Properties of Metals: The mechanical properties of metals determine the range of usefulness of

the metal and establish the service that can be expected. Mechanical properties are also used to
help specify and identify metals. The most common properties considered are strength, hardness,
ductility, and impact resistance.

Mechanical properties are the characteristics of a material that describe how it behaves under
applied forces or loads. In the case of metals, there are several important mechanical properties
that are commonly considered:

Strength: Strength refers to a material's ability to withstand applied forces without permanent
deformation or failure. It is typically measured using two parameters:

 Yield Strength: The yield strength is the stress at which a material begins to exhibit
permanent deformation. It indicates the maximum stress the material can sustain without
undergoing plastic deformation.
 Ultimate Tensile Strength: The ultimate tensile strength is the maximum stress a
material can withstand before it fractures or breaks.

Hardness: Hardness is a measure of a material's resistance to indentation or scratching. It is an

important property in determining the material's ability to resist wear and deformation. Common
hardness tests include Brinell, Vickers, and Rockwell hardness tests.

Elasticity: Elasticity refers to a material's ability to return to its original shape after the applied
force or load is removed. It is characterized by two properties:

Young's Modulus (E): Young's modulus represents the stiffness of a material and is a measure
of how much it deforms under a given amount of stress.

Poisson's Ratio (ν): Poisson's ratio describes the ratio of lateral strain to axial strain when a
material is subjected to an applied stress.

Ductility: Ductility is the ability of a material to undergo plastic deformation under tensile forces
without fracture or failure. It is a measure of how much a material can be stretched or elongated
before breaking.

Malleability: Malleability is the ability of a material to be deformed or shaped under

compressive forces without breaking or cracking. It is a property that allows metals to be easily
worked into various shapes, such as sheets, wires, or foils, by processes like rolling, hammering,
or pressing.

Toughness: Toughness is a combination of strength and ductility and represents a material's

ability to absorb energy before fracturing. It is a measure of the material's resistance to fracture
under impact or sudden loads.
Fatigue Strength: Fatigue strength is the maximum stress level a material can withstand for a
specified number of cycles before failure occurs. It is particularly important in applications
involving cyclic loading, such as in rotating machinery or structural components.

Creep Resistance: Creep resistance refers to a material's ability to resist deformation under
prolonged exposure to high temperatures and constant stress. It is crucial in applications where
materials are subjected to elevated temperatures over extended periods.

These are some of the key mechanical properties of metals that are considered when evaluating
their suitability for various applications. It's important to note that different metals and alloys
exhibit different combinations of these properties, making them suitable for different engineering
applications.

Simple stress and strain are fundamental concepts in the study of mechanical behavior of
materials. They describe the response of a material to an applied force or load.

Simple Stress: Simple stress is a measure of the internal resistance within a material to an
applied force. It is defined as the force acting on a unit area of the material. Mathematically,
stress (σ) is calculated as:

Stress (σ) = Force (F) / Area (A)

Common units of stress include pascals (Pa), megapascals (MPa), or pounds per square inch
(psi).

Types of simple stress include:

 Tensile Stress: Occurs when the material is being pulled apart, leading to an increase in
length.
 Compressive Stress: Occurs when the material is being compressed or squeezed, resulting
in a decrease in length.
 Shear Stress: Occurs when forces act parallel to each other in opposite directions, causing
the material to deform by sliding layers of the material past each other.

Simple Strain: Simple strain is a measure of the deformation or elongation that occurs in a
material due to the applied stress. It is defined as the change in length (or deformation) per unit
original length. Mathematically, strain (ε) is calculated as:

Strain (ε) = Change in length (ΔL) / Original length (L)

Strain is a dimensionless quantity and does not have any units.

Types of simple strain include:

  Tensile Strain: Corresponds to an increase in length of the material along the direction of
the applied force.
 Compressive Strain: Corresponds to a decrease in length of the material along the
direction of the applied force.
 Shear Strain: Corresponds to the angular deformation of the material due to the applied
shear stress.

The relationship between stress and strain is described by the material's mechanical properties,
specifically its elastic modulus (Young's modulus), which relates stress to strain within the
elastic range of the material.

It's important to note that simple stress and strain are idealized concepts used to simplify the
analysis of material behavior. In reality, materials can exhibit more complex behavior, such as
nonlinear or time-dependent responses, which require advanced mathematical models for
accurate characterization.

Hooke's Law: Hooke's Law is a fundamental principle in physics that describes the relationship
between the deformation (strain) of a material and the force (stress) applied to it within the
elastic limit. It was formulated by the English scientist Robert Hooke in the 17th century.

Hooke's Law states that the stress (σ) in a material is directly proportional to the strain (ε) it
undergoes, provided that the material remains within its elastic limit. Mathematically, it can be
expressed as:

σ=E×ε

where:

σ is the stress applied to the material

E is the elastic modulus (also known as Young's modulus) of the material

ε is the resulting strain in the material

According to Hooke's Law, the stress and strain are linearly related, meaning that if the stress
doubles, the strain will also double, and vice versa. The elastic modulus (E) is a material-specific
constant that represents the stiffness or rigidity of the material.

Hooke's Law is valid for materials that exhibit linear elastic behavior within their elastic range.
In this range, the material deforms under stress and returns to its original shape once the stress is
removed, without any permanent deformation. However, beyond the elastic limit, the material
may undergo plastic deformation or permanent changes in shape.
A stress-strain curve is a graphical representation that illustrates the relationship between stress
and strain for a material. It provides valuable information about the mechanical behavior and
properties of the material, including its elasticity, yield strength, ultimate strength, and ductility.

The general shape of a stress-strain curve consists of several distinct regions:

 Elastic Region: In the elastic region, the material undergoes deformation under applied
stress but returns to its original shape once the stress is removed. The stress-strain
relationship is linear, following Hooke's Law. The slope of the curve in this region
represents the material's elastic modulus (Young's modulus), which indicates its stiffness
or rigidity.
 Yield Point: When the stress applied to the material exceeds a certain value, it enters the
yield point. At this point, the material undergoes plastic deformation and does not fully
recover its original shape after the stress is removed. The yield point is an important
indicator of the material's strength and ability to withstand permanent deformation.
 Plastic Deformation Region: After the yield point, the material continues to deform
plastically under increasing stress without any additional increase in strain. The stress-
strain curve shows a plateau or gradual increase in stress with strain. The material
exhibits ductile behavior, allowing for significant plastic deformation before fracture.
 Ultimate Strength: The ultimate strength (or ultimate tensile strength) is the maximum
stress that the material can withstand before it fractures or breaks. It is the highest point
on the stress-strain curve and indicates the material's maximum resistance to applied
forces.
 Fracture Point: Beyond the ultimate strength, the material experiences a rapid decrease in
stress, leading to fracture or failure. The stress-strain curve sharply drops as the material
ruptures.
The area under the stress-strain curve represents the energy absorbed by the material during
deformation, known as the toughness. A steeper stress-strain curve indicates a stiffer material,
while a more gradual curve suggests a more ductile material.

Different materials exhibit different stress-strain curve characteristics based on their

composition, microstructure, and mechanical properties. For example, brittle materials like
ceramics have minimal plastic deformation before fracture, resulting in a steep stress-strain
curve. Ductile materials like metals, on the other hand, show more plastic deformation and have
a more gradual curve.

Stress-strain curves are extensively used in materials testing and engineering design to determine
the mechanical properties, behavior under load, and structural integrity of materials.

Factor of safety (FoS): The factor of safety (FoS) is a concept used in engineering to provide a
margin of safety in the design and analysis of structures or components. It is a ratio that
compares the maximum load or stress a structure can withstand to the actual load or stress acting
on it.

The factor of safety is calculated by dividing the maximum load-bearing capacity or strength of a
structure by the actual applied load or stress. Mathematically, it can be expressed as:

FoS = Maximum Load or Stress / Actual Load or Stress

The purpose of applying a factor of safety is to ensure that a structure or component can safely
handle expected loads without experiencing failure or excessive deformation. By incorporating a
margin of safety, engineers account for uncertainties in material properties, variations in loads,
and potential unexpected events.

The appropriate factor of safety varies depending on the specific application, industry standards,
and level of risk tolerance. Higher risk applications, such as aerospace or critical infrastructure,
often require higher factors of safety. On the other hand, less critical applications may have
lower factors of safety.

Poisson's ratio: Poisson's ratio, denoted by the symbol ν (nu), is a material property that
describes the ratio of lateral strain to axial strain when a material is subjected to an applied stress.
It quantifies the deformation behavior of a material in response to an applied force.

Poisson's ratio is defined as:

ν = - (lateral strain) / (axial strain)

In other words, it represents the ratio of the transverse or perpendicular contraction (lateral
strain) to the longitudinal or axial extension (axial strain) of a material.

Poisson's ratio has a range of values between -1 and 0.5. However, most common engineering
materials have values between 0 and 0.5, indicating that they experience lateral contraction when
stretched axially.

Specific Gravity: Specific gravity is a property that compares the density of a substance to the
density of a reference material, usually water. It is a dimensionless quantity and represents the
ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water at a specific temperature.
Mathematically, specific gravity (SG) is calculated as:

SG = Density of substance / Density of water

The specific gravity of water is always considered to be 1. Substances with a specific gravity
greater than 1 are denser than water, while substances with a specific gravity less than 1 are less
dense than water.

Significance of Specific Gravity: Specific gravity is significant in various industries and

applications, including:

 Buoyancy: Specific gravity is used to determine the buoyancy of substances in fluids. If

the specific gravity of a substance is less than 1, it will float in water, while substances
with a specific gravity greater than 1 will sink.
 Material Characterization: Specific gravity is a characteristic property that helps
identify and classify materials. It is often used in mineralogy, geology, and materials
science to distinguish and analyze different substances.
 Quality Control: Specific gravity is used in quality control processes to assess the purity
and consistency of substances. For example, in the pharmaceutical industry, specific
gravity measurements can help detect impurities or adulterants in drugs.

Viscosity: Viscosity refers to the resistance of a fluid to flow. It describes the internal friction or
stickiness of a fluid as it flows, and it is influenced by the intermolecular forces and molecular
structure of the fluid. Viscosity can be thought of as the "thickness" or "stickiness" of a fluid.

Viscosity is typically classified into two types:

 Dynamic (or Absolute) Viscosity: This measures a fluid's resistance to shear or flow
when subjected to an applied force. It is denoted by the symbol η (eta) and is measured in
units of pascal-seconds (Pa·s) or poise (P).
 Kinematic Viscosity: This is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to the density of the fluid. It
represents the fluid's resistance to flow relative to its mass. Kinematic viscosity is
 denoted by the symbol ν (nu) and is measured in units of square meters per second (m²/s)
or stokes (St).

Significance of Viscosity: Viscosity plays a crucial role in various applications and industries:

 Fluid Flow and Friction: Viscosity affects the flow behavior of fluids, determining
factors such as pressure drop, pumping requirements, and energy losses in pipelines.
High viscosity fluids flow more slowly and require higher pressures to move, while low
viscosity fluids flow more easily.
 Lubrication: Viscosity is critical in lubrication applications, where it ensures that a
lubricant forms a sufficient film between moving surfaces to reduce friction and wear.
Different viscosities are selected based on the operating conditions and the lubrication
requirements of the system.
 Process Control: Viscosity is monitored and controlled in industrial processes involving
fluids to maintain product consistency, ensure proper mixing and dispersion, and
optimize process efficiency.
 Material Selection: Viscosity considerations are important in the design and selection of
materials for various applications. For example, in the automotive industry, engine oils
with specific viscosities are recommended to ensure proper lubrication and engine
performance.

Surface tension refers to the inherent property of a liquid that causes its surface to behave like a
stretched elastic membrane. It is the force acting per unit length along the surface of a liquid,
perpendicular to any line drawn on that surface. Surface tension is caused by the cohesive forces
between the liquid molecules.

The surface molecules of a liquid experience a net inward force due to the unbalanced molecular
interactions with the molecules below and beside them. This force pulls the surface molecules
toward the liquid, resulting in a minimized surface area. The cohesive forces are responsible for
the formation of droplets, capillary action, and other phenomena related to surface tension.
Some key points about surface tension are:

Molecular Cohesion: Surface tension arises due to the cohesive forces between the liquid
molecules. These cohesive forces result from intermolecular attractions such as hydrogen
bonding, van der Waals forces, and dipole-dipole interactions.

Effects of Surface Tension: Surface tension influences several phenomena, including:

 Capillary Action: Capillary action is the rise or fall of a liquid in a narrow tube
(capillary) due to the balance between adhesive forces between the liquid and the tube's
walls and cohesive forces within the liquid itself.
 Droplet Formation: Surface tension causes liquids to form droplets because it
minimizes the surface area of the liquid. Droplets take a spherical shape, as it is the shape
with the minimum surface area for a given volume.

Capillarity: Capillarity, also known as capillary action or capillary phenomenon, refers to the
ability of a liquid to flow against gravity in narrow spaces or tubes. It occurs due to the combined
effects of adhesive forces between the liquid and the container walls and cohesive forces within
the liquid itself.

The capillary action can be observed when a liquid, such as water, is placed in a narrow tube,
like a glass capillary or a thin straw. The liquid rises or falls in the tube, contrary to what would
be expected based solely on gravity.

Key points about capillarity effect are:

 Adhesive Forces: The adhesive forces between the liquid molecules and the solid
container walls attract the liquid upward. Different liquids have different levels of
adhesive forces with different materials. For example, water has a strong adhesive force
with glass, allowing it to rise in a glass capillary.
 Cohesive Forces: The cohesive forces between the liquid molecules themselves hold the
liquid together. The surface tension created by these cohesive forces contributes to the
curvature of the liquid meniscus at the interface between the liquid and the tube's walls.
 Meniscus Shape: The shape of the liquid meniscus formed in a capillary depends on the
balance between the adhesive and cohesive forces. If the adhesive forces are stronger
than the cohesive forces, the liquid forms a concave meniscus (e.g., water in a glass
capillary). If the cohesive forces are stronger, the liquid forms a convex meniscus (e.g.,
mercury in a glass capillary).
 Rise and Fall: In capillary action, the liquid rises in a capillary tube when the adhesive
forces dominate, pulling the liquid upward against gravity. Conversely, if the cohesive
forces dominate, the liquid may be pulled downward, causing it to lower in the tube.
Capillary Rise Equation: The height to which a liquid rises in a capillary can be determined
using the capillary rise equation:

h = (4Tcosθ) / (ρgd)

where h is the height of capillary rise, T is the surface tension of the liquid, θ is the contact angle,
ρ is the density of the liquid, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and r is the radius of the
capillary tube.

Capillary action has various practical applications, such as in the movement of water in plants,
ink in pens, wicking in fabrics, and the operation of liquid-filled instruments like thermometers
and barometers.

TURBINES:

A turbine is a device which converts the energy of some fluid into rotational mechanical energy.
There are a number of turbines available based on the type of input fluid used such as steam
turbine, water turbine, gas turbines, etc.

Also, based on the action of fluid (water) the hydro-turbines are classified into two types, viz.

 Impulse Turbine
 Reaction Turbine

What is an Impulse Turbine?

The type of hydro-turbine, where the turbine is rotated by the impulse force of the water jet is
known as impulse turbine. In the impulse turbine, the pressure of water is converted into kinetic
energy in a nozzle and then the velocity of the water jet drives the turbine.

The main components of an impulse are: set of runner blades and nozzle. The nozzle converts
the pressure of water jet into kinetic energy, after discharging from the nozzle, the water jet
strikes the runner blades and turns the runner through its axis. In this way, the impulse force of
water jet drives the turbine.

The most common examples of impulse turbines are − Pelton wheel turbine, Turgo turbine,
and Cross flow turbine.

What is a Reaction Turbine?

The type of hydro turbine, which uses the pressure as well as velocity of the moving water to
spin the runner is called a reaction turbine. The reaction turbines are placed in the water stream
 where the water enters the turbine casing and after rotating the blades, the water leaves the
turbine casing.

The Francis turbine and the Kaplan turbine are the two most popular reaction type water
turbines. A typical reaction turbine consists of rows of fixed blades and rows of moving blades.
In the reaction turbine, the moving water can produce a reaction force on the runner blades,
which can rotate the runner on its axis. After moving the runner blades, the water leaves the
turbine cashing.

Difference between Impulse Turbine and Reaction Turbine

The key differences between an impulse turbine and a reaction turbine are highlighted in the
following table −

Basis of
Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine
Difference

The type of turbine in which only The type of water turbine in which both
kinetic energy of water (impulse kinetic energy as well as pressure energy of
Definition
force) is used to rotate the turbine is water is used turn the turbine is called the
known as impulse turbine. reaction turbine.

In an impulse turbine, the water In reaction turbine, the water is guided by the
Water flow flows through a nozzle and strikes to guide blades (fixed blades) to flow over the
the blades of the turbine. turbine.

In impulse turbine, an impulsive In reaction turbine, a reaction force on the

Force on blades
force rotates the turbine. blades is rotation the turbine.

Pressure of water In impulse turbine, the pressure of In the reaction turbine, the pressure of water
while flowing water remains unchanged and is continuously decreases when it flows over the
over moving equal to atmospheric pressure when blades.
blades it flows over the moving blades.

Decrease in In impulse turbine, the pressure of In reaction turbine, the pressure of water is
pressure of water water is reduced in the nozzle before decreasing while flowing over the blades.
 entering the turbine.

In impulse turbine, all the pressure of In reaction turbine, there is no change in the
Change in water is converted into kinetic pressure of water before striking the turbine
pressure of water energy before striking the turbine blades.
blades.

The impulse turbines are most The reaction turbines are suitable for
Water head
suitable for large water heads. relatively low water heads.

The impulse turbines are suitable for Reaction turbines are suitable in cases where
Water flow rate
comparatively low water flow rates. water flow rates are higher.

In impulse turbine, there is no In reaction turbine, the turbine casing is

necessity of turbine casing as it has required because the pressure at inlet is very
Necessity of
no hydraulic function. It is just high as compared to pressure at outlet.
turbine casing
provided to prevent splashing of Therefore, the casing seals it from the
water. atmospheric pressure.

The blades of an impulse turbine are The blades of a reaction turbine are
Blades profile
of symmetrical profile. asymmetrical, having aerofoil profile.

In impulse turbine, the water In a reaction turbine, the water discharges

Water discharge discharges directly from the turbine into a draft tube first and then into the tail
wheel to tail race. race.

For the same power output, the size The reaction turbine have relatively large size
Turbine size
of impulse turbine is smaller. for the same power output.

Popular examples of impulse turbine Popular examples of reaction turbines are:

Examples are: Pelton wheel turbine, Turgo Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine.
turbine and cross-flow turbine.