the synchronous speed.
For this reason, an induction generator is also known as asynchronous generator.
• The difference between the synchronous speed and the actual rotor speed is known as slip speed, i.e.,
• Where, Nr is the actual rotor speed.

• the slip speed is expressed as a fraction of the synchronous speed is called the per-unit slip. The per-unit slip
is usually called the slip and denoted by ‘s’. Thus,
Principles of Operation of Induction Generator
Rotor Current Frequency:
• The frequency of current and voltage in the stator of a 3-phase induction generator must be same as the supply frequency and is
given by,

• But, the frequency of the current and EMF in the rotor circuit of the 3-phase induction generator is variable and depends upon
the difference between the synchronous speed (NS) and the rotor speed (Nr), i.e., on the slip. Thus, the rotor frequency is given
by,

Now, from the equations (1) and (2), we get,

i. e. , Rotor Current Frequency = Per unit slip × Supply frequency

• When the rotor is stationary, i.e., Nr = 0, then,

Hence, when the rotor is stationary, the frequency (fr) of the rotor current is the same as that of the supply frequency (f).
Principles of Operation of Induction Generator
Rotor EMF:
• When the rotor is stationary, the 3-phase induction generator behaves as a 3-phase transformer
with secondary winding short circuited. Thus, the per phase induced EMF in the rotor (or
secondary) is given by,
Where,
E1 = Per phase stator voltage; N1 = Number of turns in stator winding per phase; N2 = Number of
turns in rotor winding per phase.
• When the rotor is running at slip ‘s’, then the relative speed between the rotating magnetic field of the stator
and the rotor is (NS – Nr). Therefore, the rotor EMF is directly proportional to the (NS – Nr) or slip (s), i.e.

Rotor Current and Power Factor

• Consider a 3-phase induction generator at any slip value ‘s’ as shown in the figure below.

Where, X2 is the rotor reactance per phase at standstill

condition.
Principles of Operation of Induction Generator
• The resistance of the rotor circuit is R2 per phase and is independent of the frequency and
hence does not depend upon slip. Similarly, the resistance (R1) and reactance (X1) of the
stator winding do not depend upon slip.
• Since the 3-phase induction represents a balanced 3-phase load, then we need to analyse
one phase only and the conditions in the other two phases being similar.
Case 1 – When the rotor is stationary
When the rotor is stationary, the generator is at standstill (slip, s = 1)

Fig: Rotor equivalent circuit at s=1

Case 2 – When the rotor is running at s

When the rotor is stationary, the generator is at standstill (slip, s = 1)

Fig: Rotor equivalent circuit at s

 Steady State Representation and Power & Losses Generated in Induction
Generator
Complete equivalent circuit:

Fig: Rotor side equivalent circuit

The overall equivalent circuit of induction generator with turns

ratio of 1 i.e., when E2=E1 is given as follows.
• the equivalent impedance (Z) of an induction machine from per phase complete
equivalent circuit can be written as.
Fig: Stator side equivalent circuit

Fig: Complete per phase equivalent circuit of induction generator

Power & Losses Generated in Induction Generator
• The power balance in an induction generator can be expressed as

• In an induction machine, several types of losses occur during operation. These losses can be categorized into copper
losses (stator and rotor), iron losses, mechanical losses(friction and windage losses), and stray losses.

• The power loss due to the resistance in the stator and rotor windings is given by:

where I1, I2 is the stator and rotor current respectively and R1, R2​ is the stator and rotor winding resistance
respectively
• Total copper losses can be written as

• Iron losses, also known as core losses are caused by hysteresis and eddy currents in the magnetic core. These losses
are represented by the resistance Rm in the equivalent circuit and written by.
Power & Losses Generated in Induction Generator
• The airgap power Pgs : the power transferred from the stator to the rotor through the magnetic field. It is given by:

• The mechanical power converted into electricity, or the power developed in the shaft is the difference between the
airgap power and that dissipated in the rotor
Self excited Induction Generator
Background
o the induction generator needs a reasonable amount of reactive power which
must be fed externally to establish the magnetic field necessary to convert the
mechanical power from its shaft into electrical power.
o In interconnected applications, the electric grid supplies the reactive power;
whereas, In stand-alone applications, the reactive power must be supplied by
the load itself, by a capacitors connected across its terminals, or by an power Fig: Self Excited Induction Generator with
electronic inverter. Capacitor bank
About SEIG:
o When capacitors are connected to induction generators terminals, it is usually
called a SEIG (a self-excited induction generator). Economically, a self-
excitation of the induction generator is usually recommended for small power
plants
Operation
o When the shaft is rotated externally, such movement interacts a residual
magnetic field and induces a voltage across the external capacitor, resulting in a
current in the capacitor parallel circuit, which, in turn, reinforces the magnetic
field and the system builds up an increasing excitation as in Figure 10.3.
o In steady-state operation, the capacitors continuously supply the reactive power
needed to maintain the magnetic field in the stator. The voltage generated
depends on the speed of the rotor, the capacitance, and the load
Self excited Induction Generator
Equivalent Circuit
o The equivalent circuit for normal IM is modified and transformed for SEIG as
shown in Figure 10.4 to include the self-excitation capacitor and the load in p.u.
frequency values F. Rotor resistance can be expressed as

Determining Required Capacitance for SEIG

Intersection of Magnetizing Curve and Capacitive Reactance:
•The required capacitance for a self-excited induction generator (SEIG) is
determined by the intersection of the machine's magnetizing curve Vg=f(Im) and
the capacitive reactance line 1/ωC of the self-exciting capacitor bank, as shown in
Figure 10.3.
•The intersection provides the voltage Vt and current It of the generator under no-
load. At this point, the magnetizing current Im lags the terminal voltage Vt by about
900, while the current through the capacitor leads by approximately 900.
Experimental Determination of Magnetizing Characteristic:
• The magnetizing characteristic can be experimentally determined using a prime
mover coupled to the induction motor–generator shaft with constant rotation
(e.g., 1800 rpm for a 60-Hz four-pole machine) as shown in Fig. 10.3.
• AC voltage is applied across terminals of motor–generator using varivolt to
induce nominal current. The voltage is then decreased stepwise upto zero and
note down the corresponding currents and plotted as Fig. 10.3 b. maintain
constant rotation during test to avoid frequency and terminal voltage variations. Fig: Phasor diagram
Mathematical description of the Self excited Induction Generator
o A mathematical description of the self-excitation process is derived from the
steady-state model presented in Figure 10.4. an RL branch is included to
represent a typical load connected across the generator’s terminals
o the inductive load will decrease the effective value of self-exciting capacitance
as in Fig.10.4 because some of the reactive power will be deviated to the load
branch.

By applying the basic principle of power balance, Figure 10.4 helps to obtain
equations (10.25) and (10.26) equating the active and reactive power:

Dividing equation (10.25) by I22 after simplification one gets

Interconnected operation
Induction generators, widely used in renewable energy applications such as wind
and small hydroelectric power, can operate in both interconnected (also referred to
as grid-connected) and stand-alone (also known as isolated) modes.
Interconnected (Grid-Connected) Operation
In grid-connected operation, induction generators are directly connected to the
main power grid. This is the most common configuration for large-scale renewable
energy installations.
• Features and Benefits:
1. Reactive Power Support: The grid provides the necessary reactive power,
enhancing voltage regulation and stability.
2. Grid Support: The grid can absorb excess power, balance supply and demand,
and provide a stable reference voltage and frequency.
3. Economic Viability: Selling excess electricity to the grid can improve the
economic feasibility of the generation system.
4. Enhanced Stability: The large grid can dampen fluctuations and provide a Fig: Interconnected operation of Induction
more stable operating environment. Generator
• Challenges:
1. Compliance with Grid Codes: Must meet stringent regulations regarding
power quality, frequency, and voltage stability.
2. Power Quality Management: Managing harmonics, voltage sags, and other
power quality issues is critical.
3. Dependence on Grid Stability: Induction generators rely on the grid for
stability. Grid disturbances can affect generator performance.
Stand alone mode operation
In stand-alone operation, induction generators function
independently of the main grid. This mode is often used in remote
or off-grid locations.
• Features and Benefits:
1. Energy Independence: Ideal for remote areas without grid access, providing local
power generation.
2. Local Control: Operators have full control over the generation and distribution
system.
3. Flexibility: Suitable for small-scale applications like isolated villages, rural
electrification, or small industrial setups.
• Challenges:
1. Reactive Power Management: Without grid support, all reactive power must be
generated locally, often requiring capacitors or other reactive power compensators.
2. Frequency and Voltage Control: Maintaining stable frequency and voltage is
challenging without the grid's stabilizing influence. Fig: Stand alone operation of Induction
3. Power Quality Management: Managing harmonics, voltage sags, and other power Generator
quality issues is critical.
4. Limited Capacity: Typically supports smaller loads due to limited generation
capacity.
5. Reliability: More susceptible to fluctuations and outages compared to grid-
connected systems.
• Differences between grid connected and
stand alone
• Technical Considerations
• Synchronization
• Grid-Connected: Synchronization with the grid is critical, requiring automatic
synchronizing equipment to match voltage, frequency, and phase.
• Stand-Alone: Synchronization involves only local loads, but maintaining
consistent voltage and frequency is challenging.
• Reactive Power Compensation
• Grid-Connected: The grid supplies reactive power. Capacitors are used to
improve power factor and reduce losses.
• Stand-Alone: Local capacitors are essential to provide the necessary reactive
power and stabilize voltage.
• Control and Protection Systems
• Grid-Connected: Advanced control systems manage grid compliance, fault
detection, and safe operation during grid disturbances.
• Stand-Alone: Requires robust control systems to manage load variations,
voltage, and frequency stability, as well as protective relays to safeguard
against faults.
Economic Aspects
• To assess the economic aspects of alternative energy systems, it is crucial to evaluate various components and
costs associated with each project. This analysis can help in making informed decisions and ensuring the
viability and profitability of such projects.
I. Wind Energy Systems
• Wind energy systems consist of several key components, including
• Tower: Supports the turbine and its components.
• Rotor: Includes blades, hub, and shaft, which capture and convert wind energy into mechanical energy.
• Generator: Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
• Control Equipment and Power Conditioning: Ensures efficient and safe operation.
• Protection Equipment: Safeguards the system against high winds and severe weather conditions.
• Gearbox: Matches the generator speed with the wind speed.
• Braking System: Protects the system from damage due to high winds.
• Hybrid Systems: Often combined with other generation sources like photovoltaic cells or diesel generators
for reliability.
Costs and Lifetime
• Capital Costs: Typically, $1000 per kilowatt of capacity, with tower costs averaging $1600 per meter.
• Installation Costs: Include foundations, transportation, road construction, utilities, communications,
substation, transformer, controls, and cabling. Costs vary based on soil conditions and distance to power
lines.
• Operation and Maintenance Costs: Range from $0.008 to $0.014 per kilowatt-hour generated, increasing
at a rate of 2.5% per year. Higher costs include major overhauls of rotor blades and gearboxes.
• Income and Energy Production
• Annual Energy Production: Depends on average annual wind speed, with large-scale turbines requiring 5.8
m/s (13 mph) at 10 m height and small-scale turbines needing 4 m/s (9 mph).
• Turbine Reliability and Availability: Critical for consistent energy production. Improved efficiency in the
induction generator and better design can enhance performance and reduce costs.
Economic Aspects
II. Hydropower Systems
Hydropower systems convert the potential and kinetic energy of water into electrical energy. Key components and
aspects include:
• Pipeline or Canal: Conveys water to the turbine.
• Turbine: Converts water pressure into mechanical energy.
• Generator: Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Costs and Lifetime
• Capital Costs: High capital costs with very low operating costs. The systems have very long-life cycles.
• Project Sensitivity: Sensitive to financial variables, construction timing, interest, and discount rates.
• Lead Time: Typically, 10 years between analysis and deployment, including resource assessment and
environmental and social considerations.
Energy Production and Usage
• Energy Conversion: Power generation depends on water elevation height, flow of the river or stream, and the
size of the watershed.
• Additional Uses: Controlling river flow can also support irrigation, flood control, water supply, and recreation.
Small-Scale Power Plants
• For small-scale power plants (10 to 200 kW) used in rural areas, the requirements differ from larger plants (greater
than 1 MW).
• Target Costs: Aim for $2000 per kilowatt.
• Investment Breakdown:
o 35% in civil engineering
o 40% for plant installation and commissioning
o 7% for overall design and management
o 8% for electrical engineering
o 10% for contingencies
 Speed and Voltage Control
• alternative energy sources, such as wind, hydroelectric, photovoltaic,
and fuel cells requires in managing multiple input and output
variables to maintain system stability and efficiency like the output
voltage is associated with the reactive power, frequency is associated
with the mechanical output power.
• These systems typically require complex control mechanisms to
manage active and reactive power levels, shaft rotation, output voltage,
and frequency
• When designing the control of an alternative source of energy for
electricity generation, it is necessary to consider whether the source is
of the rotating or static type.

Rotating vs. Static Types of Generators

• Rotating Types: Commonly used in wind and hydroelectric energy systems.
These include: DC Generators, Synchronous Generators, Asynchronous
(Induction) Generators:
• Static Types: Commonly used in photovoltaic (PV) and fuel cells. They convert
energy without moving parts, typically involving power electronic converters to
manage the output.
 Speed and Voltage Control
i) Frequency, speed and voltage Control Mechanisms
1. mechanical Controls:
o Used to manage the input shaft power in rotating generators.
o Common methods include centrifugal weights, pitch control for wind turbines, and water flow
regulation for hydro turbines.
o These methods are reliable but can be slow and bulky.
2. Electromechanical Controls:
o More accurate and faster than purely mechanical controls.
o Utilize governors, actuators, servomechanisms, and other devices to regulate primary energy
inputs.
o Internal compensatory windings in modern generators help maintain constant output voltage.
3. Electronic Controls:
o Use sensors and power converters for precise regulation of energy, speed, and power.
o Suitable for remote control and telemetry.
o Power electronics enable fine adjustments of voltage, speed, and frequency, making them ideal
for renewable energy applications.
 Speed and Voltage Control
ii) Load Control Versus Source Control for Induction Generators (Doubly
fed induction generator)
• The Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) is a high-power wound
rotor machine where the rotor circuit is connected to an external
variable voltage and frequency source via slip rings and power
electronic converters and the stator is connected to the grid.
• The DFIG allows control of rotor flux speed by adjusting the frequency
of the external rotor source and is popular in wind power applications
due to its flexibility in speed control and efficiency.
• Stator Control: In DFIG, stator control involves adjusting the number
of poles, voltage, and frequency to get desired operating conditions.
• Rotor Control: Rotor control in a DFIG includes modifying parameters
such as resistance, reactance, and speed by adjusting the frequency and
voltage of the external rotor source via slip rings.
• Figure 10.7 provides DFIG operation, illustrating how an external
voltage source introduces voltage or frequency changes in the rotor
circuit via PWM control; Fig 10.8 shows the equivalent circuit for setup
in Fig. 10.7
 Speed and Voltage Control
Load Control Versus Source Control for Induction Generators
• From the equivalent model in Figure 10.8, the rotor current and torque may be
obtained as

• The pullout torque is defined as the maximum torque to which the generator
is subject. This is a significant parameter because the maximum power
transfer from the induction generator to the load occurs when the source
impedance is equal to the load impedance.
 Speed and Voltage Control
Load Control Versus Source Control for Induction Generators
Torque slip characteristics of induction generator
The torque of a 3-phase induction motor under running
conditions is given by

The torque-slip characteristics curve can be divided into three

regions, viz. low slip, high slip region
Low-Slip Region- linear relation
At Nr=Ns, the slip s = 0, thus, the torque is 0. When the speed is very near to the
synchronous speed, the slip is very low and the term (𝑠𝑋2)2 is negligible in
comparison with R2 . Therefore,

High-Slip Region-Inverse relation

When the slip increases, the term (𝑠𝑋2)2 becomes large so that
𝑅22 may be neglected in comparison with (𝑠𝑋2)2. Therefore,
 Speed and Voltage Control
Load Control Versus Source Control for Induction Generators
Torque speed characteristics with different control variables
The torque-slip characteristics of an induction motor are influenced by various
control variables, including rotor voltage, rotor resistance, rotor reactance, and
stator frequency.
Torque vs Speed for different rotor resistances
• Increasing rotor resistance in an induction motor lowers the torque at any slip
because the torque is inversely related to the rotor resistance. As rotor
resistance increases, the torque-slip curve shifts downward, reducing both the
starting and breakdown (maximum) torque.

• Increasing the stator voltage of an induction motor raises the rotor emf
which in turn increases the torque at any slip, as torque is proportional to the Torque vs Speed for different stator voltage
square of the stator voltage. This results in higher starting torque and a
higher breakdown (maximum) torque.

• Rotor reactance can be modified through rotor design, rotor frequency control, or
external insertion of inductance values. Changes in rotor reactance have a
quadratic effect on the torque versus speed characteristics.
Torque vs Speed for different rotor reactance
 Speed and Voltage Control
iii) The Danish Concept
• The Danish concept refers to the directly grid-connected squirrel-cage induction
generator used in wind turbines. These systems use one large generator with one
small induction generator connected alternately in parallel.
• The large generator initially operates as a motor fed by the grid to reach the speed
slightly above the synchronous speed. If the wind speed is just above the cut-in
speed of the turbine, the small generator is connected to the grid. As the wind speed
increases, the small generator is switched off and the large generator is switched on.
• The difference in wind speed for the operation of the two generators can be
significant, accommodating electrical loads varying by two to three times in
magnitude. Maintaining the power coefficient (Cp) at its maximum value is crucial
for optimal wind turbine performance.
• For high wind intensities and small loads, a large electrical generator tends to
overspeed, and vice versa with small generators tending to under speed. This is the
main reason that small generators are convenient to use alternately in parallel with
large generators, as in the Danish concept.
Advantages:
•Low-cost control mechanism.
•Better adaptability to natural wind speed variations.
Disadvantages:
•Bulkier configuration.
•Heavy mechanical stress on the gearbox due to sudden generator switches.
•Requirement for larger slip factor designs for smooth operation of the large generator.
 Speed and Voltage Control
iv) Variable speed Grid Connection
• Variable-speed grid connection techniques are crucial for managing significant changes in generator load or primary
energy, such as wind intensity. This is primarily achieved through slip factor control, which achieved by adjusting the
rotor resistance 𝑅2
• Slip Factor Control: Adjusting the rotor resistance 𝑅2 allows the rotor speed to vary while maintaining
synchronization with the grid frequency. This helps manage load and power fluctuations from the wind turbine.
• Cost-Effective Converters: AC-AC power converters used in these systems are relatively inexpensive. These
converters decouple rotor speed from grid frequency, helping to manage power loads and fluctuations.
• Speed Control for Large Turbines: Large turbines uses traditional speed control methods, such as pitch control, to
avoid excessive power dissipation in the rotor circuit. Rotor resistance is only increased during transient peaks in load
or wind intensity.
• The system ensures that the wind turbine operates at the maximum power coefficient 𝐶𝑝 during normal wind speed
ranges, optimizing power output. At very high wind speeds, pitch control limits speed until the turbine unit is cut off
to prevent damage.
v) Control by the Load:
Changes in the load are used to control speed, frequency, and voltage.
1. The load, represented by R, can be regenerative, transferring energy
from the generator to the public network or a secondary load
2. Excess energy can be dissipated degeneratively by burning it in
resistors exposed to wind or water flow.
Weblinks:
1. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/instantaneous-
active-and-reactive-power
2. Integrated Renewable Energy System - an overview | ScienceDirect
Topics
3. DG operation and power injection based on voltage sensitivity. |
Download Scientific Diagram (researchgate.net)
4. https://greeningthegrid.org/Distributed-photovoltaics/Topics-and-
resources/technical-interconnection-codes-folder
5. https://www.e-education.psu.edu/ae868/node/970
6. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/0471755621.ch14

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